Chapters 7 & 11 Memory & Development

Encoding - forming memory code How something sounds, looks, what it means

Storage - maintaining encoded info in memory over time

Retrieval - Recovering info from memory stores Tip-of-The-Tongue Phenomenon - ability to

remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach

Memory - Terms

Recall – Remember without cue Example: Fill in the blank, essay

Recognition – Select from a list Example: MC questions, matching

Serial-Position Effect - remember the first few and last few words in a list Recency effect – remember last things Primacy effect – remember first thing

Memory Terms

Clustering - Remember similar or related items in groups

Sensory Memory - Preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second Example: Afterimage (sparklers) Iconic Echoic

Memory Terms

Short Term Memory (Working Memory) limited-capacity store that can maintain

unrehearsed info up to 20 seconds Maintenance Rehearsal – Keeps in STM for

longer period of time

Memory Terms

Elaborate Rehearsal Organizing and associating material with

information you already have

Memory Terms

Long Term Memory Unlimited capacity store that can hold info for

lengthy period Nondeclarative or procedural memory

system – memory for actions, operations, conditioned responses Example – riding a bike, typing, tying a

shoe

Memory Terms

Episodic Memory System – Chronological, temporally dated, personal experiences (autobiographical) Example – when did you see them, hear them

– Metallica Semantic Memory System – general

knowledge not tied to time it was learned (encyclopedia) Example – Christmas is on December 25th

Memory Terms

Flashbulb memories (270) - unusually vivid/detailed recollection of event Usually not as accurate as once believed Example: 9/11

Memory Terms

Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage Model of Memory

Obstacle to problem solving only see things for what they are. MacGyver – does not suffer from this http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ksgaup4zqz

0

Functional Fixedness

Development

Life-Span Psychologists & Child Psychologist Although both study development, the child

psychologist has decided to focus on a particular earlier portion of the typical life span.

The view that development occurs across an entire lifetime was Erik Erikson

Life-Span Approach

Normative Development Typical sequence of developmental changes for a

group of people Example: Stage theory, individual development, or

individual pattern of development, including differences among individuals during development

Cross-Sectional Method investigators compare groups of participants of

differing age at a single point in time Completed quicker and cheap

Research Methods

Longitudinal Method observe one group of participants

repeatedly over a period of time Longer more money

Research Methods

Nature-Nurture debate Maturationists

Emphasize role of genetically programmed growth & development on the body and nervous system

Maturation – biological readiness Greater preprogrammed physiological

development of the brain allows for more complex conceptualization and reasoning

Developmental Issues

Environmentalists John Lock’s – “Tabula rasa” or “Blank Slate” All development due to learning

Continuous or Discontinuous (gradual/stage) development?

Critical period Time which skill must be developed Feral children Friday! (that’s for you Cook)

Developmental Issues

Culture Collectivists – society over individual Individualist – personal over society

Developmental Issues

Prenatal period – extends from conception to birth usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy

Germinal Stage first phase of prenatal development first two

weeks after conception Zygote – cell division, expanding to sixty-four

cells implants on uterine wall

Physical Development

Embryonic Stage – second stage of prenatal stage lasts two weeks to end of second month Most vital organs form Begin to look human Problems: Most miss carriages occur

during this period, most birth defects develop during this stage

Physical Development

Fetal Stage – third stage of prenatal development last from 2 months to birth Physical movements due to skeletal structure

hardening Sex organs develop around 3rd month Layer of fat develop Age of viability – age when baby can survive

in the event of premature birth 22 – 26 weeks

Physical Development

Teratogens Harmful environmental agents that may effect

fetal development Example: alcohol

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Physical abnormalities & cognitive deficiencies

Physical Development

Neonate Newborn baby

Sucking reflex Touch roof of baby’s mouth she will suck

Palmer Reflex (Grasping reflex) Put finger in baby’s palm and baby will grab

Babinski Reflex Stroke outer sole and baby spreads toes, stroke

inner sole and baby curls toes

Physical Development Reflex

Head-turning reflex (rooting reflex) Elicited touching babies cheek

Moro Reflex When startled, baby will throw arms and legs

out and head back and then pull them into body

Orienting Reflex Child orients themselves to their surroundings Example: loud crash, they will try and locate

Physical Development Reflex

Stereotyped Ingestive Responses Sucking, smacking of lips if a drop of sugar

water is in their mouths

Physical Development Reflex

Jean Piaget Equilibration – child’s attempt to reach a

balance between what the child encounters in the environment and what cognitive structures the child brings to the situation

Piaget Cognitive Development

Assimilation - interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without them changing Example: Four-legged pet = puppies same as they

see cat = puppies Schema

Mental representational model Accommodation – changing existing mental

structures to explain new experiences Example: Puppies and cats are different

Piaget Cognitive Development

Stage 1: Sensorimotor Period Coordination of sensory input and motor

responses; development of object permanence Object permanence develops when a child

recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible . . . Peek-a-Boo Example: hiding things under a pillow still exist

