chemical bonding chapter 6. chemical bond a mutual electrical attraction between the nuclei and...
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Chemical Bonding
Chapter 6
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Chemistry chapter 6 2
Chemical bond• A mutual electrical attraction between
the nuclei and valence electrons of different atoms that binds them together
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Chemistry chapter 6 3
Types of bonds• Ionic
• electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming ions
• Electrical attraction of large numbers of cations and anions holds the compound together
• Covalent – electron pairs are shared between the atoms
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Chemistry chapter 6 4
Ionic Bonds• Ions get very close together and are attracted
to each other.• Example: NaCl
Na+
Cl-
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Chemistry chapter 6 5
Covalent Bonds• The atoms share electrons, and their
electron clouds overlap.• Example: carbon monoxide
CO
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Chemistry chapter 6 6
Electronegativity difference• Can be used to predict how two atoms
will react with each other.• Has no units, because it is a
comparison.• When it is high, the bond is ionic.• When it is low, the bond is covalent.
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Chemistry chapter 6 7
Ionic – covalent continuum• Real bonds are usually sort of
ionic and sort of covalent.• See figure 6-2 on page 162.• Difference of 1.7 or less is
considered covalent• 50% ionic character or less
• Difference of more than 1.7 is considered ionic• More than 50% ionic character
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Chemistry chapter 6 8
Nonpolar-covalent bond• Bonding electrons are shared equally• Balanced distribution of electrical
charge• 0 to 5% ionic character• 0 to 0.3 electronegativity difference
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Chemistry chapter 6 9
Polar• Having uneven charge distribution
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Chemistry chapter 6 10
Polar-covalent bond• The bonded atoms have unequal
attraction for the shared electrons• 5 to 50% ionic character• 0.3 to 1.7 electronegativity difference
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Chemistry chapter 6 11
Polar and nonpolar bonds
• Electron density is greater around Cl than H because it has greater electronegativity
• d+ and d- indicate partial charge• Electron cloud drawings
nonpolar polar
-d+d
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Chemistry chapter 6 12
Comparing bond types• Comparison between ionic and covalent
bonding
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Chemistry chapter 6 13
Discuss• Page 163
• Sample problem• Practice problem• Section review 1 and 2
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Chemistry chapter 6 14
Molecule• A neutral group of atoms that are held
together by covalent bonds• A single molecule is capable of existing
on its own• May consist of atoms of the same
element or different elements
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Chemistry chapter 6 15
Molecular compound• Compound whose simplest units are
molecules
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Chemistry chapter 6 16
Chemical formula• Uses atomic symbols and subscripts to
indicate the relative numbers of atoms of each kind in a chemical compound.
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Chemistry chapter 6 17
Molecular formula• Shows the types and numbers of atoms
in a single molecule of a molecular compound
• H2O
• O2
• C12H22O11
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Chemistry chapter 6 18
Diatomic molecule• Contains only two atoms
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Chemistry chapter 6 19
Bonding• Bonding makes atoms be at lower
potential energy levels, which is favored by nature.
• Attractive forces (nucleus-electron) are balanced by repulsive forces (nucleus-nucleus and electron-electron).
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Chemistry chapter 6 20
Bond length• Average distance between bonded
nuclei at their lowest potential energy
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Chemistry chapter 6 21
Bond energy• The amount of energy that must be
added to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms.
• The same amount of energy that the atoms had to release when they bonded.
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Chemistry chapter 6 22
Octet rule• Chemical compounds tend to form so
that each atom, by gaining, losing or sharing electrons, has an octet of electrons in its highest occupied energy level
• The outermost s and p sublevels want to be full
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Chemistry chapter 6 23
Exceptions to octet rule• Hydrogen only needs two electrons, not
eight• Boron tends to only be surrounded by
six electrons.• Some atoms can have more than eight
when combining with fluorine, oxygen, and chlorine. This expanded valence also includes the d orbitals.
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Chemistry chapter 6 24
Electron dot diagrams• Usually only the valence electrons are
involved in chemical reactions.• Electron dot diagrams allow us to draw
these electrons around the symbol for an element.
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Chemistry chapter 6 25
Drawing electron dot diagrams
1. The element’s symbol represents the nucleus and all the electrons in the inner energy levels.
2. Write the noble gas configuration of the element. Add the superscripts of the s and p orbitals to get the number of valence electrons.
