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CROSSBREED PROFILESThe reprint in Spain of two classic works by Inca Garcilaso, as well as a series of recent publications

regarding the life of conqueror Francisco Pizarro and his firstborn daughter, highlight the complexity ofthe Peruvian crossbreeding process, a major aspect of our cultural diversity. Crossbreeding –

summarized in a well known phrase by Ricardo Palma, who at the end of the XIX century stated that inour country, «those who have no Indian heredity have Mandingan lineage» – is no longer a unique

integration formula to promote respect for others and the fecundity of plurality. Below is a selection ofstimulating reading matter.

THE RECEPTION OF INCAGARCILASOMercedes López-Baralt

arcilaso was able to enjoy theinitial acknowledgement of his

works during his lifetime. Hiscontemporaries flattered the Inca,sometimes quoting him, occasionallypraising him: Bernardo de Aldrete in1606 and again in 1614, Francisco deCastro in 1611, Fernandez de Cordobain 1615. Even though Garcilaso nevermade any reference to any of the greatSpanish writers of his time, not evenCervantes, Gongora or Lope,Cervantes did gain knowledge aboutGarcilaso’s Comentarios Reales (RoyalComments), which he used as one ofhis sources for Persiles; he also quotedLeon Hebreo, referring to the Inca’stranslation of a parody of those dialo-gues in La Galatea, according to Pupo-Walker. As a curious note, this learnedman quoted Porras Barrenechea, whostated in El Inca Garcilaso en Montilla(1955) that Garcilaso and Cervanteshappened to be there at the same timeby accident and that it is very likelythat the Inca had to appear before theauthor of Don Quijote when he wasraising funds for the Crown.

There is no doubt that RoyalComments soon gained access to thecatalogue. During Act Three of TheNew World Discovered by ChristopherColumbus, Lope de Vega yet againdescribed an anecdote narrated byGarcilaso in his Royal Comments. An-tonio Herrera also reproduced textswritten by the Inca. In addition, Juan

Comments had not been very successfulat the time of Garcilaso’s death, but anincreasing number of issues werepublished during subsequent centuries.Seventeen issues were publishedbetween the XVII and XVIII centuries:ten in French, four in Spanish, two inEnglish and one in German. Throughthe indigenous aristocracy Garcilasoinserted himself into the verbal culture;hence the banning of Royal Commentsin 1872 because the Crown believedthey promoted a native uprising. Infact, it does seem that the Spanishauthorities recognized the danger ofGarcilaso’s statement about theinjustice of beheading Tupac Amaruand his legitimacy as an Inca governor.

In «Tupac Amaru and the banningof the Royal Comments», DanielVarcálcel (1961) explains how, nearlytwo centuries later, the Inca managedto influence the insurrection of thesecond Tupac Amaru. A select groupof Indian and mixed-race conspiratorsfrom Cuzco were spiritually strengthenedafter reading the Royal Comments thatJosé Gabriel Condorcanqui promoted attheir meetings. From Aranjuez, CarlosIII banned the Royal Comments and sentsomeone to collect the existing copies asa punishment for encouraging the revolt.One of the passages of a documentaddressed to Viceroy Jauregui on April21st 1782 reads as follows: «With thesame diffidence, the King would alsolike His Excellence to make sagaciousefforts to collect the History of IncaGarcilaso, from which those natives havelearnt so many damaging things». Ge-neral San Martin realized the politicalweight of the Royal Comments forobtaining a Utopian independence,claiming in Cordoba, Argentina in 1814that they should be reprinted. [...]

When they first appeared in 1609,Royal Comments was read as a historicaltext; at the time, there was no attemptwhatsoever to question the veracity ofthe events narrated therein. Duringthe XVII and XVIII centuries,Garcilaso became the indisputableauthority on the Inca culture. Withthe advent of positive-mindedhistoriography, the study of the textfocused on the debate between historyand fiction and several importanthistorians questioned the truthfulnessof the book. In The History of América(1777), William Robertson criticized

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Rodríguez de Freyle inserted materialfrom Royal Comments into his work ElCarnero in 1637. Bartolomé Arzans deUrsúa did the same in his Crónica Im-perial de la villa de Potosí in 1678. In hisTradiciones Peruanas,, Ricardo Palma

MESSAGE

Our country intends to share the most valuable part of its heritage and exceptional biodiversity with the restof the world. That is why the Ministry of Foreign Affairs considered it so important to implement Peru’sCultural Policy Plan abroad, which is now fully underway. This Plan forms part of the efforts pursued by Peruto establish democratic principles, protect human rights, fight against poverty, live in peace and achieve theintegration and development of this country. Its purpose is also to establish closer links with Peruviancommunities, whose promoting role and valuable contribution are worth highlighting. It is our duty tosafeguard our heritage and promote the main expressions of our cultural wealth, whilst fully respecting freedomand artistic creativity. According to our great historian Jorge Basadre, «Peru is greater than its problems». Theenthusiastic actions of its creators help to make it a great country that deserves the commitment of our efforts.

Manuel Rodríguez CuadrosMinister of Foreign Affairs

recreated the Aguirre episode from theGeneral History of Peru in his story «Lasorejas del alcalde».

Flores Galindo (1986) maintainsthat in publishing terms, Royal

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the use of secondary sources as well asthe author’s inability to distinguishbetween reality and fantasy. WilliamPrescott (History of the Conquest of Peru,1847) referred to his egocentricity andhis flair for gossip. In 1905 Menéndez yPelayo catalogued Royal Comments asa novel, even though heenthusiastically valued it as «the mostgenuinely American book ever writtenand perhaps the only one that trulyreflects the spirit of the conqueredraces». [...] In Peru in 1912, ManuelGonzáles de la Rosa, whom we havealready referred to, accused him ofplagiarizing Blas Valera. In 1916, Joséde la Riva-Agüero placed a new valueon the Inca as a historian, with his«Eulogy of Inca Garcilaso». Since then,his main interpreters – among themLuis Alberto Sánchez, Porras

uring a visit to his territories,Inca Huayna Capac arrived in

the rich and prosperous region ofHuaylas. Following the customs andprinciples of reciprocity, the Incaestablished kindred relations withprominent members of the community,taking two young noble girls as hisconcubines. One of them was Contar-huacho, daughter of Pomapacha, theethnic chief of Ananguaylas. [...] Thiscouple first of all had a son who died atan early age; then the young womangave birth to a daughter named QuispeSisa, who would one day be known asDoña Ines.

After the death of Huayna Capac,Contarhuacho moved to Tocas, a townwithin her dominion, whilst herdaughter Quispe Sisa remained in Cuz-co. It was only after the events inCajamarca that she left with her courtto travel to that northern town to joinher brother Atahualpa. [...]

Perhaps the cheerful, gracious Incaprincess attracted the attention ofPizarro, for at his request, Atahualpahanded her over to the matureconqueror to become his companion,probably without even asking for heropinion. There was nothing strangeabout that, because it was customaryfor the daughters of the sovereign’smistresses to be used to establish ormaintain kindred relations andreciprocity with military chiefs or withmen with whom the State wasinterested in establishing alliances.

Quispe Sisa, baptised with thename Ines, gave birth to two childrenas a result of her union with themarquis: Francisca who was born in1534 in Jauja (which was the capital ofthe area governed by Pizarro at thetime) and Gonzalo who came into theworld in 1535. Did Doña Ines fall inlove with her lover? The fact that themarquis was many years older wouldappear to have been an impediment forlove. Pizarro fondly referred to her as«la pispita» because she was a bright

young girl; nevertheless, the uniononly lasted a few years.

The baptism of the «first mestizachild» – who in due course wouldbecome the wealthiest woman in Peru– was celebrated with much joy. Forthe mature conqueror who had notpreviously enjoyed the warmth of afamily life, her birth was the source ofmuch tenderness and affection. Thechild’s godmothers were IsabelRodriguez, a neighbour from Trujillo,Francisca Pinelo, wife of Rui Barbam,and Beatruz, the Moorish wife of su-pervisor Garcia Salcedo. [...]

