che project revised

8/6/2019 Che Project Revised

1/16

1

I I I N N N T T T RRR OOO DDD U U U CCC T T T I I I OOO N N N

Man, the most intellectual & incomparable creations of God, was gifted with

the Sixth Sense. He has forever tried to be different among the other creatures by

exhibiting variations in his appearance, lifestyle, culture etc. Unlike animals, he has

always showed interest in the cleanliness of his body. In the ancient days, he used

the extracts of certain herbs & shrubs to keep himself clean and as well to scrap his

body odour. Later, soaps were invented which was then adopted by people for their

daily use. Soaps were commercialized to a larger extent in the 18th Century. They

outwitted all

other

ayurvedic

extracts

in

different

provisions.

Soaps were compact and handy to use, which made them more popular

among the people. They were not only produced in different colours but also in a

variety of fragrants. They were commercialized in the market at a relatively cheap

rate which induced the public to continue using the product as a tool to get rid of

their body odour and infections. Soaps were then popularized as an antiseptic

product which claimed that it would drive off the germs thereby providing safety along with its tendency to enfragrent the body. Those innovations were highly

accepted and welcomed by people. This was nailed with an evidence of an

extremely good sale when these anti biotic soaps were introduced. They were

highly recommended by dermatologists to their patients.

The scope of soaps was then diversified into cleaning of utensils, washings

of clothes etc. They were classified to be detergents. Unlike soaps used for bathing, they did not contain fat. They were much cheaper than the bathing soaps available

in the market. People then completely plunged into the use of commercialised soaps

which were basically produced in factories through the process of Saponification.

The Bye products also proved to be useful by some means.


2/16

2

Soaps:

Soap is a surfactant used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning that is available in solid bars and in the form of a viscous liquid .

Chemically, soap is a salt of a fatty acid . Traditionally, soap is made by the reaction

between a fat and a strong alkali such as lye (sodium hydroxide ), potash (potassium

hydroxide ), or soda ash (sodium carbonate ). Historically, the alkali was leached from

hardwood ash.

The chemical reaction that yields soap is known as saponification . In the

saponification of a fat to form soap the alkali and water hydrolyze the fat thus converting it into free glycerol /glycerin and soap (fatty acid salt). Occasionally,

saponification can occur naturally: an underground mass tomb in Sicily has corpses

whose bodies are slowly becoming saponified.

Many cleaning agents today are technically not soaps, but detergents, which are less

expensive and easier to manufacture.

In some countries, its compulsory to indicate the Total Fatty Matter (TFM) content

of soap that is sold to consumers, as a percentage. Usually it averages around 70%.

Structure and chemical formation:

Soap, from a chemical standpoint, is a salt (or a mixture of salts) of fatty acids. As

with all salts, soap contains a positive ion, usually Na + or K+ , and a negative ion,

usually the anions of long chained carboxylic acids obtained by the hydrolysis of

animal or vegetable fats. These fatty acids, of which there are about 20 naturally

occurring members, are carboxylic acids containing 14, 16, or 18 carbon atoms in an

unbranched chain. The even numbered chains result from the fact that fats are

synthesized in cells by the polymerization of a 2carbon acetate unit.

In addition to the normal (straight chain) saturated acids, there occur several

with hydroxyl groups, and/or one or more double bonds in the carbon chain. The

presence of unsaturation (double bonds) in molecules of fatty acids, fats, or soup

tend to

lower

the

melting

point

of

these

compounds

and

to

cause

them

to

be

in

the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28chemistry%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saponificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saponificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28chemistry%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleaninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant


3/16

3

liquid state at room temperature. Thus, vegetable fats are relatively unsaturated and

liquid under the ordinary conditions, while animal fats, being relatively more

saturated, are solid, or semi solid, at the same temperature. For this reason,

vegetable fats are commonly refereed to as vegetable oils. (We say relatively

saturated or unsaturated because both vegetables oils and animal fats contain

saturated and unsaturated chains). The reason why double bonds lower the melting

point of a fatty acid chain, is that the sections of the chain attached to the double

bond are attached ciswise to each other (probably because the double bond cis

configuration produces a bent chain which does not easily adhere to a neighboring

chain by a Van der Waals attraction hence a lower temperature (lower mobility) is

required for these molecules to adhere in order to form a solid crystal lattice. It is

interesting to note, that straight chained carboxylic acids having an odd number of

carbon atoms melt lower than even chained acids of comparable molecular weights.