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Chemistry chapter 6 26
3. Draw dots on the sides to represent electrons.
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Chemistry chapter 6 27
Examples• Examples
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Chemistry chapter 6 28
Molecules• Can be represented by dot diagrams• Example: HCl• Shared pairs can be replaced by long
dashes
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Chemistry chapter 6 29
Lone pair• Unshared pair of electrons• Not involved in bonding
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Chemistry chapter 6 30
Discuss• Read sample problem 6-2 on page 170
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Chemistry chapter 6 31
Lewis diagram• Formulas in which atomic symbols
represent the nuclei and inner-shell electrons• Dot diagrams with dots or dashes for
shared electrons
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Chemistry chapter 6 32
Structural diagrams• Leaves out the unshared pairs• Indicates the kind, number,
arrangement, and bonds of atoms
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Chemistry chapter 6 33
Single bond• Covalent bond produced when one pair
of electrons is shared
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Chemistry chapter 6 34
Discuss• Sample problem 6-3 on pages 171-172
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Chemistry chapter 6 35
Double bond• Covalent bond produced when two
pairs of electrons are shared• Example: CO2
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Chemistry chapter 6 36
Triple bond• Covalent bond formed when three pairs
of electrons are shared• Example: N2
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Chemistry chapter 6 37
Multiple bonds• Double or triple bonds• Have higher bond energies• Have shorter bond lengths
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Chemistry chapter 6 38
Resonance structures• Bonding in molecules or ions that
cannot be correctly represented by a Lewis structure
• A double-headed arrow is placed between the two possibilities
• Example: ozone
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Chemistry chapter 6 39
Discuss• Covalent Bonds• More Covalent Bonds• Sample problem 6-4 on page 174
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Chemistry chapter 6 40
Examples• Draw a Lewis Structure and the structural
formula for each of the following: • H2O
• CH4
• CH4O
• O2
• C2H2
• C2H4
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Chemistry chapter 6 41
Discuss• Section Review on page 175
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Chemistry chapter 6 42
Ionic compound• Composed of positive and negative ions that
are combined so that the numbers of positive and negative charges are equal
• Usually crystalline solids• Not composed of independent units like
molecules• Ionic bonding• More ionic bonding
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Chemistry chapter 6 43
Chemical formula• For ionic compounds
• Shows the simplest ratio of the ions that gives no net charge
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Chemistry chapter 6 44
Formula unit• The simplest collection of atoms from
which an ionic compound’s formula can be established.
• For sodium chloride, NaCl• The simplest way to show a one to one
ratio
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Chemistry chapter 6 45
Ratio of ions• Depends on the charges of the ions
combined.• Na+ and Cl- form NaCl• Mg2+ and F- form MgF2
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Chemistry chapter 6 46
Forming ionic compounds• Examples:• NaCl• MgF2
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Chemistry chapter 6 47
Crystal lattice• Ions minimize their potential energy by
forming an orderly arrangement
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Chemistry chapter 6 48
Lattice energy• The energy released when one mole of
an ionic crystalline compound is formed from gaseous ions.
• Used to compare bond strengths
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Chemistry chapter 6 49
Molecular vs. ionic compounds
• Forces between molecules are weaker than ionic bonding forces
• Molecular compounds have lower melting points
• Ionic compounds are hard but brittle.• Ionic compounds conduct electricity
when melted or dissolved in solution
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Chemistry chapter 6 50
Polyatomic ions• A charged group of covalently bonded
atoms.• Form ionic bonds just like other ions.• Examples
• Ammonium ion NH4+
• Sulfate ion SO42-
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Chemistry chapter 6 51
Discuss• Use electron-dot notation to
demonstrate the formation of ionic compounds involving• Li and Cl• Ca and I
• What basic unit are molecular compounds composed of? Ionic compounds?
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Chemistry chapter 6 52
Metals• High electrical conductivity.• Metals form crystals and their orbitals
overlap.• All the atoms have the same attraction
for their electrons, so the electrons can move easily from one atom to another.
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Chemistry chapter 6 53
Valence electrons• Metals have very few• Their p sublevels are empty• Transition metals also have many
vacant d sublevels
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Chemistry chapter 6 54
Metallic bonding• Delocalized electrons – don’t belong to
one specific atom• Sea of electrons formed around the
metal atoms• Metallic bonding results from the
attraction between metal atoms and the surrounding sea of electrons
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Chemistry chapter 6 55
Metallic properties• High electrical and thermal conductivity• Ability to absorb a wide range of light
frequencies• Electrons enter excited states and then
return to ground states• This makes metals look shiny
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Chemistry chapter 6 56
Metallic properties• Metals bond the same way in all
directions• Their layers can slide past each other
without breaking• Malleabiltiy - the ability to be hammered or
beaten into thin sheets• Ductility – the ability to be drawn, pulled or
extruded into a thin wire
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Chemistry chapter 6 57
Metallic bond strength• When there is a bigger nucleus and
more electrons, the bond is stronger.• Stronger bonds have higher heats of
vaporization
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Chemistry chapter 6 58
Discuss• Describe the electron-sea model of
metallic bonding.• What is the relationship between
metallic bond strength and heat of vaporization?