After the City of Kings was atta-cked by the army of Manco II, probablyas a result of Ines’ participation in theassassination of Coya Azarpay, Pizarrodecided to cast his concubine aside andtake another Inca princess as hismistress. He had his eye on anotheryoung lady at the time. According tochronicler Betanzos, she wasAtahualpa’s fiancée, who was destinedto become the Inca’s wife the day he

ascended to the throne in Cuzco.Although the princess’s name wasCuxirimay Ocllo, she was baptizedwith the name Angelina. Could Pizarrohave felt that by uniting with her hewould take on the image of Sapan Incabefore the natives? [...]

All the same, Pizarro made sureDoña Ines would be well off financiallybefore he abandoned her, leaving hersome personal properties and marryingher off to a Spaniard, Francisco deAmpuero. Ampuero had arrived inPeru in 1535 as part of HernandoPizarro’s entourage. By 1537 or 1538,Ines Huaylas Yupanqui was alreadymarried to Ampuero. Three childrenwere born from that union. [...]

Doña Ines had a very unhappymarried life, claiming that herhusband mistreated her. Despite beingan Inca princess, her «Indian» origin,must have influenced that state ofaffairs. Francisco Ampuero did notlove his wife, whom he was forced tomarry due to the circumstances.

Perhaps he even felt jealous of his wife’sprevious union with Pizarro.

The Inca princess’s despair was so ex-treme that she resorted to a witchdoctorand a witch so as to cause Ampuero a slowdeath by feeding him herbs and potions. Itis unknown how her intention was revealed,but a scandal broke out, followed by anaccusation of witchcraft and a lawsuit. [...]Witch Yanque was condemned to beingburnt at the stake for her attempt to killAmpuero, as were other Spaniards,although in the latter cases there was neitherany evidence nor accusation. Thewitchdoctor was also sentenced, togetherwith a black slave named Simon who hadbeen involved in another case of witchcraft.Their punishment consisted of burningthem with red hot irons and peeling off theirskin. Since that did not kill them, theywere beaten to death with a bludgeon. Thiswas a very severe punishment that was onlyapplied to the most atrocious crimes. [...]

As far as Doña Ines is concerned,the document makes no mention ofany punishment, even though she wasthe instigator in this case. It is possiblethat it was not considered advisable toapply a punishment because of herlineage and social standing.

Extracted from María Rostworowski. DoñaFrancisca Pizarro. Una ilustre mestiza (DoñaFrancisca Pizarro, an illustrious crossbreed)1534-1598 , 3rd issue IEP, Lima 2003, 177pages. publicaciones@iep.org.pe

See also Álvaro Vargas Llosa. La mestiza dePizarro. Una princesa entre dos mundos.(Pizarro’s «mestiza». A Princess between twoworlds) Aguilar, Madrid, 2003, 251 pages.;José Antonio del Busto. Pizarro, 2 t. Petró-leos del Perú, Lima, 2000. 432 pages.; RafaelVarón Gabai. La Ilusión del Poder: Apogeo yDecadencia de los Pizarro en la Conquista delPerú, (The illusion of Power: The Rise and Fall ofthe Pizarros in the Conquest of Peru) IEP, Lima,1997. 450 pages.; and the novel by AlbertoMassa Murazzi. El último día de FranciscoPizarro (The last day of Francisco Pizarro).Alfaguara, Lima, 2003. 173 pages.

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Andean experts consider them reliable,including anthropologists like John V.Murra, Tom Zuidema and PierreDuviols and historians like Raúl PorrasBarrenechea, Franklin Pease and JuanM. Ossio. Literary figures of the calibreof José Durand, Aurelio Miró Quesada,José Juan Arrom, Enrique Pupo-Walker,Margarita Zamora, Roberto GonzálezEchevarría and Julio Ortega study theirprose. However, perhaps the mostdedicated are the large number ofenthusiastic readers who, four centurieslater, still keep the Inca’s work alive and,above all, young.

· Taken from El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. Co-mentarios Reales, La Florida del Inca.Introduction, editing and notes by M. Lopez-Baralt (University of Puerto Rico). EspasaCalpe, Library of Universal Literature, Ma-drid, 2003, 1347 pages.

«Children of a Spanish man and an Indian woman or of anIndian man and a Spanish woman are referred to as «mesti-zos» (crossbreeds), which means we are a mixture of both

nations; this was the name imposed by the very firstSpaniards who had children with Indians; since it was the

name imposed by our forefathers and because of itsmeaning, I am proud and honoured to call myself a mestizo»

Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios Reales,Volume nine, chapter XXXI.

Barrenechea, Miró Quesada andDurand – have supported the historicalnature of the Royal Comments, eventhough they admit the Inca’s partialitytowards the idealization of his mater-nal lineage. [...]

Today, Royal Comments isconsidered a primary source for theanthropology and history of theAndean world as well as Spanish-American literature. Highly important

Theodore de Bry. Asesinato de Francisco Pizarro. (Assassination of Francisco Pizarro)

THE MATERNAL ANCESTORS OFDOÑA FRANCISCA PIZARRO

María Rostworowski

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or any morally sensitive person inLatin America who is capable of

feeling outraged by injustice, being aCatholic is no easy task. Catholicismwas imposed in this continent, playingthe role of an ideology that justified thebloody extortion and systematicdestruction of the cultural achievementsof hundreds of people and societies overmore than five thousand years of history.Subsequently, once the republics wereestablished, Catholicism often supportedthe more conservative ideologies thatwere reluctant to change. The effectiveresult of this historic process is that themost catholic continent on the planet innumerical terms, also records the highestrate of inequality.

Anyone who cannot perceive theweight of these facts would find it hard tounderstand the true meaning of theLiberation Theology. Without a doubt,Father Gustavo Gutiérrez is one of thegreatest representatives of this LatinAmerican way of thinking and one of themost important philosophers of his time.Father Gutiérrez began his intellectualadventure by figuring out what it meantto be a Catholic in these lands. Gutiérrezstuck by his Church and chose to see theworld and his own surroundings from itspoint of view. Leaving the Church inpursuit of a freer or more compromisingpolitical activity was never an acceptablealternative for him, nor did he ever considerthe possibility of heading a schismaticmovement.

That is why some of the criticismsabout his apparent indifference to theLatin American philosophy in his initialwork and in his more renownedLiberation Theology1 in particular, areso unjustified. It was precisely hisspecific understanding of Christianitythat drew him closer to Latin America.In his case, the Latin Americanadventure was part of the great globalevangelisation crusade.

OPTING FOR THE POOR

Gutiérrez thus strove towardschanging the situation of the poor, thatis, those who were unnecessarilycondemned to a premature death orfor whom it was impossible to fullydevelop their human faculties, basedon Christ’s actions on earth. From the

THE THEOLOGY OFGUSTAVO GUTIÉRREZ

Juan Abugattás*Approximation to the work of the great Peruvian theologian recently granted the

Prince of Asturias Award.

moment it was conceived, the CatholicChurch was the main instrument toachieve this, its main task being topromote the liberation of mankind basedon the evangelical message. To do soconsistently, however, it was necessaryto start with those preferred by God, i.e.the weakest and poorest. That is themeaning behind Gutiérrez’ phrase«preferential option for the poor». Thepoor are the most difficult people to love,the hardest to show partiality towardsand, consequently, the most importantin the eyes of the life-giving God.

Now then, this evangelisation hadto take place under conditions thatwere compatible with the evangelicalmessage. That is why Gutiérrezrepeatedly stated his consensus withthe Dominicans of the XVI century,particularly with Bartolome de las Ca-sas, who maintained that the lives offree Indians under Pagan circumstanceswere more valuable than thoseapparently evangelised but stripped oftheir freedom and at risk of losing theirlives, converted into «painted corpses».The fact is that life is the very first and

most important human right, thegreatest gift to all mankind.

