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Characterization of sewage and design of sewage treatment plant

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering

By

FALGUNI K.P. MISHRA, 108CE001 NILADRI BIHARI MAHANTY, 108CE020

Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

2012

Characterization of sewage and design of sewage treatment plant

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering

By

FALGUNI K.P. MISHRA NILADRI BIHARI MAHANTY

Under supervision of

Prof. Kakoli Karar Paul

Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

2012

National Institute of Technology

Rourkela

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Characterization of sewage and

design of sewage treatment plant” submitted by Falguni Krishna Prasad

Mishra, Roll No. 108CE001 and Niladri Bihari Mahanty, Roll No.

108CE020 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

Bachelor of Technology degree in Civil Engineering at the National

Institute of Technology, Rourkela is an authentic work carried out by

them under my supervision and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not

been submitted to any other University/Institute for the award of any

Degree or Diploma.

Date: (Prof. KAKOLI K. PAUL)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My heart quivers with the thrill for offering gratitude to those individuals who helped me in completion of the project. The most idyllic point of presenting a thesis is the opportunity to thank those who have contributed to it. Unfortunately, the list of acknowledging no matter how extensive is always incomplete and inadequate. Indeed this page of mention shall never be able to touch the horizon of generousness of those who tendered their help to me. First of all, I would like to express my gratitude and obligations to Prof Kakoli K. Paul, for her kindness in allowing me for introducing the present topic and for her inspiring direction, constructive judgment and valuable propositions throughout this project work. Next, I would like to thank Mr. N. Chaitanya Kavuri, a Ph. D. scholar for his relentless help without any complain. I am sincerely thankful to him for his effort in improving my contents of this project. I am also thankful to Prof. N. Roy (Head of the Department) for assigning me this interesting project and for his valuable suggestions and boosts at various stages of the work. A combination of this nature could never have been attempted without reference to and inspiration from the works of others whose details are mentioned in reference section. I acknowledge my indebtedness to all of them. Last but not least, my sincere thanks to all my friends who have patiently extended all sorts of help for achieving this undertaking. FALGUNI KRISHNA PRASAD MISHRA NILADRI BIHARI MAHANTY 108CE001 108CE020

Dept. of Civil engineering National Institute of Technology

Rourkela – 769008

CONTENTS PAGE

List of figures and tables i

Abstract ii

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Objectives of the study 3

1.3 Literature Review 4

2. MONITORING PROTOCOLS

2.1 Study Area 8

2.2 Sampling Techniques 8

3. ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

3.01 Methodology for measurement of pH value 11

3.02 Methodology for measurement of Alkalinity 12

3.03 Methodology for measurement of Turbidity 14

3.04 Methodology for measurement of Acidity 15

3.05 Methodology for measurement of Chloride 17

3.06 Methodology for measurement of Residual Chlorine 19

3.07 Methodology for measurement of Total Solids 19

3.08 Methodology for measurement of DO 21

3.09 Methodology for measurement of BOD 21

3.10 Methodology for measurement of hardness 23

3.11 Methodology for measurement of carbonates and

bicarbonates 25

3.12 Methodology for measurement of metals 29

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Tabulations 32

5. DESIGN OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT 39

6. TIMELINE OF THE PROJECT 45

7. CONCLUSION 47

8. REFERENCES 49

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LIST OF TABLES PAGE

1. Water consumption by various residential halls

of NIT Rourkela. 32

2. Water consumption by residential quarters in

NIT Rourkela. 33

3. Physical and chemical characteristics of waste

water in different time. 37

4. Determination of different metal content

at different time. 38

5. Milestone of the study. 46

LIST OF FIGURES PAGE

1. Map of Study Area 9

2. Top view of the Sewage Treatment Plant 43

3. Layout of the Sewage Treatment Plant 44

ii

ABSTRACT

The National Institute of Technology Rourkela is one of the most important educational institutes in the state of Orissa with a large number of people residing in its campus consisting of a number of laboratories of various departments, residential units, academic blocks and number of hostels. A study on domestic waste water characterization has been performed followed by the design of sewage treatment plant. The present study involves the analysis of pH value, total solids, total suspended solids, hardness, acidity, alkalinity, chloride, chlorine, BOD, DO and heavy metals such as Iron, Copper, Zinc, Magnesium, Nickel, Chromium, Lead, Calcium, Aluminium, Silicon, Potassium. A sewage treatment plant is quite necessary to receive the domestic and commercial waste and removes the materials which pose harm for general public. Its objective is to produce an environmentally-safe fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as farm fertilizer). The samplings of the domestic waste from hostels have been done in different times of the day to have an average data of the measured parameters. The average values of pH, Turbidity, Acidity, Chloride, Residual Chlorine, Hardness, Total Solid, BOD, DO, Alkalinity, Total Iron Content, Zinc Content, Potassium, Copper, Magnesium, Nickel, Chromium, Lead, Calcium, Aluminum and Silicon are found out. A sewage treatment plant has been designed with the treatment units, a bar screen of dimension 1.7m, an aeration tank of dimension 4.5 x 4.5 x 3.7 m3, a collection pit of diameter 4m and depth 5 m. Keywords: Characterization, sewage, treatment plant.

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Introduction: Pollution in its broadest sense includes all changes that curtail natural utility and exert deleterious effect on life. The crisis triggered by the rapidly growing population and industrialization with the resultant degradation of the environment causes a grave threat to the quality of life. Degradation of water quality is the unfavorable alteration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of water that prevents domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational and other beneficial uses of water. Sewage and sewage effluents are the major sources of water pollution. Sewage is mainly composed of human fecal material, domestic wastes including wash-water and industrial wastes.

The growing environmental pollution needs for decontaminating waste water result in the study of characterization of waste water, especially domestic sewage. In the past, domestic waste water treatment was mainly confined to organic carbon removal. Recently, increasing pollution in the waste water leads to developing and implementing new treatment techniques to control nitrogen and other priority pollutants.

Sewage Treatment Plant is a facility designed to receive the waste from domestic, commercial and industrial sources and to remove materials that damage water quality and compromise public health and safety when discharged into water receiving systems. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove various contaminants depending on its constituents. Using advanced technology it is now possible to re-use sewage effluent for drinking water.