• Explain why most metals are malleable and ductile but ionic crystals are not.
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Chemistry chapter 6 59
Molecular polarity• Uneven distribution of molecular charge• Determined by the polarity of each bond
and the geometry of the molecule
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Chemistry chapter 6 60
Molecular geometry• There are two equally successful
theories• One accounts for molecular bond
angles• The other describes the orbitals that
contain the valence electrons
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Chemistry chapter 6 61
VSEPR theory• Valence-shell, electron-pair repulsion• The repulsion between the sets of
valence-level electrons surrounding an atom causes these sets to be oriented as far apart as possible
• To predict geometry, one must consider the location of all electron pairs around the bonded atoms.
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Chemistry chapter 6 62
Linear molecules• A is the central atom• B is an atom bonded to it• Formulas like AB2 form linear
molecules, with the B atoms on opposite sides of the A atom
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Chemistry chapter 6 63
Trigonal Planar
• AB3
• A is in the center.• The 3 Bs make a triangle around it.• The molecule is flat (planar)
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Chemistry chapter 6 64
Tetrahedral
• AB4
• A pyramid with A at the center and a B at each corner
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Chemistry chapter 6 65
When there are lone pairs• The repel the other electrons just like
shared pairs do• Use an E to represent the unshared
pairs
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Chemistry chapter 6 66
Bent or angular
• AB2E
• Like trigonal planar, but without the top of the triangle
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Chemistry chapter 6 67
Trigonal pyramidal• AB3E
• Like tetrahedral, but without the top of the pyramid
• A is at the center, the Bs are the base, and E is at the top
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Chemistry chapter 6 68
Bent or angular
• AB2E2
• Like a tetrahedral, but only the atoms (not the unshared pairs) determine the shape
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Chemistry chapter 6 69
Trigonal bipyramidal
• AB5
• Like two pyramids on top of each other
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Chemistry chapter 6 70
Octahedral
• AB6
• 8 sided shape
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Chemistry chapter 6 71
VSEPR• Double and triple bonds are treated the
same way as single bonds.• Use Lewis structures and table 6-5 on
page 186 to predict molecule shapes
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Chemistry chapter 6 72
Hybridization• Explains how orbitals get rearranged
when atoms form covalent bonds• Describes how atoms are bonded
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Chemistry chapter 6 73
Hybrid orbitals• Orbitals of equal energy produced by
the combining of two or more orbitals on the same atom
• The number of hybrid orbitals equals the number of orbitals they were made from
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Chemistry chapter 6 74
Example: Methane
• CH4
• To get 4 equal orbitals, the s and p orbitals combine.
• They form 4 sp3 orbitals
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Chemistry chapter 6 75
Other hybrid orbitals
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Chemistry chapter 6 76
Intermolecular forces• The forces of attraction between
molecules• Usually weaker than covalent, ionic,
and metallic bonds• Can be measured by boiling point
• Higher boiling point means stronger intermolecular forces
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Chemistry chapter 6 77
Dipole• Equal but opposite charges separated
by a short distance• Direction is from the positive pole to the
negative pole
ClH
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Chemistry chapter 6 78
Dipole-dipole forces• Forces of attraction between polar
molecules• Strongest intermolecular forces• Only act over short distances
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Chemistry chapter 6 79
More than two atoms• Polarity of the molecule depends on the
polarity and orientation of each bond
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Chemistry chapter 6 80
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Chemistry chapter 6 81
Induced dipoles• A polar molecule can induce a dipole in
a nonpolar molecule by attracting its electrons.
• It is temporary
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Chemistry chapter 6 82
Hydrogen bonding• A hydrogen atom in a compound with a
very electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons in a nearby molecule.
• Examples:• Water (H2O)• Hydrogen fluoride (HF)• Ammonia (NH3)
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Chemistry chapter 6 83
Hydrogen bonding• Causes higher boiling points
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Chemistry chapter 6 84
Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding
• Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding
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Chemistry chapter 6 85
London dispersion forces• The intermolecular attractions caused
by the constant motion of electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles
• Act between all atoms and molecules• The only intermolecular forces among
noble gas atoms and nonpolar molecules• Low boiling points
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Chemistry chapter 6 86
discuss• What is the difference between
intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces?
• What is a dipole? In what kind of molecule are dipoles common?
• What is hydrogen bonding?• What are London dispersion forces?• Molecular Geometry review