Consequently, a genuine evange-lisation must not only be aimed at thosewho have not received Christ’smessage, but also those who may appearto be Christians but who have failed tounderstand what that implies as acommitment to life and instead,become agents of death.

From the point of view of Gutiérrez,this genuine evangelical message hadexisted in America from the verybeginning of the Conquest. Hence histremendous academic efforts to exami-ne and get to the bottom of the workcarried out by the Franciscan andDominican priests who arrived inAmerica less than twenty years after theConquest began, becoming the trueleaders of a sort of Christian humanism.It is worth mentioning that this was notonly energetically expressed in thequestioning works of Bartolomé de lasCasas, but was also the basis of thedevelopment of important aspects ofmodern law, including international law.

A NEW AGENDA

By giving an account of the eventsand complexities of what could bereferred to as the official Catholicismand the gold fever that devastated thecontinent, which from the verybeginning coexisted in America with acritical, humanist Catholicism that wastruly committed to the gospel andconveyed an emancipating message,Father Gutiérrez set up his vital,theoretical proposal and, at the sametime, established an agenda for theChurch2. This liberation agenda, thecompletion of which was left pending,was taken up again with Vatican IIand the Papal encyclical lettersregarding social affairs, the theoreticalexpression of which can be found inthe Liberation Theology.

The first question to be dealt withhere is obviously the legitimacy of theChurch’s interest in mundane matters.As maintained in several encyclicalletters, Gutiérrez was convinced thatthe Church had a «legal duty» toexpress its opinions regarding social andeconomic matters when ethical aspects

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«As far as I am concerned, writing theology islike writing a love letter to the God I believe in,

to the people I belong to and to theChurch I form part of».

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were involved. This did not imply thatthe Church should be committed to aspecific model of society or that therewas a specific Christian design for so-cial order. As part of its evangelisingmission, the Church was limited toproposing «ethical and humanexigencies», i.e. insisting that «thehuman person and human dignity»were the centre of any well structuredsocial order and that the main rightswere precisely the right to life and theright to freedom.

In each period, the strategy toachieve the Church’s social objectivesis marked by current parameters andcircumstances. In a world full of poorpeople, particularly in a region like LatinAmerica where the poor are themajority, the simple demand that theirbasic needs should be adequatelycovered creates a colossal liberating andtransforming force, regardless of thesocial or political system.

Furthermore, by paying attentionto the events and novelties of thatperiod, precise political agendas startedtaking shape. In this particular case,Gutiérrez discovered the focal pointsthat determined the transformingactions that developed historically untilthey became «signs of the times», i.e.the defence of human rights;ecological concerns; the recovery of theland and the preservation andexpansion of democracy3.

From Gutiérrez’ theological point ofview, there is no reason why Christiansshould either be committed to any par-ticular ideology, or ascribe to a specificpolitical trend. Anything that succeedsin relieving poverty and adding dignityto human life forms part of theevangelical adventure and helps putChrist’s message into practice.

It is worth remembering that theLiberation Theology came to light at aparticular time in the region’scontemporary history, i.e. the periodbetween the end of the fifties and theearly eighties. This is probably the mostvigorous period for the self-assertion ofLatin American people during thecourse of the XX century. Theconviction that a dignified future couldbe built for the inhabitants of this sub-continent so that they could becomemasters of their own destiny, spreadconvincingly among the most diversesectors of society.

*Philosopher and Professor of the Universityof Lima.1 Cf. Teología de la Liberación. Perspectivas.(Liberation Theology. Perspectives). 9th issue.(Lima, CEP, 1996).2 His main works dedicated to Bartolomé delas Casas and the Christian presence in theConquest’s proceses were Dios o el oro de lasIndias. Siglo XVI (God or the gold of theIndies, XVI century) (Lima, CEP, 1989) andEn busca de los pobres de Jesucristo; el pen-samiento de Bartolomé de las Casas. (In searchof Jesús Christ’s poor; the philosophy ofBartolomé de las Casas (Lima, Bartolomé delas Casas Institute, 1992).3 Many of his articles were reproduced in Den-sidad del presente (Present Density) (Lima,CEP and I. B. de las Casas-Rímac, 1996).

BLANCA VARELA/ POETRY

· Blanca Varela’s poetry (Lima 1926) is finally beginning to gain the acknowledgement that her exceptional intensity deserves. Grantedthe Octavio Paz Award, her works last appeared in Spain under the title Donde todo termina abre las alas (Where everything ends openyour wings) (Galaxia Gutenberg/ Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona, 2001).

Casa de Cuervos

porque te alimenté con esta realidad mal cocidapor tantas y tan pobres flores del malpor este absurdo vuelo a ras de pantanoego te absolvo de milaberinto hijo mío

no es tuya la culpani míapobre pequeño míodel que hice este impecable retratoforzando la oscuridad del díapárpados de miel y la mejilla consteladacerrada a cualquier rocey la hermosísima distanciade tu cuerpo

tu náusea es míala heredaste como heredan los peces laasfixiay el color de tus ojoses también el color de mi ceguerabajo el que sombras tejen sombras ytentacionesy es mía también la huellade tu talón estrechode arcángelapenas posado en la entreabierta ventanay nuestra para siemprela música extranjerade los cielos batientes

ahora leoncilloencarnación de mi amorjuegas con mis huesosy te ocultas entre tu bellezaciego sordo irredentocasi saciado y librecomo tu sangre que ya no deja lugarpara nada ni nadie

aquí me tienes como siempredispuesta a la sorpresa de tus pasosa todas las primaveras que inventasy destruyesa tenderme —nada infinita— sobre el mundohierba ceniza peste fuegoa lo que quieras por una mirada tuya queilumine mis restos

porque así es este amorque nada comprende y nada puedebebes el filtro y te duermesen ese abismo lleno de timúsica que no vescolores dichoslargamente explicados al silenciomezclados como se mezclan los sueñoshasta ese torpe gris que es despertaren la gran palma de dioscalva vacía sin extremosy allí te encuentrassola y perdida en tu almasin más obstáculo que tu cuerposin más puerta que tu cuerpo

así es este amoruno solo y el mismo con tantos nombresque a ninguno respondey tú mirándomecomo si no me conocierasmarchándotecomo se va la luz del mundosin promesasy otra vez este pradoeste prado de negro fuego abandonadootra vez esta casa vacíaque es mi cuerpoadonde no has de volver

House of Crows

because I fed you with that badly cooked realityfor so many and such poor flowers of evilfor that absurd flight grazing the swampsego, I absolve you from mylabyrinth, my son

it is neither your faultnor minemy poor little oneof whom I made this impeccable pictureforcing the darkness of the dayhoney eyelids and star struck cheekclosed to any touchand the most beautiful distanceof your body

your nausea is mineyou inherited it like the fish inheritasphyxiaand the colour of your eyesis also the colour of my blindnessunder which shadows weave shadows andtemptationsand mine too is the footprintof your narrow heelof an archangelgently resting on the window silland ours foreveris the foreign musicof the beating skies

and now young lionincarnation of my loveyou are playing with my bonesand hiding amidst your beautyblind, deaf and unredeemednearly satiated and freelike your blood which no longer leaves roomfor anything or anyone

you have me here as alwayswilling to be surprised by your stepsto all the spring times you inventand destroyto lay me out – not at all infinitely – on the worldherbs, ashes, plague, fireanything you want for a glance of yoursto light up my remains

because such is this lovewhich understands nothing and can do nothingyou drink the filter and go to sleepin that abyss full of yourselfmusic that you cannot seecolours statedlargely explained to silenceblended in the way dreams blenduntil that rude grey awakeningin the large palm of Godbald, empty with no extremesand there you find yourselfalone and lost in your soulwith no other obstacle than your bodywith no other door but your body

such is this lovethe one and only with so many nameswhich responds to noneand you looking at meas though you didn’t know mewalking awayjust like the light of the world goes awaywithout any promisesand in this meadow againthis meadow of black abandoned firethis empty house againwhich is my bodyto which you will never return

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The new Museum of Pre-Colombia

EXALTATIONFernando

here are cities that you fall in love with from thevery first time you visit them – and that is no exagge-

ration. As occurs with great works of art, they stir obscureassociations in your subconscious, arousing forgottenmemories and, using the nebulous language of theshadow’s mouth that Victor Hugo spoke about, strikingour most remote inner chords. Such cities leaveimpressions that never vanish; on the contrary, we can seethem more clearly each time. It is difficult to visit Cuzcowithout being eternally fascinated by the mysteriousbeauty and throbbing life of this city, which has its veryown characteristics and very strong traditions but, at thesame time, is so cosmopolitan.