Age: Birth – 2 years

Piaget’s 4 Stages

Stage 2: Preoperational Period Improvement in mental images Conservation – awareness that physical quantities remain constant in

spite of changes in their shape or appearance Example: Beaker of water experiment

Centration – focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects

Irreversibility – inability to envision reversing an action Example: preoperational children can’t mentally “undo” something

Egocentrism – limited ability to share another persons viewpoint Example: preoperational children fail to appreciate that there are points of

view other than their own Animism – belief that all things are living

Example: children attribute lifelike human qualities to inanimate objects Age: 2 – 7 years

Piaget’s Stages

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Period Children can perform operation on images of

tangible objects and actual events. There are several ways to look at a problem, now that they can undo something (conservation skills). Decline in egocentrism

Age: 7 to 11 years

Piaget’s Stages

Stage 4: Formal Operational Period Mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical,

systematic thinking Metacognition – ability to recognize one’s cognitive

processes and change/adapt those processes if not successful

Idea of love, free will, justice Example: Think problems through before answering

unlike a child that attacks on a problem quickly Age: 11 – adulthood

Piaget’s Stages

Believed that Piaget ignored the role of culture on cognitive development

Cognitive development = active internalization of problem-solving processes as a result of interaction with others Ie, learning is ACTIVE, SOCIAL, and CREATIVE (ASC, sound

familiar?) Children learn how to think through their interactions

with others Where Piaget saw the child as a scientist, Vygotsky

saw the child as an apprentice

Lev Vygotsky

Fluid Think in terms of abstract concepts/symbolic

relationships Decrease with adulthood

Crystallized Specific knowledge of facts, and information

Fluid/Crystallized Intelligence

tug of war that determined the subsequent balance between opposing polarities in personality:

Erik Erikson

Trust v. Mistrust – What happens: infant depends on adults for care and needs Age: birth to 1 Outcomes:

Taken care of - optimism, trust Not taken care of –distrust, pessimism

  Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt –

What happens: Toilet training and regulating behavior, child must take some responsibility

Age: 2 – 3 Outcomes:

Goes well – child becomes self-sufficient Conflict – personal shame or self-doubt

Erik Erikson

Initiative v. Guilt – What happens: Children experiment take initiatives may create

conflict in house Age: 3 -6 Outcomes:

Goes well – Child will respect others and parents wishes Conflict – Over controlling parents instill guilt and self-esteem issues

  Industry v. Inferiority –

What happens: Functioning in society (outside of the house) Age: 6 – puberty Outcomes:

Should lean to value achievement and take pride in accomplishments

Erik Erikson

Intimacy v. Isolation What happens: Share intimacy Age: Early adulthood Outcomes:

Good – empathy and openness Bad – shrewdness and manipulative

Generativity v. Stagnation (Self-Absorption) What happens: Concern for future generations, providing unselfish

guidance to young

Integrity v. Despair What happens: avoid dwelling on mistakes and death and find meaning in

life

Erik Erikson

Monkeys need comfort/security as much as food

Monkey loves soft mother rather than wire monkey

Attachment – tendency to prefer specific familiar individuals over others

Harry Harlow

Strange situation – parent leaves child with stranger and returns Secure – child uses parent as support (most

common) Insecure – Child does not know if parent will be

supportive thus acts erratically (affects 7 – 15% of pop.)

Avoidant – does not use parent for support, rear, usually abusive parents

Mary Ainsworth

Authoritarian Follow rules or else Corporal punishment (spanking) for disobedience

Authoritative Compliance to rules, however democratic Parent sets limits, punishments, forgives

Permissive Few expectations, warm and non-demanding Not punished often

3 Types of Parenting Style

Level 1: Preconventional Morality Stage 1 – Obedience & Punishment

Rules are fixed absolute Obey rules = avoid punishment

Stage 2 – Individualism & Exchange Serve ones own interests Heinz dilemma – best serve own need

Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

Level 2: Conventional Morality Stage 3 – Interpersonal Relationships

Good boy – good girl living up to social expectations and roles

Conformity Choices influence relationships

Stage 4 – Maintaining Social Order Consider society as a whole when making judgments Follow rules and respecting authority

Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

Level 3: Postconventional Morality Stage 5 – Social Contract & Individual Rights

Account for others opinions & values Rules of laws are important for society, but they

must be agreed upon Stage 6 – Universal Principles

Ethics and abstract reasoning People follow their personal principles of justice

even if they conflict with laws/rules 

Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

Stages of Death Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and

acceptance

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross

Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage

Oedipal Electra

Latency Stage Genital Stage

Freud