The present study comprises the study on quality of domestic waste water that is discharged from the HB Hall of National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, through the kitchen outlets and bathroom effluents. The study includes characterization tests for pH value, acidity, alkalinity, chloride, residual chlorine, turbidity & DO.

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1.2 Objectives of the study:

The principal objective of waste water treatment is generally to allow human and industrial effluents to be disposed of without danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment. An environmentally-safe fluid waste stream is produced. No danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment is expected. Sewage includes household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks and so forth that is disposed of via sewers. Sewage also includes liquid waste from industry and commerce.

The objectives of the study are:

1. Physical, chemical and biological characterization of the domestic waste water from hostels of NIT, Rourkela

2. Comparison with the prescribed standard

3. Design of the sewage treatment plant.

Observation of Study: Waste water samples from the kitchen effluent and the bathroom waste of Homi Bhabha Hall of Residence. The presence study is designed to collect waste water sample from HBH. The study includes also MSS Hall.

The following physical characteristics were studied:

i. Odour ii. Taste

iii. Colour iv. Floatables v. Turbidity

4

The following chemical characteristics were studied:

i. Total Iron ii. Copper

iii. Zinc iv. Potassium v. Lead

vi. Aluminum

For determination of inorganic non-metallic constituents we determined the:

i. Alkalinity ii. Acidity

iii. Chloride iv. Residual Chlorine v. Sulphate

vi. Ph. of the sample vii. Biochemical Oxygen Demand

viii. Dissolved Oxygen

1.3 Literature Review :

Physical characteristic of waste water:

Odour: It depends on the substances which arouse human receptor cells on coming in contact with them. Pure water doesn’t produce odour or taste sensations. Thus waste water which contains toxic substances has pungent smell which makes it easy to distinguish. Odour is recognized as a quality factor affecting acceptability of drinking water.

The organic and inorganic substance contributes to taste or odour. The ultimate odour tasting device is the human nose. The odour intensity is done by threshold odour test

Taste: The sense of taste result mainly from chemical stimulation of sensory nerve endings in tongue. Fundamental sensations of taste are, by

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convention more than by research evidence, salt, sweet, bitter, and sour. The rating involves the following steps: a) dilution series including random blanks is prepared b) initial tasting of about half the sample by taking water into mouth and holding it for several seconds and discharging it without swallowing. c) Forming an initial judgment on the rating scale d) a final rating made for the sample e) rinsing mouth with taste and odour free water f) resting.

Colour: Colour in water results from the presence of natural metallic ions such as Fe or Mg, humus and peat materials, planktons and weeds. It is removed to make water suitable for general and industrial applications. After turbidity is removed the apparent colour and that due to suspended matter is found out.

Tristimulus, Spectroscopic and Platinum cobalt method is used.

Total solids: It refers to matters suspended or dissolved in water and waste water. Solids affect the water or effluent quality adversely in a number of ways. Water with highly dissolved solids are not palatable and may cause physiological reaction in transient consumer.

A limit of 500 mg dissolved solids/L is desirable for drinking waters. Evaporation method is used to separate total solids and their weight is found out.

Floatables: One important criterion for evaluating the possible effect of waste disposal into surface water is the amount of floatable material in the waste. Two general types of floating matters are found

(i) Particulate matters like 'grease balls'

(ii) Liquid component capable of spreading as thin visible film over large areas.

It is important because it accumulates on the surface and may contain pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

Turbidity: Clarity of water is important in producing products destined for human consumption and in many manufacturing uses. It is caused by

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suspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds. Turbidity is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample. The standard method for determination of turbidity has been based on the Jackson candle turbidimeter and Nephlometer.

Chemical characteristic of waste water:

Chemical characteristics of water state the presence of metals their treatment, the determination of inorganic non-metallic constituents and the determination of organic constituents. Here goes a brief description of all the experiments we have performed.

Biological characteristic of waste water:

Water quality has a key role in deciding the abundance, species composition, stability, productivity and physiological condition of indigenous populations of aquatic communities. Their existence is an expression of the quality of the water. Biological methods used for evaluating water quality include the collection, counting and identification of aquatic organisms. Most microorganisms known to microbiologists can be found in domestic wastewater like Bacteria, Protozoa, Viruses, and Algae.

Planktons, Periphyton, Macro-phyton, Macro-invertebrates, Fish, Amphibians and Aquatic reptiles are the biotic group of interdependent organism. Wastewater contains vast quantities of bacteria and other organisms. Aerobic bacteria break down organic matter in the presence of available oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria disintegrate organic matter which is shut off from free oxygen, such as in the interior of a mass of feces or a dead body. The products of anaerobic decomposition have an extremely nauseating odor. Matter in which this condition exists is said to be septic. A multitude of the bacteria in wastewater are coliform bacteria: those found in the digestive tract of normal humans. It is these comparatively few pathogenic organisms that pose the greatest public health hazard. Waste water which is not properly treated may eventually find its way into a community water source and spread waterborne diseases

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CHAPTER 2

MONITORING PROTOCOLS

8

2.1 Study Area:

Achievement of a safe and healthful workplace is the responsibility of an organization, the people residing in the place and the workers who are given the charge to protect the environment. Waste disposal and minimization and pollution prevention should be the preferred approach. Stringent penalties for the improper disposal of wastes should be adopted.

Rourkela is one of the most significant industrial hubs in the state of Orissa. It has got an integrated Steel Plant a number of sponge iron industries, cement manufacturing unit, chemicals, explosives, ceramics and distillery units and large number of small and medium industries.

NIT Rourkela is one of the most important educational institutes in the state of Orissa which has a large number of people residing in its campus, a number of laboratories of various departments, residential units, academic blocks and number of hostels for the students studying here.

The following is the list of workplace which is the main sources of pollution generating unit in the study area:

a) Homi Bhabha Hall of Residence NIT Rourkela,

b) Hall 5 Nit Rourkela

2.2 Sampling Techniques:

Waste water samples have been collected in contamination free sampling bottles of 1000 ml (Turson make) from the kitchen effluent and the bathroom waste of Homi Bhabha Hall of Residence.