I have never been to any other place where you canfeel the clash between two cultures which, paradoxically,is both violent and harmonious. Perhaps it is thiscombination of two ways of looking at the world, withouttransitions, that is one of its most notorious attractions. Inany case, it is dazzling to witness the sensuality and majestyof the Spanish baroque over the severe, sensible and perfectgeometry of Inca stones

A visit to Cuzco and the world surrounding it bringsus face to face with the beauty of Inca architecture, whichis so complex and refined that one can think about thevolumes of stone separately from their function and viewthem simply as sculptures. Such is the case of many of thestones in Macchu Picchu, Ollantaytambo, Kenko and theCoricancha temple, to mention the most notorious. Inactual fact, Pre-Colombian art in the Cuzco area is bestrepresented by the architecture, probably because Cuzcowas the seat of the Inca state and at the height of theempire when the Spaniards arrived, and architecture wasthe most prominent feature.

The fact that this was the area the Spanish Conquerorsinitially settled in is also responsible for this situation, forthis is surely where the «destroyers of idolatries» actedmost vehemently (Francisco de Avila, a priest born inCuzco, proudly told the story of how he removed morethan thirty thousand idols with his own hands and burntmore than three thousand bodies of people who idolizedthem). That is probably why so few works of art pertainingto the Inca culture were found in Cuzco, despite the

splendid architecture it produced. Pre-Inca works of artdid not follow the same fate because they were buriedunderground.

In view of all these circumstances, visitors to theancient capital of Peru cannot fully appreciate the artproduced before the western culture arrived on our coast.The development of the Inca state in Cuzco andsurrounding areas and, subsequently, the occupation ofthe city by the Conquerors, absorbed or destroyed all theexpressions of the numerous societies that preceded theexpansion of the empire, which proliferated in burialgrounds throughout the coast and the central Andes.

In order to appreciate the full spectrum of Pre-HispanicPeru, it was essential to build a museum in Cuzco, Peru’semblematic Pre-Colombian city, in order to display all theworks of art of Pre-Inca cultures, which undoubtedlyrepresent a very important part of our cultural heritage,particularly in such an important and active centre inwhich the traditions of the native culture are still keptvery much alive.

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1. Regional cultures, wood sculptures (1200 A.D.)2. Chimú Culture, wood sculpture (1200 A.D. )3. Mochica Culture, cormorants (700 A.D.)4. Chimú Culture, urns (1300 A.D.)5. Virú Culture, vessels (1000 B.C.)

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The opposite occurred in America, where researchersprimarily interested in the history almost unintentionallyrevealed the art produced by these societies.

The very name Museum of Pre-Colombian Artindicates that the works it contains were selected for theiraesthetic value, making sure that each one forms part ofthe enormous horizon of artwork created in this part ofthe world before the arrival of the western culture. Ibelieve it worth highlighting that this Museum is apraiseworthy example of the way private companies andinstitutions in this country are increasingly more committedto the progress of the group of people they work with.

The Cabrera House in which the Museum is located,is a beautiful, historic Colonial residence that has beenduly restored thanks to the valuable contribution made tothe project by Banco Continental. The works of artdisplayed there belong to the Larco Museum in Lima,which made the generous loan so that a larger number ofpeople could enjoy its extensive and incomparablecollection. The irreproachable study of the museum was

sponsored by AFP Horizonte. Andres Alvarez Calderonand Cecilia Bakula are responsible for the impeccableorganisation and guardianship. The National CulturalInstitute provided assistance and facilities for thisnoteworthy initiative.

The Museum of Precolombina Art in Cuzco will notonly enhance and complete the vision of this country’scontribution to universal culture; I am certain that it willbe a valuable incentive for the artisans and artists of thisregion – which has produced such a wealth of artisticworks for centuries – to recover and re-invent their owntraditions. We must congratulate ourselves for theoccurrence, within a matter of months, of two eventsthat are particularly important for the culture of ourcountry: the inauguration of two museums as significantas the Museum of Pre-Colombian Art in Cuzco and theMuseum of the Royal Tombs of Sipan.

One of the best ideas for the initial plans of the museumwas the innovating concept of considering it a Museum ofPre-Colombian Art. That is, putting the accent on theword art instead of concentrating primarily on thearchaeological and historical aspects of our Pre-Hispanicbackground, which was the usual tendency. It is evidentthat for a researcher of our past, any pre-historic remains,if they are old enough, can be more valuable than thework of a subsequent period, however perfect or beautifulit may be. It was at this point that the differences betweenscientific ideas and aesthetical criteria became evident.

In an important text about South America’s Pre-Colombian art, American critic Alan Lapiner came upwith a very clear concept for understanding why thearchaeological value predominates over the artistic valueof Pre-Colombian cultures. According to Lapiner, theMediterranean archaeology began as a humanistic searchfor ancient objects with an aesthetic value and thenbecame a scientific discipline, whereas originally only afew illustrious enthusiasts in search of classical artdiscovered the history of these people almost by accident.

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an Art opened its doors in Cuzco.

N OF BEAUTYde Szyszlo

CHASQUI 8

n addition to my fascination forneurology and brain surgery, I like

to dabble in the study of our naturalsurroundings. Among my recent publi-cations is a book about «The Anthro-pology of Aji», many aspects of whichare surprising, giving rise to some strangereactions.

The first ones to raise their voicesin protest were my Mexican friends,who believe that the hot pepper whichwe call aji and they call chilli, originatedin the very heart of their own beautifulcountry, Mexico. The truth is, however,that the very first chilli pepper to appearon this planet grew in the southernterritory we now call Bolivia. It was avery hot spicy kind of pepper whichstill grows in Bolivia today, althoughnowadays it also grows wildly in manyother parts of the world. All the papersand documents on this crop are dulyregistered in paleobotanical files and,according to all experts (includingMexican connoisseurs), the Lordplanted the original chilli pepper, thefather of all chilli peppers, in theBolivian jungle.

After a long time, thanks to thebirds who feed on these chilli pepperswith a lustful pleasure, they spreadthroughout the Amazon basin, then tothe Orinoco and finally to Mexico.How did that occur? Only the birdsknow! However, all paleobotanists agreethat the chilli pepper reached Mexico fromthe Andes. Of course that happenedseveral thousand centuries ago, but thefirst human being to arrive in Mexicoonly about two hundred centuries agofound the small Andean pepper andafter tasting it, he cultivated it and gaveit the name chilli. Neither he nor thepresent Mexican population were inthe least bit interested in knowing thatthis crop actually originated in the landthat was once known as Higher Peruand is now Bolivia.

Ancient Mexicans were greatfarmers and they adopted the chilli astheir own, cultivating it, pampering it,perfecting it and genetically studyingit. With their magnificent creativityand extremely hard work, theyproduced an amazing variety of chillipeppers, all of which descend from thatoriginal small Andean pepper. Ofcourse, chilli peppers have beenacknowledged worldwide as beingMexican. Mayas and Mexicans tookthem to the Caribbean, whereColumbus and his brave sailorsdiscovered them,. Considering them tobe very similar to pepper, they tookthem back to Spain, presenting themto Queen Isabel, who had financedthe Genoese mariner’s adventure,because pepper and other Asian spices

«AJÍ» STUFFFernando Cabieses

In this article, the prominent Peruvian scientist synthesizes his meticulous investigation of the origin andcharacteristics of one of the most celebrated Andean fruits: the irresistible chilli pepper known as «Ají».

relatives that are very respectful of so-cial laws. There are two Peruvian speciesthat totally refuse to compromise theirgenome outside the strictest rules ofchastity.