The most commonly encountered fatty acids in natural fats are given below:

Saturated Acids

Lauric Acid (Dodecanoic Acid)

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2COOH


4/16

4

Myristic Acid (tetraderanoic Acids)

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2COOH

Palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid)

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2

COOH

Stearic acid (octadecanoic acid)

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2

COOH

Unsaturated acids:

Oleic acid (octadec 9enoic acid)

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH=CH CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2

COOH

Linoleic acid (octadec 9, 12dienoic acid)

CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH=CH CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2CH 2

COOH


5/16

All fats are esters (though, not all esters are necessarily, fat!) of the trihydroxy

alcohol, glycerin, and fatty acids. Since each molecule of fat contains three ester

groups, fats are often referred to as triglycerides to distinguish them from other

materials having a fatty or greasy texture, such as waxes (mono esters of long chain

alcohols are carboxylic acids) mineral oil, and petroleum jelly (long chain

hydrocarbons).

If RCOOH represents a generalized fatty acid (R is a hydrocarbon chain of 13, 15, or

17 carbons) then, the general formula for a fat is

Note that the fatty acid residues in a typical fat molecule

are usually different! Fats from different sources have different percentages of the

common fatty acids, and can be distinguished from one another by a quantitative

analysis of these constituents. Soap is prepared by hydrolyzing a fat under alkaline

(basic) conditions. The reaction is called saponification, and produces one molecule

of glycerin and three molecules of soap, for each molecule of fat taken.

5


6/16

6

The fats and oils most commonly used in soap preparation are lard and tallow from

animal sources, and coconut, palm and olive oils from vegetable sources.

Tallow and lard are the fats separated from solid beef fat (suet) and hog fat,

by the process of rendering. Rendering consists of of water until a layer of melted fat

collects on top. (When the animal tissue is heated, the fat in the cells melts, expands,

ruptures the cell membrane and then flows out. Since the fat is immiscible with

boiling the animal fat in a pot with equal volume water, and hydrocarbon chain and

the number of double has a lower density, it forms a floating layer on the top of the

water in the pot.) The rendered fat is then drawn off, and allowed to solidify by

cooling.

The length of the bonds in the carbonylic acid portion of the fat or oil

determines the properties of the resulting soap. For example, a salt of a saturated,

long chain acid makes a harder, more insoluble soap. Chain length also affects

solubility. Tallow is the principal fatty material used in soap making, with coconut

or palm oil blended in, to produce a softer (more soluble) soap which will readily

lather. Soaps made with KOH (caustic potash) instead of NaOH (caustic soda) are

liquid rather than solid, at room temperature. (Potassium salts have a lower melting

point than sodium salts.)

Toilet soaps are generally carefully washed free of any remaining alkali used

in the saponification procedure to avoid irritation and drying of the skin. As much

glycerine as possible is usually left in the soap, and perfumes, coloring, and

medicinal agents are sometimes added. Also added, are antioxidants to prevent the

soap from turning rancid. Many soaps are superfatted, i.e. not all of the fat is

hydrolysed, in order that the final soap have some fat remaining to lubricate and

smooth dry and sensitive skin.

Besides tallow and coconut oil, there are many other natural fats and oils

which can be economically employed to make soaps of varying degrees of quality.

The less pure the raw material is, the more likely the soap will have an offcolor

(generally yellow or brown), and an undesirable odor. (Impure fats are sometimes

treated with bleaching agents before saponification, but this adds to their cost.)

Examples of such other starting materials in soap manufacture are: coconut oil, palm

oil, olive oil, cottonseed oil, sesame oil, corn oil, Soya bean oil, hydrogenated

vegetable oils, rosin, naphthelinic acids, and greases made from animal skins, bones,


7/16

7

tankage and garbage. The lower grades of soaps are used as yellow laundry soap,

soap powders, cleansers, and industrial soaps.

Commercial soap production

Until the Industrial Revolution , soap making was done on a small scale and the product was rough. Andrew Pears started making a high quality, transparent soap in 1789 in London . With his grandson, Francis Pears, they opened a factory in Isleworth in 1862. William Gossage produced low price good quality soap from the 1850s. Robert Spear Hudson began manufacturing a soap powder in 1837, initially by grinding the soap with a mortar and pestle. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1885 and founded what is still one

of the largest soap businesses, now called Unilever . These soap businesses were among the first to employ large scale advertising campaigns.