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Rourkela

Fig. 2.1 Map of NIT Rourkela

10

CHAPTER 3

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

11

3.01 METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF pH VALUE

(ELECTROMERIC METHODS)

The negative logarithm of concentration of hydrogen ion gives the pH of a sample. pH varies from 6-8 in waste water sample, due to hydrolysis of salts of bases and acids. Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen Sulphide and Ammonia which are dissolved affect pH value of water. pH value may be more than 9 in alkaline springs and the pH may be 4 or even less than 4 for acidic ones. Industrial wastes do affect the pH as it depends on buffer capacity of water. pH value of water sample in lab changes because of loss-or absorption of gases, reactions with sediments, chemical reaction taking place within the sample bottle. Therefore pH value should preferably be determined at the time of collection of sample. pH can be determined electrometrically or calorimetrically. The electrometric method is more accurate but requires special apparatus. The calorimetric method is simple and requires less expensive apparatus, and is sufficiently accurate for general work.

PRINCIPLE

The pH value is found by measurement of the electromotive force generated in a cell. It is made up of an indicator electrode which is reactive to hydrogen ions such as a glass electrode. When it is immersed in the test solution the contact between reference electrode (usually mercury/calomel electrode), and the test solution the electromotive force is measured. A pH meter, that is, a high impedance voltmeter is marked in terms of pH. Varieties of electrodes have been suggested for the determination of pH. The hydrogen gas electrode is the primary standard. Glass electrode in coordination with calomel electrode is generally used with reference potential provided by saturated calomel electrode. The glass electrode system is based on the theory that a change, of 1 pH unit produces an electrical change of 59.1 mV at 25°C. The membrane of the glass forms a partition between two liquids of differing hydrogen ion concentration thus a potential is produced between the two sides of the membrane which is proportional to the difference in pH between the liquids.

The apparatus used are:

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pH meter - With glass and reference electrode (saturated calomel), preferably with temperature compensation.

Thermometer - With least Count of 0.5°C.

PROCEDURE:

The instrument is standardized after required warm-tip period. A buffer solution of pH near to that of the sample is used. The electrode is checked against at least one additional buffer of different pH value. The temperature of the water is found and if temperature compensation is available in the instruments it is adjusted. The electrodes are rinsed and gently wiped with solution. If necessary, the electrodes are immersed into the sample beaker or sample stream and stirred at a constant rate to provide homogeneity and suspension of solids. Rate of stirring is minimized and the air transfer rate at the air-water interface of the sample is noted. The sample pH and temperature is noted.

3.02 METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF ALKALINITY

The sample liquid for analysis should be either free from turbidity or should be allowed to settle before analyzing it.


pH Meter

Burette - 50-ml capacity.

Magnetic Stirrer Assembly

The reagents used are:

Distilled Water - pH must be greater than 6.0. In case the pH falls below 6.0, it shall be boiled for 15 minutes and cooled to room temperature.

Sulphuric Acid - 5.6 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid is diluted with one liter with distilled water.

Standard Solution of Sulphuric Acid - 0.02 N.

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Phenolphthalein Indicator - 0.5 g of phenolphthalein in 100 ml is mixed, 1: 1 (v/v) alcohol water mixture is taken.

Mixed indicator Solution - Dissolve 0.02 g methyl red and 0.01 g bromocresol green in 100 ml, 35 %, ethyl or isopropyl alcohol.

PROCEDURE:

20 ml of sample is pipetted into a 100-ml beaker. 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator is added to the sample if the pH of the sample is above 8.3. It is then titrated with standard H2SO4 solution till the pink color observed by indicator just disappears (equivalence of pH 8.3). The volume of standard H2SO4 solution used is recorded. 2 to 3 drops of mixed indicator is put to the solution in which the phenolphthalein alkalinity has been determined. The solution is titrated with standard acid to light pink color (equivalence of pH 3-7). The volume of standard acid used after phenolphthalein alkalinity is recorded.

CALCULATION:

Calculate alkalinity in the sample as follows:

Total alkalinity (as mg/l CaCO3) = (A + B) x N x 5000

V

Where,

A = ml of standard H2SO4 used to titrate to pH 83,

B = ml of standard H2SO4 used to titrate from pH 8.3 to pH 3.7,

N = normality of acid used, and

V = volume in ml of sample taken for test.

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3.03 METHODOLOGY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY:

PRINCIPLE: The intensity of light scattered by the sample under defined conditions is compared with the intensity of light scattered by a standard reference suspension under the same conditions, forms the basis of determination of turbidity. Higher the intensity of scattered lights higher the value of turbidity. Formazin polymer is generally used as turbidity standard because it is more reproducible than other types of standards used previously. The turbidity of a particular concentration of Formazin suspension is defined as 40 Jackson turbidity units. The same suspension of Formazin has a turbidity of approximately 40 units when measured on Jackson candle turbidimeter. Thus turbidity units based on the Formazin preparation closely approximate those derived from Jackson candle turbidimeter but it may not always be identical to them. The apparatus used are:

Sample Tubes - The sample tubes should be of clear and colorless glass.

Turbidimeter The reagents used are:

Turbidity-Free Water

Hexamethylene Tetramine Solution

Hydrazine Sulphate Solution

Turbidity Standard Suspension I ( Formazin)

Turbidity Standard Suspension II PROCEDURE: TURBIDIMETER CALIBRATION - The manufacturer’s operating instructions is followed. The standards on turbidimeter covering the range of interest are measured. If the instrument is already calibrated in standard turbidity units, this procedure will check the accuracy of calibration.

15

Turbidity less than 43 Units - The sample is shaken to disperse the solids. Air bubbles disappear gradually. Sample into turbidimeter tube is poured carefully and turbidity value is directly read from the instrument scale.

Turbidity greater than 40 Units – If turbidity values are more than 40 units, the sample is diluted with clear distilled water to compare and bring the values within range. The readings are taken of the diluted sample. Then the turbidity is computed of the original sample from the turbidity of the diluted sample and the dilution factor.