One of these is the hot pepperwe refer to as rocoto or hot bell pepper.Readers are probably well aware ofhow hot and spicy this variety is.Botanists call it capsicum pubescens. Itgrows best in mild climates, particularlyin the Andean highlands of Cuzcoand Arequipa. The fortunate nativesof both these cities each defend theirintellectual property rights, claimingto be the creators of this spicy species,which only thrives in those regions ofPeru. Everyone who has tried to growit elsewhere has failed, although someattempts have had mediocre results.In Mexico they call it apple chilli orhorse chilli, but it is a mediocrespecies. Farmers in Costa Rica seemto be learning to cultivate it, but thefact is, no fertile hybrid of thisaristocratic crop has been obtainedelsewhere.

The other Peruvian «aji» that scornsunrelated genomes is the one used in allPeruvian cuisine, from potatoes with «aji»to «escabeche» (pickled fish) and duckwith rice. Botanists call this varietycapsicum baccatum. Our cooks insist oncalling it green aji, even though it is abeautiful bright orange colour. When itdries up and turns nearly black, we call it«aji panca». Again, it does not grow wellelsewhere and those who have cultivatedit in other parts of the continent call itCuzco chilli or Peruvian chilli.

«Aji limo» is another kindaltogether; if you stroll through thesmall markets of Peru, you can makeyour «cebiche» (marinated fish) withthirty different kinds of chillies, all ofthem promiscuous mixtures of the otherspecies. It is enough to drive anybotanist crazy. Changing the subject,defiant questions arise when one triesto find out why the aji is so spicy hot,why we like it, why it is that somethingthat burns your mouth is not harmful.Why? Why indeed?

That is exactly what prompted meto write a book. There is an answer toeverything and every answer gives riseto more questions. That is the way weare and that is what science is all about.It has been known for over a hundredyears that the chilli is spicy hot becauseit contains a chemical substance calledcapsaicin. When it comes into contactwith the eyes or the mouth, it stings somuch it makes one see stars! One gramof purified capsaicin in a 4 x 5 x 1 m.pool would make it too unbearable toget into. A rocoto only has a smallamount of capssaisin, yet we all knowhow it can sting.

What does capsaicin do, though?Examine it and you will be convincedthat what that substance produces ispain! That burning tongue or stingingeye is really a type of pain. The sensationin your mouth when you eat chilli ispain. I need several pages to explain it,but the fact remains, that burningsensation is definitely pain.

It is hard to explain why people areso partial to chilli if it causes pain. Arewe a tribe of masochists? Mexicans,Peruvians, Chinese, Koreans, Japanese,French, Africans…… can they all bemasochists? It is these ambiguities andcontrasts that make chilli peppers sowonderful. The fact is that there isnothing in the universe as complicatedas the brain. When we feel a strongpain, our brain cells protect themselvesby producing substances calledendorphins. They are a kind ofendogenous morphine that act in thesame way as opium morphine, numbingthe areas of the brain that register pain.Since they are the same as opiummorphine, not only do they make paintolerable but they also produce a feelingof well-being and peace. Puremorphine. Can you believe it? Whenwe see on television or in real life thatvictims of terrible injuries, horrible burnsor cruel mutilations neither scream norcomplain while they are being rescued,tolerating what would appear to beextremely painful, it is because theirbrains are producing endorphins thatreduce the significance of thedangerous injuries suffered.

which made the European food of thattime more tolerable, were no longerreaching Spain.

The discoverers of this strongpepper in the Caribbean, changed itsname to «pimiento» or sweet pepper.Everyone respected the Caribbean nameaji which was accepted throughout thecontinent, except the stubborn Mexicancooks who defended the name «chilli»with tooth and nail. Subsequently, thePortuguese took these peppers to Asia,whereas other Europeans took them toAfrica and the rest of Europe. Sinceeveryone gave this pepper the namethey pleased, a curious Swedish doc-tor, the great Linneo, gave the namecapsicum to the wide range ofdescendants of the original aji.

Linneo referred to the original smallaji and all its descendants as capsicumannumm, however more than twenty-five different species have beendiscovered in the Amazon jungle andsurrounding areas, each one with aLatin word made to measure. Theyare all different to suit every taste, butonly five of them have beendomesticated. The capsicum annumm,the great great grandfather of Mexicanchillis, has very lascivious habits. Itmates with whichever cousin, aunt,grandmother or neighbour is closest andthe results of this plausible promiscuityare a number of other chillies that wavethe flag of hot Mexican food. In Peruwe also have some cousins of theMexican chillis to scandalize even theleast conservative geneticists, but asoccurs in all families, there are some

I

«Linneo called the original small aji and all itsdescendants capsicum annumm, but more than

twenty-five different species have beendiscovered in the Amazon jungle, each one with

a Latin word made to measure».

CHASQUI 9

HOT SPICY FOOD AND HOT SPICYFOOD RESTAURANTS

Experts maintain that we toleratethe sharp sting we feel when eatingchilli because we know it is not harmful.The brain produces endorphins thatcalm the intensity of the pain and inaddition, produce a pleasing sensationof euphoria which is responsible for theharmonious and enthusiasticsocialization that goes on in spicy foodrestaurants in Arequipa or among the«Mariachis» in a Mexican eating house.

Capsaicin and the way it acts was agreat discovery. Neurologists can nowunderstand many pain mechanisms,hence its current medical use forvarious diseases and painful situations.However, researchers have discoveredthat capsaicin produces pain only inareas where there are receivers of thismolecule. We have receivers all overour mouth and pharynx, as well as oureyes. However, we have none in thestomach or intestines, therefore oncewe have swallowed the food, we willonly feel the burning sensation in ourmouth and maybe our throat. The nextday, when any remnant might leaveour body the way God planned it, wemay well feel the burning sensationagain! However, it causes nodiscomfort anywhere else. Such is thecase in all mammals. It is worth noting,however, that birds have no suchcapsaicin receivers, therefore they areincapable of feeling the sting of a hotchilli. Consequently, we can feed aparrot a rocoto and watch it eat it withpleasure. That is why the birds spreadthe Bolivian aji as far as Mexico. Thatis also why a chicken will never flinch

t is safe to say that there is anindissoluble bond between Peruvian

cuisine and the chilli peppers thatoriginated in this region, based onunderstanding, fidelity and, above all,fecundity. These ancient ties have beenstrengthened and enhanced in thesuccessive encounters, dramas and tensionsthat are typical of any relationship. Thegreat Peruvian dishes of today are directdescendants of these mixtures and are basedon an adequate and original handling ofthe different spices and dressings made withdifferent kinds of chilli peppers. Theaccuracy and timeliness of their applicationis the main secret behind the unmistakablyPeruvian seasoning.

Whether it is the panca or dried yellowpepper or the red mirasol, or even acombination including fresh green ajii,peppers must always be roasted briefly,seeded and, in the case of dried peppers,soaked before making the creamy paste tobe used for cooking, either in oil or water,combined with fried garlic and onions. Thisis the basis of many dishes of irrefutablequality: shrimp chowder, a variety of fishand meat dishes, spicy creamed chicken,steamed or stewed, baked or marinatedseafood or vegetables, tamales or rice dishes,among a long list of concoctions in whichthe native chilli leaves a lasting impression,adding that controllable spicy flavour.

The fresh or green peppers (aji) and thepowerful hot red pepper (rocoto) – the mainingredients for the greatest of dishes, i.e.stuffed rocoto in all its variations – are alsothe basis for the variety of famous saucesserved over potato dishes and other productsof the air, sea and land. Outstanding amongthese are the tiny aromatic fruits of the so-called limo peppers (chopped finely inmarinated fish dishes and seafood cocktails),the fiery round pepper known as ajicillo andthe charapilla pepper from the Amazonregion which mixed with the vitamin-rich«cocona» fruit, is a faithful companion ofall local food.