In the United States, one of the first manufacturers of soap was the Amour andCompany in Chicago in 1888. The soap was made from tallow, a byproduct of the meat production process. In 1948, Armour soap became Dial soap, the first deodorant or antibacterial soap introduced in the USA.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Pearshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isleworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gossagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Spear_Hudson_%28soap%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hesketh_Leverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warringtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unileverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unileverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warringtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hesketh_Leverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Spear_Hudson_%28soap%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gossagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isleworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Pearshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution


8/16


9/16

9

There are varying levels of trace: a light trace implies a thinner soap batter and a heavy trace implies a thicker soap batter. Additives, such as essential oils , fragrance oils , botanicals, clays, colorants or other fragrance materials, are combined with the soap batter at different degrees of trace, depending upon the additive. With elapsed

time and continued agitation the soap batter will continue to thicken. The cold process soap batter is then poured into molds, while hot process soap batter is poured into a double boiler or crockpot to sustain a high temperature.

Cold-process

Although cold process soapmaking takes place at room temperature, the fats are first heated to ensure the liquification of the fats used. Then, when the lye water solution is added to the fats, it should be the same temperature of the melted oils and both are typically between 8090F. An external heat source is not necessary but

the molded soap should be incubated by being wrapped in blankets or towels for 24 hours after being poured into the mold. Milk soaps are the exception and do not require insulation, which may cause the milk to sour. The soap will continue to exothermically give off heat for many hours after being molded. During this time, it is normal for the soap to go through a gel phase where the opaque soap will turn semi transparent for several hours before turning opaque again. The soap may be removed from the mold after 24 hours but the saponification process takes several weeks to complete.

Hot-process

Unlike cold processed soap, all hot processed soap experiences a gel phase as a result of being heated, such as in a double boiler or crockpot. Hot process soap may be used soon after being removed from the mold because the higher temperatures accelerate the saponifcation process and also drive off excess water.

Purification and finishing

The common process of purifying soap involves removal of sodium chloride , sodium

hydroxide , and glycerol . These components are removed by boiling the crude soap curds in water and re precipitating the soap with salt.

Most of the water is then removed from the soap. This was traditionally done on a chill roll which produced the soap flakes commonly used in the 1940s and 1950s. This process was superseded by spray dryers and then by vacuum dryers.

The dry soap (approximately 612% moisture) is then compacted into small pellets. These pellets are now ready for soap finishing, the process of converting raw soap

pellets

into

a

salable

product,

usually

bars.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragrance_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragrance_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragrance_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boilinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragrance_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragrance_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_oil


10/16

10

Soap pellets are combined with fragrances and other materials and blended to homogeneity in an amalgamator (mixer). The mass is then discharged from the mixer into a refiner which, by means of an auger , forces the soap through a fine wire screen. From the refiner the soap passes over a roller mill (French milling or hard

milling) in a manner similar to calendering paper or plastic or to making chocolateliquor . The soap is then passed through one or more additional refiners to further plasticize the soap mass. Immediately before extrusion it passes through a vacuum chamber to remove any entrapped air. It is then extruded into a long log or blank, cut to convenient lengths, passed through a metal detector and then stamped into shape in refrigerated tools. The pressed bars are packaged in many ways.

Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. This process is most common in creating soaps used for human hygiene. The scouring agents serve to remove dead skin cells from the surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation . Many newer materials are used for exfoliating soaps which are effective but do not have the sharp edges and poor size distribution of pumice.

Laboratory preparation of soaps:

The

preparation

of

soap

from

fat

and

lye

has

been,

historically,

a

household

task. Only in the last century has the making of soap become a commercial

undertaking. Our ancestors made soap by boiling animal fats with the lye

obtained from leaching wood ashes. In this experiment, we will make soap by

the same process, called saponification , but will use modern ingredients.

In the process of making soap, animal fat, which is a triglyceride, is

hydrolyzed by the action of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, and

heat. The resulting products are soap and glycerol :

CAUTION: Safety goggles must be worn throughout this experiment. This lab is intended to be done in a school lab, with adult supervision. Sodium hydroxide is very caustic, and can cause severe burns to the skin, especially when hot.