CALCULATION: Calculate the turbidity of diluted samples, using the following equation: Turbidity units = A x (B+C)/C Where, A = turbidity units found in diluted sample, B = volume in ml of dilution water used, and C = volume of sample in ml taken for dilution.

3.04 METHODOLOGY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY: PRINCIPLE: Acidity of water is the numerically expressible capacity to react with a

strong base to a designated pH. It may be defined as equivalent

concentration of hydrogen ions in mg/l. The equation in its simplest form

is as follows:

H+ + NaOH = H2O + Na+


pH Meter

Burette - 50-ml capacity.

Magnetic Stirring Device

The Reagents used are:

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Distilled Water

Potassium Acid Phthalate

Sodium Hydroxide Solution - 15 N.

Sodium hydroxide solution - 1 N 67 ml of 15 N NaOH solution is diluted

to one liter with distilled water.

Sodium hydroxide solution - 0.02 N 20 ml of 1 N NaOH solution is diluted

to one liter and is standardized using standard potassium acid phthalate

Phenolphthalein Indicator - 0.5 g of phenolphthalein is dissolved in 100 ml

1: 1 (v/v) alcohol water mixture and 0.02 N NaOH solution is added drop

by drop till slight pink colour is observed.

Methyl Orange Indicator – 0.5 g of methyl orange is dissolved in distilled

water and made up to 100 ml in a volumetric flask.

PROCEDURE:

Indicator Method - 20 ml of a suitable amount of sample is pipetted into a

100 ml beaker. Less than 20 ml of titrant shall be required for the titration

that should be the volume of sample. The pH of water is determined. If pH

is less than 3.7, two drops of methyl orange indicator is added into the first

sample beaker. It is titrated with standard 0.02 N NaOH solution until the

colour converts to the faint orange. The volume of NaOH used is recorded.

2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator is added to the second sample

beaker. It is again titrated with 0.02 N NaOH solution till the colour of

solution changes to faint pink colour. The volume used is recorded.

Potentiometric Method - 20 ml of a suitable aliquot of sample is pipetted

into a 100 ml beaker. It is then titrated with standard NaOH solution to pH

3.7 and pH 8.3. The volume of standard NaOH used is measured. No

indicator is required.

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Calculation - Acidity in the sample is calculated as follows:

Acidity at pH 3.7, as mg/l CaCO3 = A x N x 50000/V

Acidity at pH 8.3, as mg/l CaCO3 = B x N x 50000/V

Where,

A = volume in ml of standard sodium hydroxide

N = normality of standard sodium hydroxide,

V = volume in ml of sample taken for test, and

B = volume in ml of standard sodium hydroxide used to titrate to pH 3.7 is

used to titrate to pH 8.3.

3.05 METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF CHLORIDE

PRINCIPLE:

Soluble and slightly dissociated mercuric chloride is formed when Chloride

is titrated with mercuric nitrate. Diphenyl Carbazone within the pH range

of 2.3 to 2.8 signals the end point by the formation of a purple complex

with extra mercuric ions.


Erlenmeyer flask - 250 ml capacity.

Microburette - 5 ml with 0.01 ml graduation intervals.


Standard sodium chloride solution

Nitric acid - 0. I N

Sodium hydroxide - 0.1 N

Reagents for chloride concentrations below 700 mg/l

Indicator-acidifier reagent - Nitric acid concentration of this reagent

decides the success of the determination and it can be varied as

indicated in (a) or (b) to befit the alkalinity range of the sample.

Reagent (a) contains sufficient nitric acid to counteract a total

alkalinity of 150 mg as CaCO3/l to the proper pH in a 100 ml sample.

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a) 250 mg s-diphenylcarbazone, 4-O ml. concentration nitric acid and 30 mg

xylene cyanol FF in 100 ml 95 percent ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol.

The sample is stored in a dark bottle in a refrigerator. This reagent is not

stable indefinitely. Deterioration causes a slow end point and high results.

Standard mercuric nitrate titrant - 2.3 g mercuric nitrate [Hg (NO3)2 or 2.5 g

Hg (NO3).12H2O] is dissolved in 100 ml distilled water containing 0.25 ml

concentrated nitric acid. It is diluted to just less than 1 liter. Replicates are

used containing 5.00 ml standard sodium chloride solution and 10 mg

sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) diluted to 100 ml with distilled water. It is

adjusted to 0.0141 N and a final standardization of 1.00 ml = 500 µg Cl- is

made. It is stored away from light in a dark bottle.

Mixed indicator reagent - 0.50 g diphenylcarbazone powder and 0.05 g

bromophenol blue powder is dissolved in 75 ml 95 percent ethyl or

isopropyl alcohol and dilute to 100 ml with the same alcohol.

0.141 N standard mercuric nitrate is used as titrant.

PROCEDURE:

100 ml sample is taken such that the chloride content is less than 10 mg. 1.0

ml indicator acidifier reagents are put. pH is conformed to about 8 for

highly alkaline or acid waters before adding indicator-acidifier reagent.

0.411 N Mercuric Nitrate is titrated with the solution to a definite purple

end point. The solution turns from green blue to blue a few drops before

the end point.

The blank is determined by titrating 100 ml distilled water containing 10

mg of sodium bicarbonate.

Chloride, mg/l = (V1 – V2) x N x35450

V3

Where,

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V1 = volume in ml of silver nitrate used by the sample,

V2 = volume in ml of silver nitrate used in the blank titration,

V3 = volume in ml of sample taken for titration and

N = normality of silver nitrate solution.

3.06 METHODOLOGY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CHLORINE: It is measured as the chlorine left in the water after the required contact period which will ensure complete killing of bacteria and oxidation of the organic matter usually a free chlorine residue is considered to be sufficient. The reagents used are

O- Toluidine - 4 drops PROCEDURE: O- Toluidine is added to the sample and mixed thoroughly. After 15 to 20 minutes the colour is developed. The comparator was placed to match the colour of the sample. The volume of indicator used was noted down. Generally the concentration of residual chlorine must be 1 - 2 mg/l.