The relationship between the spicysting of chilli peppers, the seasoning of lo-cal dishes and the enjoyment of diners issuch that many popular restaurants inArequipa, Cuzco, northern Piura and otherplaces are referred to as picanterias (hotspicy food restaurants). They tend to cookon log fires and keep alive the essentialtraditions that sustain Peruvian palates,duly refreshed by various corn beveragesthat lie fermenting in large pot-belliedvessels. It has been said that these rusticbut hospitable places are «nationalitycaverns». Indeed, they are democraticsanctuaries, because their long trestle tablesand benches welcome everyone who arrivesin search of a pleasing meal, withoutdistinction. (Alonso Ruiz Rosas)

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if we squeeze some rocoto juice into itseyes. The same cannot be said for catsand dogs, however.

When studying these aspects ofchilli peppers, a group of Hungarianscientists injected capsaicin into thestomach of a newborn rat. A few dayslater, the baby rat had lost all itscapacity to feel pain. Curiouslyenough, pain is our best friend, since itwarms us about impending danger.When there is no pain, the dangerprogresses and the risk is enormous.The baby rat died young. One day itfelt hungry and ate its own four legs. Itfelt no pain…..

Just imagine, had it not been forthis tribe of plants – in this case paprikaor sweet red pepper which is a capsicumannumm without capsaicin – had itnot been for this castrated chilli calledsweet chilli that does not sting, andhad the Hungarians not liked it somuch, a man named Szent Györgiwould never have discovered vitaminC and he would never have won theNobel Prize! Forget about oranges andcitrus fruit. A sweet pepper containsmore vitamin C than four oranges. Sodoes a rocoto, even though it brings tearsto your eyes. The aji, a marvellousproduct of the Andean biodiversity, isstill full of many secrets.

* President of the Scientific University ofthe South, Lima. fcabieses@ucsur.edu.pe

STUFFED ROCOTO (HOTPEPPERS)*

Cut the tops off the six hot peppersand remove the veins and seeds.Blanche them three times in sugaredwater and set aside. Make the filling,placing one chopped onions and garlicin a saucepan, cook until transparentand add chopped half a kilo pork andbeef, cut in small cubes. Add onespoonful of dried chilli powder, salt,pepper and cumin. Add some crushedanimal cracker crumbs to bind. Fill thepeppers with this mixture and put thetops back on. Place them in a dishaccompanied with sliced boiledpotatoes. Cover all this with a mixtureof two cups of milk and a beaten eggand then place some slices of Arequipatype cheese on the top. Put in the ovenand bake until the flavours have setand the dish is well browned.

RECIPESOCOPA

- 1 cup of vegetable oil- 150 grams of «Mirasol» pepper- 1 red onion- 10 cloves of garlic- 4 sprigs of native marigold (tagetes

eliptica)- 50 grams of peeled nuts- 50 grams of crushed animal cracker

crumbs- Salt to taste

Lightly roast the Mirasol peppers,remove the veins, soak in boiled water,drain and then place in a frying pan withhot oil to brown. In the same oil, brownthe chopped onions and garlic. Blendthe peppers together with the onion,garlic and native marigold in a smallamount of boiled water. Add the nutsand cracker crumbs and season to taste(fresh cheese can be added if desired).Add oil to taste. Serve over boiledpotatoes and garnish with black olivesand hard boiled eggs. This sauce canalso be made with cooked shrimp tails.www.elcomercioperu.com.pe/ECCocina/

AJÍ DE GALLINA* (Spicy creamedchicken)

Fry together whole six garlic cloves,two onions cut in quarters and Mirasolpeppers sliced in strips, without veins.Remove from the heat before theybrown and place in a blender. Onceblended, place the mixture in a pan

with oil and add three spoonfuls ofliquidized yellow pepper. Then add onecup of white breadcrumbs soaked inmilk and mashed. Cook gently, addtwo cups of stock made with chickenfrom which all the meat has been re-moved and shredded. Add theshredded chicken and a small amountof grated Andean cheese. Mix well,season to taste and if you like, add somecrushed nuts or peanuts. Serve oversliced boiled potatoes, garnish with ahard boiled egg and black olives andserve with hot boiled rice.

PAPA A LA HUANCAÍNA*(Huancayo-style potatoes)

Cut four fresh yellow peppers intostrips, removing the seeds and veins. Frythem in oil together with some slicedonion, without browning them. Blendtogether with a pinch of garlic. Add acouple of packets of soda crackers andfresh Andean cheese. Continueblending and add a dash of milk.Finally, add oil until the sauce has a

slightly thick consistency. Add salt,white pepper and a few drops of lemonjuice. Serve over boiled potatoes andgarnish with hard boiled egg, blackolives and lettuce leaves.

CEBICHE *

Choose a fresh, lean white fish(flounder, sea bass or snapper), slice itinto filets and then chop it into 3 cm.cubes. Cut five lemons per portion inhalf, remove the pips and squeeze thejuice. Salt the fish. Rub the bowl witha slice of hot limo pepper. Add thinlysliced red onions and a couple of icecubes and shake well. Remove the icecubes and serve immediately, garnishedwith tender corn and boiled sweetpotato or manioc.

* In Perú, A Culinary Adventure, Gastón Acurio.Lima, 2002. 286 pp.Photos: courtesy of The Art of Peruvian Cooking, TonyCuster. Lima, 2003.www.artperucuisine.comfacuster@corpcuster.com.pe

CHASQUI 10

mong contemporary scholars,Carlos Ramos Núñez** is the

most prominent cultivator of the historyof Peruvian Civil Law. His monumen-tal History of Peruvian Civil Law isundoubtedly one of the mostnoteworthy intellectual efforts of thelast decades. This encyclopaedic work,conceived, researched and writtenwhilst the author was also teaching invarious universities in this country andtravelling frequently to conferences indifferent parts of the world, isconsidered an unparalleled feat amongthe intellectuals of his generation.Nevertheless, Carlos Ramos’ work is notoutstanding only because it is extensive.As already stressed by other experts, hiswas a solid, systematic effort to put intoorder and interpret the evolution ofrepublican civil law, which must bestudied by anyone interested in therelations between Law, history andsociety.

As a study discipline, the back-ground of the history of Peruvian law isillustrious, albeit restricted. Whatappears to be the first history of Peruvianlaw was written by Roman Alzamorain 1876. It is a pioneer work, evenwithin the scope of Latin America,because not many similar works werewritten during that period. Efforts atthe time were aimed at organizing thelegal bodies of the still young republics,mainly taking shape in compilations oflegal standards and legal dictionariessuch as those prepared by ManuelAtanasio Fuentes, Miguel Antonio dela Lama and Francisco Garcia Calderonduring the second half of the XIXcentury. Later, early in the XX century,these efforts were continued byGermán Leguía y Martínez and Atilio

Sivirichi, among others. The writingof manuals or detailed comments oncertain codes or legislative bodies werethe prominent concerns of jurists, whowere mainly interested in puttingtogether and managing the vast legalarchives. Historic research on theevolution of law, however, did notreceive the attention it deserved, asoccurred in other countries. Whatcould be considered a pioneer in termsof the history of law is the work by Jor-ge Basadre, although his efforts had noimmediate followers. Almost byexception, Julio Altmann Smythe in1994 synthesized the broad outline ofthe evolution of Peruvian CriminalLaw. Much more recently, during theseventies and eighties, experts like Fer-nando de Trazegnies and Jose HurtadoPozo produced valuable interpretationsof the history of Republican Civil Lawand Criminal Law, respectively.