MATERIALS NEEDED:

*80 ml of 6 Molar NaOH solution 15 grams of lard
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calenderinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_liquorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_liquorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumicehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scouringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exfoliation_%28cosmetology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exfoliation_%28cosmetology%29http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scouringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_liquorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocolate_liquorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calenderinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auger


11/16

11

75 ml of distilled water **300 ml hot sodium chloride solution 100ml graduated cylinder Wire screen

Ring stand Ring Wire gauze Burner Tongs Stirring rod 400ml beaker 250ml beaker

* To make 6 molar sodium hydroxide, dissolve 19.2 grams of NaOH in enough water to make a total volume of 80 ml. ** This is just a saturated solution of NaCl.

PROCEDURE:

Obtain 80 ml of 6 molar NaOH and 15 grams of lard, and place 40 ml of the NaOH solution and the lard in a 400ml beaker

Heat to boiling, on a standard ring stand set up, and then continue boiling the mixture over the lowest flame that will sustain the boiling

process. Stir the mixture constantly to avoid spattering. If Spattering occurs, remove the flame and continue stirring the mixture. Replace the flame and continue heating after the spattering stops.

Continue boiling and stirring for about 20 minutes, or until it appears that most of the water has been evaporated. Then carefully add the remaining 40 ml of NaOH solution and continue boiling for an additional 20 minutes or until most of the water has boiled off. DO NOT LET IT BOIL DRY.

As the crude soap cools, a waxy solid should form. Add to it about 25

ml of

distilled

water

and

about

100

ml of

hot,

saturated

sodium

chloride solution. Stir the mixture, breaking up lumps with your stirring rod. Decant the wash solution by pouring it through a wire screen, which will trap small soap particles.

Repeat the wash process twice. After the final washing, press the soap between two sheets of paper towlling to expel as much water as possible .

Result:


12/16

12

How soap works:

Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules attach readily to both nonpolar molecules (such as grease or oil ) and polar molecules (such as water ). Although grease will normally adhere to skin or clothing, the soap molecules can attach to it as a handle and make it easier to rinse away. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water

effectively holds particles in suspension so the whole of it can be rinsed off with clean water.

(Fatty end) :CH 3 (CH 2)nCO2 +Na: (water soluble end)

The hydrocarbon ( fatty ) portion dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic end makes it soluble in water. Therefore, it allows water to remove normally insoluble matter by emulsification .

History:

Early history

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap like materials dates back to

around 2800 BC in Ancient Babylon . A formula for soap consisting of water, alkali and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.

The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates that ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a soap like substance. Egyptian documents mention that a soap like substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.

Roman history

It had been reported that a factory producing soap like substances was found in the ruins of Pompeii (AD 79). However, this has proven to be a misinterpretation of the survival of some soapy mineral substance,[ citation needed ] probably soapstone at the Fullonica where it was used for dressing recently cleansed textiles. Unfortunately this error has been repeated widely and can be found in otherwise reputable texts on soap history. The ancient Romans were generally ignorant of soap s detergent properties, and made use of the strigil to scrape dirt and sweat from the body. The word soap (Latin sapo) appears first in a European language in Pliny the Elder s Historia Naturalis , which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonpolarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_polarity#Polar_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebers_papyrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebers_papyrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebers_papyrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fullonica&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strigilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strigilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fullonica&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapstonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebers_papyrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_polarity#Polar_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonpolar


13/16

13

but the only use he mentions for it is as a pomade for hair; he mentions rather disapprovingly that among the Gauls and Germans men are likelier to use it than women.

A story

encountered

in

some

places

claims

that

soap

takes

its

name

from

a

supposed

Mount Sapo where ancient Romans sacrificed animals. Rain would send a mix of animal tallow and wood ash down the mountain and into the clay soil on the banks of the Tiber . Eventually, women noticed that it was easier to clean clothes with this soap . The location of Mount Sapo is unknown, as is the source of the ancient

Roman legend to which this tale is typically credited. In fact, the Latin word sapo simply means soap ; it was borrowed from a Celtic or Germanic language, and is cognate with Latin sebum, tallow , which appears in Pliny the Elder s account. Roman animal sacrifices usually burned only the bones and inedible entrails of the sacrificed animals; edible meat and fat from the sacrifices were taken by the humans rather than the gods. Animal sacrifices in the ancient world would not have included enough fat to make much soap. The legend about Mount Sapo is probably apocryphal .