3.07 METHODOLOGY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

TOTAL SOLIDS:

PRINCIPLE:

The sample is evaporated in a weighed dish on a steam-bath and is dried to

a constant mass in an oven either at 103-105°C or 179-181°C. Total residue

is calculated from increase in mass.

Note - In general, by evaporating and drying water samples at 179-181°C

values are obtained which conform more closely to those obtained by

summation of individually determined mineral salts


Evaporating Dish

Steam-Bath

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Drying Oven

Desiccator

Analytical Balance

PROCEDURE:

1. The clean evaporating dish is heated to 180°C for 1 hour. It is cooled,

desiccated, weighed and stored in desiccator until it is ready.

2. The volume of the sample is selected which has residue between 25 and

250 mg, preferably between 190 and 200 mg. This volume may be found

out from values of specific conductance. If a measurable residue has to be

obtained successive aliquots of sample can be added to the sample dish.

3. This volume is pipetted to a weighed evaporating dish placed on a

steam-bath. A drying oven can be used to perform evaporation. To prevent

oiling and splattering of the sample the temperature should be lowered to

around 98°C. The dish is taken to an oven at 103-105°C, or 179-181°C and

dried to constant mass, after complete evaporation of water from the

residue. It is done till the difference in the successive weighing is less than

0.5 mg. To eliminate necessity of checking for constant mass drying for a

long duration (usually 1 to 2 hours) is done. The time for drying to constant

mass with a given type of sample when a number of samples of nearly

same type are to be analyzed can be determined by trial.

4. The dish is weighed as soon as it has cooled. Residue is avoided to stay

for long time as some residues are hygroscopic and may absorb water from

desiccant which may not be absolutely dry.

CALCULATION - The total residue is calculated using the following

equation:

Total residue, mg/l = 1000xM/V

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Where,

M = mass in mg of total residue, and

Y = volume in ml of the sample.

3.08 METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF DO:


Incubation bottles

DO meter

Air incubator

PROCEDURE:

Water is kept in incubator and a magnetic stirrer is put inside the bottle.

The magnetic stirrer is incessantly rotated inside the bottle. Then with the

help of DO meter 3 readings are noted. The first reading is taken at the

bottom, second at mid-point and third at top of the bottle. Thus the average

of the readings will give the dissolved oxygen present in the water sample.

3.09 METHODOLOGY FOR MEASUREMENT OF BOD:

PRINCIPLE:

The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) test is based mainly on the

classification of biological activity of a substance. A procedure measures

the dissolved oxygen consumed by micro-organisms while capable of

taking and oxidizing the organic matter under aerobic conditions. The

standard test condition lets in incubating the sample in an air tight bottle,

in dark at a required temperature for specific time.


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i) Incubation Bottles: The bottle has capacity of 300 ml. It has narrow

neck with even mouth and has ground glass stoppers. New bottles

are cleaned with 5 N hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid and

rinsed with distilled water. In normal use, bottles once used for

Winkler’s procedure should only be rinsed with tap water

followed by distilled water. During incubation water is added to

the flared mouth of the bottle time to time, to ensure proper

sealing.

ii) Air Incubator: Air incubation with thermostatically controlled 27°C

+- 1°C. Light is avoided to prevent possibility of photosynthetic

production of oxygen.

PROCEDURE:

After taking water in incubation bottles, 4 gm of NaOH is kept at the neck

of the bottle. A magnetic stirrer is retained inside the bottle. The magnetic

stirrer continuously revolves inside the bottle. Special caps attached with

an electronic meter keep the bottle air tight. The instrument directly

records BOD reading at every 24 hour. After that the bottles are preserved

in the incubators for days as per need of study. The same procedure

follows for BOD 3 days and BOD 5 days.

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HARDNESS:

Principle:

This method is contingent upon the power of ethylenediamine tetraacetic

acid (C10H14O8N2)

or its disodium salt to form stable complexes with calcium and magnesium

ions. When the dye eriochrome black T (EBT) is added to a solution

containing calcium and magnesium ions at pH 10.0 a wine red complex is

formed. This solution is titrated with standard solution of disodium salt of

EDTA, which extracts calcium and magnesium from the dye complex and

the dye is changed back to its original blue colour. Eriochrome black T is

used to indicate the end-point for the titration of calcium and magnesium

together.

24


i. Buffer solution (NH4Cl + NH4OH)

ii. Standard calcium solution

iii. Eriochrome black 1 indicator solution

iv. Inhibitors

v. Hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution

vi. Potassium ferrocyanide crystals

vii. Sodium sulphide inhibitor

viii. Sodium cyanide solution

ix. Standard EDTA solution

PROCEDURE:

25.0 ml of standard calcium solution is pipetted in a porcelain basin. The

volume is adjusted to 50 ml with distilled water. 1 ml buffer solution is

used. 1 to 2 drops of indicator is put. After continuous stirring until the

reddish tinge disappears, it isn’t titrated. Few drops of sample at 3 to 5

second interval are added. At the end point the colour is sky blue.

For drinking, surface and saline waters - An aliquot of water sample is

pipetted, in a porcelain dish or 150-ml beaker. The volume is tuned to

approximately 50 ml. 1 ml hydroxylamine hydrochloride (NH4OH.HCl) is

added to the solution. 2 ml of buffer solution is mixed so as to achieve pH

of 10.0 to 10.1. 2 ml sodium cyanide or sodium sulphide inhibitor solution

is put if the end point isn’t sharp. If Cu, Zn, Pb, Co and Ni are absent and if

25

the sample contains less than 0.25 mg of Fe and 0.025 mg of Mn the

addition of NaCN or Na2S may be omitted. 2 ml of Eriochrome black T

indicator solution is added and titrated with standard EDTA solution

stirring rapidly in the beginning. It is stirred slowly towards the end when

all the traces of red and purple colour disappear and solution is clear sky

blue in colour.

For waste waters and highly polluted waters - An aliquot of the sample is

digested with 3 ml of distilled conc. HNO3 in a beaker on a hot plate. It is

evaporated to near dryness while ensuring that the sample does not boil.