The lack of a tradition of legalhistory in our country is indeed

surprising. Whereas associations thatstudy the history of law have existed incountries like Argentina and Mexicofor years (the most prominent of whichare dedicated to studying the so-called«Indian Law»), in Peru there have onlybeen some isolated and intermittentefforts. To a large extent, this is due tothe lack of interest among professionalhistorians, who were more concernedabout political, economic and socialhistory than about matters related tothe legal world and its ramifications.Since the eighties, Peruvians andforeigners inspired by the worksmentioned above and by the newinternational historiographies, havecombined both disciplines and areoffering valuable contributions thatbring to light various aspects of the le-gal history in Peru. For example, theworks of Armando Guevara Gil aboutland and property in Cuzco, of RenzoHonores on lawyers and litigants inColonial Peru, of Sarah Chambers onlaw and order in Republican Arequipa,

IN SEARCH OF LEGALITYCarlos Aguirre*

Timely publication of the fourth volume of the History of Peruvian Civil Law.

A

Luciano Benjamín Cisneros Francisco García Calderón

or of Charles Walker regarding theuse of the courts by groups of nativesfrom Cuzco at the end of the Colony.

It is also worth mentioning theefforts made in the Seminar on theHistory of Law held in the Riva-Agüe-ro Institute, as well as the fleetingexperience of the magazine Chronicleson the History of Law, the only issue ofwhich appeared in 1993. Even thoughthey were based on dissimilardisciplinary and methodological pointsof view, all these efforts had one thingin common: the approach to Law asone aspect of the real socialcircumstances and the setting forconflicts and negotiations betweendifferent social agents. People thenstarted thinking about the complexityof Law (rather than simply as part ofthe superstructure of society or as aninstrument of domination in the handsof the powerful), which implied thepreparation of multiple, even multi-disciplinary, approaches, thus drawingHistory closer to Anthropology,Sociology and cultural studies, in orderto produce increasingly moresophisticated studies on the relationsbetween Law and society. It is withinthis renewed interest in the History ofLaw that we need to place the work ofCarlos Ramos.

His was an ambitious but realisticproject. The author’s intention was todemonstrate the complexities of thelegal world – the world of courts, codesand lawyers. He did so cautiously,however, obtaining importantinformation from social historymethods and sources. To this end,Carlos Ramos spent the last few yearsrecovering long forgotten leafletswritten by attorneys and litigants,strange theses that sometimes do noteven appear in bibliographic catalogues,as well as some valuable legalnewspapers that historians have littleuse for. With the information thusgathered, coupled with his amazingcapacity for hard work andsystematisation, he acquired anencyclopaedic knowledge ofRepublican Civil Law.

* Oregon University** Carlos Ramos Núñez. Historia del Derecho CivilPeruano, siglos XIX y XX. (History of Peruvian CivilLaw, XIX and XX Centuries) volume 4. Prologueby Carlos Aguirre, Pontificate Catholic Universityof Peru, 2003. feditor@pucp.edu.pe

RECOVERING MEMORIES

Recent national publications have uncovered delicate stories about theviolence and corruption that have caused such despair among the Peruviansociety in recent times. As far as violence is concerned, it is worth mentioningthe conclusions and recommendations of the Final Report of the Commissionof Truth (www.cverdad.org.pe/ifinal); the photographic book entitledYuyanapaq/Something to Remember (Yuyanapaq/ Para recordar) publishedjointly by the Commission of Truth and the Publishing Fund of the PontificateCatholic University of Peru; and the photographic dossier «The truth aboutthe horror» (La verdad sobre el espanto) published by Caretas magazine(www.caretas.com.pe). Furthermore, new titles have been added to thebibliography on the serious cases of corruption now being aired in Peruviancourts. The most outstanding of these include The Imperfect Spy, a report byjournalists Sally Bowen and Jane Holligan (Peisa Publishers, Lima, 2003. 540pages. peisa@terra.com.pe); Psychoanalysis of Corruption (Psicoanálisis dela corrupción) an essay by Saúl Peña (Peisa Publishers, Lima, 2003. 264 pages.)and Long Glances (Grandes miradas), a novel by Alonso Cueto (PeisaPublishers, Lima, 2003. 328 pages).

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CHASQUI 11

JUAN DIEGO FLÓREZ–A FURTIVETEAR (Universal, U.S.A., 2003)

There is no doubt that Juan DiegoFlorez was the Peruvian musicalcelebrity of 2003. Not only did hereceive fervent praise from LucianoPavaroti himself («Florez is the newleading singer of contemporary music»,said the Italian tenor in October lastyear) – his hearty voice having beenheard in the most prestigious stages ofEurope and the United States – but healso published the compact disk «AFurtive Tear», a best-seller last yearamong productions of «cultured»music. Beyond the enthusiasm of theprofessorship (always on the lookout fora new leading singer worthy of a stringof epithets), and the public at large (justa quick journey through cyberspacewill reveal the popularity of this tenor),the truth is that, with no exaggeration,Florez is the best contemporaryinterpreter of Rossini’s arias. Not manysingers can interpret as triumphantly ashe can, such complex pieces as «Cessadi piu resistere» from Il Barbieri diSeviglia and «Oh fiamma soave» fromLa Donna del Lago. It will come as nosurprise if Florez soon gains access tothe high position now occupied by

tenors as relevant as Alfredo Kraus andPlacido Domingo within thecontemporary popular culture. Hedeserves it. Furthermore, as though toconfirm the strong connection betweenhis powerful voice and the land he wasborn in, Florez has recorded his ownversion of the Peruvian NationalAnthem, which the Ministry ofDefence plans to distribute within thenext few months.

PERÚ NEGRO – JOLGORIO(Times Square, U.S.A., 2003)

A wonderful analogy of Peru Ne-gro, which is seeking to introduce theunequalled Afro-Peruvian musicalgroup into the revenue-yielding marketof the so-called world music. With morethan three decades of experience onstage, this group (founded in 1969 bythe late Ronaldo Campos) andcomprised of musicians, interpretersand dancers, displays a meticulousmanagement of the aesthetic codes ofthe black population in Peru,interpreting key pieces of the Afro-Peruvian repertoire including «Alca-traz», «Taita Guaranguito» and «Villan-cico Negro». They sound better thanever here. Their relatively newcompositions, such as «Afro»,«Picarón» or the incredible «Comocantan, como bailan los negros», couldalready form part of the music catalo-gue of African descendants living inPeru. Landós, festejos, zamacuecas,tonderos, carnavales, etc: theintoxicating rhythm of the Peruvian«cajon» (hand drum) marks the pacefor this authentically boisterous frolicfor the senses. An absolute must.

WILLIAM LUNA –TU AMOR AJENO(Orccus, Lima 2003)

They call him the «Gianmarco» of theAndes, referring to the successful Peruviansinger who, under the tutelage andprotection of his patron Emilio Estefan, hasbecome firmly established in theinternational market for the so-called «LatinPop» music. The truth is that Luna’s fourthproduction combines his folkloric roots withhis evident desire to deliver a more«cosmopolitan» performance.

It may be the contribution of musi-cal director Pepe Ortega, or the desireto gain access to a much wider market,but Luna sounds like an average LatinAmerican ballad singer whosecompositions, just like those of GloriaEstefan herself, are accompanied bypanpipes, reed flutes, native PeruvianIndian guitars and other SouthAmerican Andean instruments.

One trait that makes Lunadifferent from other musicians who tryto blend folklore with pop and othermore «radial» genres, is that he hascomposed the majority of the songs onthe disk himself. Anothercharacteristic is the professionalism ofthis recording . (Raúl Cachay).

SOUNDS OF PERU

AGENDACHASQUIPeruvian mail

Cultural bulletin

MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRSSub-secretariat of Foreign Cultural Policies

Jr. Ucayali 363 - Lima , Perú.Telephone: (511) 311-2400 Fax: (511) 311-2406

E-mail: postmaster@rree.gob.peWeb: www.rree.gob.pe

The articles are the responsibility of theirauthors. This bulletin is distributed free of

charge by Peruvian Missions abroad.