Muslim history

True soaps made from vegetable oils (such as olive oil ), aromatic oils (such as thyme oil) and lye (alSoda alKawia) were first produced by Muslim chemists in the medievalIslamic world . The formula for soap used since then hasn t changed (Nabulsi soap ).

From the beginning of the 7th century, soap was produced in Nablus (West Bank), Kufa (Iraq) and Basra (Iraq). Soaps, as we know them today, are descendants of historical Arabian Soaps. Arabian Soap was perfumed and colored, some of the soaps were liquid and others were solid. They also had special soap for shaving. It was sold for 3 Dirhams (0.3 Dinars ) a piece in 981 AD. The Persian chemist Al-Razi wrote a manuscript on recipes for true soap. A recently discovered manuscript from the 13th century details more recipes for soap making; e.g. take some sesame oil, a sprinkle of potash, alkali and some lime, mix them all together and boil. When cooked, they are poured into molds and left to set, leaving hard soap.

In semi modern times soap was made by mixing animal fats with lye. Because of the caustic lye, this was a dangerous procedure (perhaps more dangerous than any present day home activities) which could result in serious chemical burns or even blindness . Before commercially produced lye (sodium hydroxide ) was commonplace, lye (sodium hydroxide ), potash (potassium hydroxide ), and soda ash (sodium carbonate ) were leached from the ashes of a hardwood fire for soap making at home.

Modern history

Castile soap was later produced in Europe from the 16th century .
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomadehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Sapohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy_%28Islam%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabulsi_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabulsi_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy_%28Islam%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrificehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Sapohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomade


14/16

14

In modern times, the use of soap has become universal in industrialized nations due

to a better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing the population size of

pathogenic microorganisms . Manufactured bar soaps first became available in the late

nineteenth century, and advertising campaigns in Europe and the United States

helped to increase popular awareness of the relationship between cleanliness and

health.

Soap has also been used to punish people for cursing or occasionally, for other infractions. This is done by forcibly placing soap into a person s mouth and, sometimes, forcing them to swallow it. It is commonly known as washing one s mouth out with soap or any of numerous variations of that phrase, or, more recently, mouthsoaping .

IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS OF SOAPS:

Lye

Reacting fat with lye (sodium hydroxide) will produce a hard bar soap. Reacting fat with potassium hydroxide will produce a soap that is either soft or liquid. Historically, the alkalis used were sodium hydroxide , potassium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate

leeched from

hardwood

ashes.

Fat

Soap is made from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium tallowate , a fatty acid sometimes used to make soaps, is derived from tallow, which is rendered from cattle or sheep tissue. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such as palm oil , olive oil , or coconut oil. If soap is made from pure olive oil it may be called Castile soap or Marseille soap . Castile is also sometimes applied to soaps with a mix of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.

An array of oils and butters are used in the process such as olive oil, coconut oil, palm oil, cocoa butter, hemp oil and shea butter to provide different qualities. For example, olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils provide hardness. Most common, is a combination of coconut, palm, and olive oils.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profanityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tallowatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tallowatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tallowatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_renderinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shea_butterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shea_butterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_renderinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tallowatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_out_mouth_with_soaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profanityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene


15/16

15

Below is a short glossary of terms employed to describe special types of soap:

Castile soap a mild soap originally made in Spain with pure olive oil. Today many

castile soaps are made with other vegetable oils. Castile is a marvelous cleanser,

producing a rich lather.

Cream soaps soaps containing cold cream materials, moisturizers and emollients.

Cream soaps are particularly good for dry and delicate skin

Deodorant soaps soaps to which antibacterial agents have been added to reduce

odor causing bacteria.

Floating soaps soaps having air bubbles incorporated to lower the density. This

causes the bar to float.

Hypo allergenic soaps Mild formula soaps, low in potential irritants. They usually

produce a poor lather.

Medicated soaps soaps containing medications such as tar, sulphur, or

antibacterial ingredients, used to treat acne and other skin disorders. Medicated

soaps require through rinsing and are not recommended for sensitive skin.

Milled soaps these are the most commonly used, mass produced soaps. Milling

refers to the mixing of color, perfume and soap flakes.


16/16

16

CONCLUSION :

che project revised

Documents