Digestion with nitric acid is repeated till the digestate is light in colour. It is

evaporated to near dryness and cooled. Little amount of 1: 1 hydrochloric

acid (5 ml) is added and warmed on a steam-bath to dissolve the residue.

Note 1 - For water with very low hardness (less than 5 mg/l) micro burette

is used.

Note 2 - Sample size may be selected such that the result lies between 200

to 300 mg/l of hardness (as CaCO3).

CALCULATION:

The hardness is calculated as follows:

Total hardness (as CaCO3), mg/l = 1000 V1/V2

Where,

V1 = Volume in ml of the EDTA standard solution used in the titration.

V2 = Volume in ml of the sample taken for the test.

3.11 METHODOLOGY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES: (TITRIMETRIC METHOD)

26

PRINCIPLE:

Potentiometric method is used to do the titration. Phenolphthalein is used

as an indicator. The total OH-, CO3--, and HCO3

- content is first found out

by titration with standard acid using methyl orange/bromocresol green

indicator. Equal portion of the sample is titrated against the same acid

using phenolphthalein/metacresol purple indicator.


i. Electrometric Titrator

ii. Titration Vessel

iii. Magnetic Stirrer

iv. Pipettes, Volumetric

v. Flasks, Volumetric

vi. Burettes, Borosilicate Glass

vii. Polyolefin Bottles


Sodium Carbonate Solution — Approximately 0.05 N

Standard Hydrochloric Mid — 0.1N

Standard Hydrochloric Acid — 0.02 N

Methyl Orange/ Boromocresol Green Indicator

Metacresol Purple Indicator Solution

Phenolphthalein Solution

PROCEDURE:

Sample Size

Large amount of carbonate and bicarbonate concentrations are found in

wastewater therefore a single sample size and normality of titrant is

difficult to specify. If alkalinity is less than 1000 mg as CaCO3/l, 20 ml of

27

sample is taken and titrated with 0.02 N HCl. If alkalinity is more than 1000

mg as CaCO3/l, 5 ml of the sample is titrated with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.

The end point may be determined by any of the following:

a) By colour change, and

b) Potentiometrically.

Potentiometric Titration

Distilled water is used to rinse the electrodes and titration vessel. Sample

pH is measured. Standard hydrochloric acid is added in growths of 0.5 ml

or less, so that a change of less than 0.2 pH units occur per increment.

Magnetic stirrer is used to mix thoroughly and steadily. Splashing is

avoided at all cost. The pH is recorded after reading becomes constant. The

cumulative milliliters of titrant added are recorded after mixture is titrated

to pH 8.3. The total amount of titrant used is recorded. As the end point

borders on smaller additions of alkali are done.

CALCULATION:

Phenolphthalein alkalinity is calculated by using the volume of acid used

for phenolphthalein end point. It can be titrated potentiometrically to pH

8.3. The total alkalinity is found out by using the volume of acid used for

bromocresol green end point or titrated potentiometrically to pH 4.5.

Alkalinity (CaCO3 mg/l) = A x N x 50 /ml of sample.

Where,

A= ml of standard acid.

N = Normality of acid.

The results obtained from the phenolphthalein and total alkalinity

determinations can be used to calculate the carbonate and bicarbonate

concentrations as CaCO3. The method specifies the entire alkalinity to

bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide. It assumes the absence of other

(weak) inorganic or organic acids, such as silicic, phosphoric and boric

28

acids. Since the calculations are made on a stoichiometric basis, ion

concentrations in the strictest sense are not represented in the results.

So they may differ significantly from actual concentrations especially at pH

greater than 10. According to this outline

a) Carbonate (CO3--) alkalinity is present when phenolphthalein alkalinity

is not zero but is less than total alkalinity;

b) Hydroxide (OH-) alkalinity is present if phenolphthalein alkalinity is

more than half of the total alkalinity

c) Bicarbonate (HCO3-) alkalinity is present if phenolphthalein alkalinity is

less than half of the total alkalinity.

These relationships may be calculated by the following scheme where P is

phenolphthalein alkalinity and T is total alkalinity. The smaller value of P

or (T–P) is taken into account. After that carbonate alkalinity equals twice

the smaller value. If the smaller value is P, the balance (T–2P) is

bicarbonate’s value. When the smaller value is (T–P) the balance (2P–T) is

hydroxide’s value. The results are expressed as CaCO3.

29


METALS:

PRINCIPLE:

The Atomic Absorption Spectrometer is used to determine the contents of metals in the waste water sample. The principle associated here is a light beam is guided through the flame into a monochromator and then to a detector that measures the amount of light absorbed by the atomized element in the flame. For each metal there is one distinct absorption wavelength, so a source lamp formed of that element is used. This makes it free from spectral interference. The amount of energy of the characteristic wavelength absorbed in the flame is proportional to the concentration of the element in the sample. The flame emission method produces good results for determination of metals.

The effects of metals in water and waste water range from beneficial

through troublesome to dangerously toxic. Some are essential but others

adversely affect water consumers, waste water treatment systems and

receiving waters. Flame and electro-thermal methods are generally

applicable at moderate concentration levels.

1. Sampling and Sample preservation: Before collecting sample fraction to be analyzed is decided. Errors introduced during sampling and storage is taken care of. The best sampling containers are made of quartz and TFE.

2. The sample is preserved immediately after acidifying with concentrated nitric acid.

3. Contaminated metals from containers, distilled water, or membrane filters are avoided introduction.

4. For analysis of microgram-per-liter concentrations of metals, airborne contaminants in the form of volatile compounds, dust, soot and aerosols present in laboratory air become significant.

The presences of many metals were tested by atomic absorption spectrometer analysis.

30

The apparatus used is:

Atomic Absorption Spectrometer made up of

Light emitting source.

Burner – Premix type, introduces spray into condensing chamber.

Readout – The display unit.

Lamps – Hollow Cathode type.

Pressure reducing valves.

Vent.