Translated by Doreen Fisher

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XI INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFICSUMMER ENCOUNTER

Two hundred and twenty exhibitors andmore than four thousand participantsattended the XI International ScientificSummer Encounter (ECT2004) chaired bythe National Council of Science andTechnology, held in Lima on January 2nd to5th. The Encounter was organized by aboutone hundred Peruvian academic and researchinstitutions and was named after biochemistErnesto Melgar Salmón, former professor ofthe University of San Marcos who died fiveyears ago and was the first person to introdu-ce bio-molecular studies into this country.

This Encounter has been held since1993 and its objectives are to exhibit theprogress made by researchers for practicalapplication purposes; increase co-operation;promote the contribution of Peruvianscientists resident abroad and heightenpublic awareness. This was the initiative ofPeruvian nuclear physicist ModestoMontoya and his wife, the Frenchmathematician Veronique Collin. Presentat the XIth version, in addition to activeresearchers in this country, were a numberof Peruvian and foreign scientists residentin Germany, Argentina, Australia, Brazil,Chile, Costa Rica, Spain, the United States,

Japan, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Russia andVenezuela.

Among these, it is worth mentioningCarlos Bustamante, a biologist trained inthe Cayetano Heredia and San Marcosuniversities who obtained his doctorate inBiophysics in the University of Berkeley –California, where he is the main professorof Biochemistry, Molecular Biology andPhysics. Bustamante has been widelyacknowledged and is a member of theNational Academy of Science in the UnitedStates. His main contributions concernmethods for handling a single molecule andessential technologies for the developmentof molecular motors. Another prestigiousspeaker was Edward Málaga Trillo,acknowledged for revealing the presence ofprions in fish – which cause the mad cowdisease. This Peruvian biologist tried todemonstrate that the protein «prion» doesnot produce the disease in fish and thatbased on this element, a vaccine can befound for Spongyform BovineEncephalopathia. The ECT2004V eventwas also attended by Augusto Becerra, aPeruvian scientist who works in Australiaresearching the genetic improvementprocess for the production of highlycompetitive kinds of cotton; Marcos Villa,well known for his work on the production

of proteins with a therapeutic value at theUniversity of Pennsylvania; and BernardBigot, High Commissioner of France’sAtomic Energy Commission.See www.eciperu.org

PHYLOSOPHY CONGRESS

Lima was also the site of the XV Inter.-American Congress / II Spanish-AmericanCongress on Philosophy held in thecampus of the Pontificate CatholicUniversity of Peru between January 12thand 16th. The main theme of the eventwas tolerance, a topic on which nearly fourhundred philosophers from America,Spain and Portugal as well as Peruviancolleagues from different universities inthe country expressed their differentpoints of view. Among the participantswere Richard Bernstein, DavidRasmusseno and Martha Nussbaum fromthe U.S.A., Victoria Camps, Adela Cor-tina, José María Gonzales, Manuel ReyesMate and Javier Muguerza from Spain;Latin American philosophers CarlosGutiérrez, Eduardo Rabossi and LuisVilloro and Italian philosopher GianniVattimo. A genuine «feast of thought».See: www.pucp.edu.pe/eventos/congresos/filosofia

PETRÓLEOS DEL PERÚ AT THE SERVICE OF CULTURE

COMUNICATE CULTURE

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CHASQUI 12

he ancient Chachapoyas oncedominated a vast territory in a

remote area of northeastern Peru, thecharacteristic evidence of theirpresence being the tombs found in steeprocks or banks and the circular structuresof their villages. Feared warriors andrenowned witchdoctors, the Chchapoyaethnic group flourished from about 800A.D. until the Incas violentlyconquered them shortly after 1470.The arrival of the Spaniards during the1530 decade brought even moremisfortune to the already besiegedChachapoyas, since these native peoplewere subjected to a systematicmisappropriation of their land, forcedlabour and tax burdens. In recent ti-mes, as a result of looting and vandalism,archeologists have found themselvesinvolved in a desperate race to rescuethe vestiges of this great, albeit virtuallyunknown civilization.

In spite of nearly 100 years ofexplorations and more recent researchon archeological sites and files, ourknowledge of prehistoric Chachapoyais still rather fragmented. The little weknow is based on a variety of sources,including archaeological excavationsand explorations, stories told by XIXcentury travelers, narrations of the firstSpaniards to arrive in the region, visitsmade by Spanish authorities to conductsurveys, legal disputes between localchiefs deprived of their rights and slightreferences in the chronicles of Garcilasode la Vega, Pedro Cieza de Leon andAntonio de la Calancha, among others.

Curiously enough, none of thesemen had ever visited Chachapoyas.Gracilazo based his narration on amissing chronicle by Blas Valera, Ciezaobtained his description from anunknown informant and Calanchabased his writings on the narrations ofan anonymous Augustine friar whomthe first Spanish inhabitants had calledto Chachapoyas to win over souls. Afterthe Spaniards’ initial interest in settlingin the region in the XVI century,Chachapoyas came to a standstill owingto its isolation from the political-administrative center of the Spanishcolony. Consequently, the peoplestarted heading east, establishing busi-ness contacts with Moyobamba and theHuallaga. The lack of native manpower

CHACHAPOYAS

THE LOST KINGDOM

An impeccable volume based on the search for the mysterious kingdom that flourished between theAndes and the Amazon region.

Adriana Von Hagen

T of Chachapoyas, discovered Kuélap bychance en 1843, the site had beenabandoned and covered by the forestfor nearly 300 years. The report on itsdiscovery remained unpublished until1892. Once it was published, though, itattracted a number of brave andprominent explorers like AdolfBandelier, Erns Middendorf, CharlesWiener and Antonio Raimondi.Travelling with difficulty through thenorthern Andes on the back of a muleand crossing the Marazon river on balsaboats, it took them over a week to reachChachapoyas from Cajamarca.

Archaeologists Henry and PauleReichlen carried out the first scientificexcavations in Chachapoyas nearly 50years later. The Reichlens also travelledby mule from Cajamarca, crossing theriver Marañon on the Chacanto hangingbridge built in 1905. The discovery ofGran Pajaten during the decade of the1960s gave rise to a surge of explorationsand archaeological research, followed byexcavations in Kuelap. In 1983, thePeruvian government created theAbiseo River National Park in order toprotect the pristine forests, endangeredwildlife species and a number ofarchaeological sites, including GranPajaten, which had become the focusof multi-disciplinary studies between1985 and 1990.

The century ended with thediscovery – unfortunately by looters –of a Chachapoya-Inca burial sitesituated in the Los Condores Lagoon.Even though the looters had ransackedthe extraordinarily well preservedmummies and funeral offerings, therecovery of the remains byarchaeologists gave researchers a uniqueopportunity to learn about the funeralpractices of the Chachapoya and Incacivilizations and the Inca governmentin the region, as well as a tempting insightinto the virtually unknown style ofChachapoya art.

Taken from Chachapoyas, The Lost Kingdom.Special issue by Elena Gonzáles and RafoLeón. Prologue by John Hemming. Studiesby Adriana Von Hagen and Sonia Guillén.Photographs by Jorge H. Esquiroz. EditoresAsociados, AFP Integra, Lima, 2002, 399pages.afpenlinea@integra.com.pe

«The region described in thisbook is still sparsely populated.When the visitors left thevalleys and its prosperous townsbehind, they entered apractically uninhabited worldof great natural beauty. Thesplendid ruins of theChachapoya culture are itsreward. This book will inspirethe more daring travelers tomake these discoveries andwhen they decide to do so, theywill become invaluable sourcesof reference.»

John Hemming

became particularly critical inChachapoyas due to the epidemics thatspread through the population in thisregion and the migration of the localpopulation to the «free territories» in theeast, far beyond the control of the

Spanish colonial administration and taxburdens. Nevertheless, the discoveryof the ancient citadel of Kuelap in 1843placed Chachapoyas on the map onceagain, at least in scientific terms.

When Juan Crisóstomo Nieto, judge