PROCEDURE:

The sample preparation depends on the metal we need to measure. The manufacturer’s operation manual is studied and the instrument is operated. A hollow cathode lamp for the required metal is installed. The slit width is set as per the manual. The instrument is warmed up to 20 minutes till the energy source stabilizes. Air is turned on and the flow rate is adjusted as per the manufacturer’s specification. The instrument is calibrated. 3 different concentration of standard metal solution is prepared and the blank is analyzed. The instrument is zeroed. The standard solutions are analyzed and absorbance is recorded. A calibrated curve is prepared by plotting on a linear graph paper. Absorbance of standard vs. the concentration is plotted. Then the sample is analyzed and the concentration of each metal ion (in microgram per liter) is calculated.

31

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

32

4.1 Tabulations:

Table 1: Water consumption of various residential halls of NIT Rourkela

Name of the Hall

Capacity of tank (Litres) Total water

supplied

(Litres)

Strength

1000 1500 2000 3000

SS Bhatanagar

HOR

- 27 - - 37000 130

M Visveswaraya

HOR

- 32 - - 45500 393

GD Birla HOR - 38 - - 58500 529

DhirubhaiAmbani

HOR

- 40 - - 59500 514

MS Swaminathan

HOR

- 38 - - 55500 289

HomiBhaba HOR - 10 10 45500 522

CV Raman HOR - 14 - - 20500 245

KiranMajumdar

HOR

- 45 - - 75000 460

Vikram Sarabhai

HOR

- 17 - - 36000 665

33

Table 2: Water consumption by residential quarters of NIT Rourkela

Average water supplied = 1.5 lakh gallon So, total waste water generated = 80 % of Supplied Water = 0.8 x 1.5 lakh gallon = 1.2 lakh gallon

Quarter Type Number of rooms

A 19

B 22

C 30

D 65

E 40

F 108

G 117

FE type Flats 18

Bachelor Flats 24

Transit Flats 18

Director's 1

34

The presence of non-metallic constituents and the metallic constituents from the waste water sample was determined.

1. Determination of acidity content

2. Determination of chloride content

3. Determination of Ph of the sample

SOURCE CONCENTRATION

IN PPM

Bath room waste water

3.6

Kitchen waste water

4.5

Tap water 2.3

Distilled water 1

SOURCE CONCENTRATION

IN PPM STANDARD

Bath room waste water

57.9

30 -100 Kitchen waste

water 113

Tap water 3.5

SOURCE PH STANDARD

Kitchen waste 7.89

7.8 Bath room waste 7.36

Tap water 8.01

35

4. Determination of residual chlorine

SL NO SOURCE CONC. IN PPM STANDARD

1 Kitchen waste 2

1 - 2 ppm 2 Bath room waste 2

3 Tap water 1

2 Determination of turbidity of sample

SL NO SOURCE VALUE IN NTU

1 Bath room waste 14

2 Kitchen waste 116

3 Tap water 10

3 Table for determination of alkalinity

Here utilization of sulphuric acid is used is zero. Thus it indicates presence of bicarbonate.

SOURCE CONC. IN

PPM STANDARD

CONC.

Kitchen waste 75

50 - 200 Bathroom

waste 80

Tap water 15

36

Determination of metals by atomic absorption spectrometry

1. Total iron content

SL NO SOURCE CONC. IN MG/L

1 Kitchen waste 2.863

2 Bathroom waste 0.024

3 Tap water 0

2. Zinc content




3 Tap water 1.549

3. Copper content




3 Tap water 0.007

4. Potassium content




3 Tap water 2.491

37

Tabulation for physical and chemical characteristics in different time

Time

8 a.m. 12 p.m. 1-2 p.m. 5-6 p.m. PERMISSIBLE

VALUE

Property

Turbidity

(NTU)

32 45 50 38 5

pH 8.76 8.01 8.22 8.4 6.5 - 8.5

Acidity

(mg/l)

1.8 2.6 3 1.3

Alaklinity

(mg/l)

42 45 158 78 600

Chloride

(mg/l)

11 17 20 15 1000

Residual

Chlorine

(mg/l)

2 2 2 2 1

Hardness

(mg/l)

23 38 40 30 200

Total Solids

(mg/l)

200 240 420 600 2000

BOD (mg/l) 1.3 1.21 1.23 1.03 10

DO (mg/l) 7.1 7.01 7.02 6.9 2000

38

Tabulation for determination of different mineral content at different time

Time

8 a.m. 12 p.m. 1-2 p.m. 5-6 p.m. PERMISSIBLE VALUE

Metals

Iron (mg/l) 0.077 0.213 0.532 0.052 0.3

Zinc (mg/l) 0.008 0.119 0.124 0.131 15

Copper (mg/l)

0.019 0.012 0.035 0.029 1.5

Magnesium (mg/l)

0.41 1.918 2.581 3.411 30

Nickel (mg/l) 0.01 0.011 0.044 0 0.02

Chromium (mg/l)

0.113 0.212 0.242 0.114 0.05

Lead (mg/l) 0.101 0.091 0.261 0.024 0.01

Calcium (mg/l)

5.41 12.1 19.76 11.23 200

Aluminum (mg/l)

0.07 0.05 0 0.01 0.2

Silicon (mg/l)

3.91 11 10.602 5.21 7-10

Potassium (mg/l)

1.121 1.31 2.41 3.75 -

39

CHAPTER 5

DESIGN OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

40

5.1 Design of Sewage Treatment Plant:

Plant capacity: Average water supply per day = 423000 lit = 0.423 mld* Average sewage generated per day = 85% of supplied water

= 0.85*0.423=0.36 mld = 360 kld** Average sewage generated per hour=360/24=15 cum/hr Peak factor = 3 Design flow capacity (maximum) = 13 x 3=45 cum/hr *mld – Million liter per day **kld – Kilo Liter per day

Sizing calculation for collection pit: Retention time required = 4 h Average design flow = 15 m3/h Capacity of collection sump = 4 x 15=60 m3 Assume liquid depth = 5 m Area required for collection pits = 60/5 = 12 m2 Let it is a circular tank

r = 1.93m

Volume of the pit provide = π/4 x 4 x 4 x5 = 62.8 m3

Thus Area of the pit provided = 12.6 m2

Sizing calculation of bar screen: Peak discharge = 45 m3/h Average discharge = 15 m3/h Average velocity @ average flow isn’t allowed to exceed 0.8 m/sec Average spacing between bar 20 mm The velocity = 0.3*60=18 m/h/ m2

Cross sectional area required = flow/velocity

= 45/18 = 2.5 m2

41

Liquid depth required= 1 m

Velocity through screen at the peak flow = 1.6 m/sec

Clear area = 2.5/1.6 = 1.3

No. of clear spacing = 1.3/0.02 = 65

Width of channel = (65 x 20) + (67 x 6) = 1702 mm

Width of screen = 1700 mm

Sizing calculation of aeration tank: Bod in the feed sewage = 100 ppm No. of aeration tank = 2 Average flow = 360/2 = 180 kld Total bod load to the aeration tank = 15 x 24 x 100 = 36 kgs Let mlss = 2000 mg/l, f/m=0.15 Volume of tank required = (Q x bod load) / (fm x mlss)

= (180 x 100)/0.15 x 2000 = 60 m3

Assume liquid depth = 3.5 m Area = 60/3.5=17.143 m2 Tank size provided = 4.5 x 4.5 x 3.7 So, Volume of tank = 75 m3

Check for aeration period/hydraulic retention time: Hydraulic retention time t = 75 x 24/180 = 10 h So, the tank retention time is more than the required time.

Sizing calculation for sludge drying beds Maximum design flow rate = 45 m3/h, 360 kld Total feed suspended solid = 250 ppm Total outlet suspended solid = 50 ppm Load to the clarifier = 250-50 = 200 ppm Sludge generated per day = 360x 200/1000 = 72 kg/day Solid content in the feed= 3% Specific gravity of the sludge= 1.015

42

Volume of sludge= ((72/0.03)/(1000x1.015)) = 2.36 m3

For Rourkela weather condition, the beds get dried out about 7 days No. of cycles per year = 365/7 = 52 cycles Period of each cycles = 7 days Volume of sludge per cycle = 2.36 x 7 = 16.55 m3/cycle Spreading a layer 1m per cycle, Area of bed required = 16.55/1 = 16.55 m2 So area of 16.55 m2 for 2 drying beds is provided for the above system Hence, Sludge Drying Bed has dimensions of 4.5 m x 4.5 m x 1 m of two numbers.

Terms used in the model Full Form CW Collection Well CBD Coarse Bubble Diffusion AT Aeration Tank PCT Primary Clarifier Tank SCT Secondary Clarifier Tank SDB Sludge Drying Bed

43

Fig 5.1 Top View of Sewage Treatment Plant

44

Fig 5.2 Layout of Sewage Treatment Plant

45

CHAPTER 6

TIMELINE OF THE PROJECT

46

6.1 Timeline (Milestones) of the project:

47

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

48

7.1 Conclusion:

The average ranges of physical, chemical and biological

characteristics of waste water quality are experimented and found

out.

The pH ranges from 7.8 to 8.01. The Turbidity ranged from 10 to

120 NTU.

The value of Turbidity was found to be within the permissible

limit.

The Chloride and Alkalinity were in the range of 3.5 to 120 mg/l

and 15 to 80 mg/l respectively.

The Total Iron content was in the range of 0 to 3 mg/l.

The Zinc content was in the limits of 0.1 to 2 mg/l.

Copper content ranged from 0 to 0.2 mg/l.

Potassium was present in the limits of 2 to 12 mg/l.

The parameters studied resemble the waste water quality.

Total amount of waste water treated = 0.423 mld.

Dimension of the collection pit is calculated to be 4 m in diameter

and 5 m depth of the cylindrical tank.

A bar screen of width 1.7 m is provided.

Dimension of the aeration tank is 4.5 x 4.5 x 3.7 m3

Dimensions of Sludge Drying Bed are 4.5 m x 4.5 m x 1 m of two

numbers.

49

CHAPTER 8

REFERENCES

50

8.1 References:

1. AMERICAN HEALTH ASSOCIATION , 1985 : STANDARD METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF WATER & WASTE WATER - (16th edition )

2. ORHON.D. ATES. E., SOZEN. S. , 1997 : CHARACTERIZATION AND COD FRACTIONATION OF DOMESTIC WASTE WATER, ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 95(2), 191 - 204

3. GERARD KIELY, 2007 , ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4. KHANNA PUBLISHER, GARG S.K. , 1976 : ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - (2010 edition)

5. S. I. KHAN AND N. KAMAL: ASSESSMENT OF TREATMENT EFFICIENCY BY QUANTITATIVE RECOVERY OF INDICATOR BACTERIAAND PATHOGENS IN SEWAGE EFFLUENTS. 129. DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA, BANGLADESH.

6. IS: 3025 (PART 10) – 1984 METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 10 - TURBIDITY.

7. IS: 3025 (PART 15) – 1984, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 15 - TOTAL RESIDUE (TOTAL SOLIDS — DISSOLVED AND SUSPENDED).

8. IS: 3025 (PART 16) – 1984, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 16 - FILTERABLE RESIDUE (TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS).

51

9. IS: 3025 (PART 21) - 1983, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 21 - TOTAL HARDNESS).

10. IS: 3025 (Part 51) – 2001, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 51 – CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE.

11. IS: 3025 (Part 22) – 1986, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 22 - ACIDITY.

12. IS: 3025 (PART 32) - 1988, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 32 - CHLORIDE (FIRST REVISION).

13. IS: 3025 (Part 22) – 1986, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 22 - ACIDITY.

14. IS: 3025 (PART 23) – 1983, METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TEST (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) FOR WATER AND WASTE WATER, PART 23 - ALKALINITY.

15. IS:10500 DRAFT INDIAN STANDARD DRINKING WATER – SPECIFICATION (Second Revision of IS 10500)

16. DUGAN, P.R. (1972). BIOCHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF WATER POLLUTION. PLENUM PRESS LONDON, 159.

17. SHIKHAR FIRMAL, NIT ROURKELA, 2009: A STUDY ON THE WATER QUALITY OF NIT ROURKELA.

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