chemical risk assessment & occupational hygiene measures

8/10/2019 Chemical Risk Assessment & Occupational Hygiene Measures

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Chemical Risk Assessment & Occupational Hygiene Measures: A

Case Study

in

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises

by

Saeed A Awan

Director, Centre for the Improvement of Working

Conditions and Environment, Directorate of Labour

Welfare, Punjab


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Chemical Risk Assessment & Occupational HygieneMeasures: A Case Study

in

Small and Medium Sized Enterprises

Author: Saeed Ahmed Awan,

MSc Occupational Health (UK) MSc. Chemistry

Tamgha-e-Imtiaz, Laureate of Tech Award of Innovation

Director Centre for the Improvement of Working Conditions & Environment

(CIWCE), Lahore Pakistan

Saeed Ahmed Awan


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C O N T E N T S

A Tribute to the Mother Nature I

Foreword ii

Chapter 1:Consumption of Chemicals in Pakistan 1

Chapter 2:Methodology 10

Chapter 3:A Profile of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises 12

Chapter 4:Industry-wise Profile of Chemical Hazards 22

Chapter 5:Safety, Health and Environmental hazards and Control Measures

Adopted by the Small and Medium-sized Enterprises

43

Chapter 6

Combating Chemical Hazards in IndustryNeed for Adopting a Practical Strategy

50

Appendix A:List of Chemicals Requiring Priority Action 53

Appendix B:List of Chemical Mixtures Requiring Priority Action 54

Appendix C:Questionnaires Used During the Survey 55


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A Tribute to the Mother Nature

How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not

own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them? Every part of the earth

is sacred to my people. Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods,

every clearing and humming insect is holy in the memory and experience of my people.

We are part of the earth and it is part of us. The perfumed flowers are our sisters; the horse, the

great eagle, these are our brothers. The rocky crests, the juices in the meadows, the body heat of the ponyand man all belong to the same family.

So when the Great Chief in Washington sends word that he wishes to buy our land, he asks much

of us. The rivers are our brothers, they quench our thirst. The river carry our canoes, and feed our

children. If we sell our land, you must remember and teach your children that the rivers are our brothers,

and yours and you must henceforth give the kindness you would give your brother. We know that white

man does not understand our ways; he kidnaps the earth from his children. His fathers grave and his

childrens birth-right are forgotten. He treats his mother, the earth, and his brother, the sky, as things to

be bought, plundered, sold like sheep or bright beads. His appetite will devour the earth and leave behind

only a desert.

There is no quite place in the white mans cities. No place to hear the unfurling of leaves in

spring or rustle of an insects wings. But perhaps it is because I am a savage and do not understand. Theclatter only seems insult to the ears. And what is there in life if a man cannot hear the lonely cry of

whippoor- will or the arguments of frogs around a pond at night? I am a red man and do not understand.

The Indian prefers the soft sound of the wind carting over the face of pond and the smell of the wind

itself, cleansed by a midday rain, or scented with the pinon pine.

The air is precious to the red man for all things share the same breaththe beast, the tree, the

man, they share the same breath.

What is man without the beasts? If all the beasts were gone, man would die from a great

loneliness of spirit. For whatever happens to the beasts son happens a man. All things are connected.

This we know: The earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the earth. This we know: All

things are connected like the blood which unites one family. All things are connected.

Whatever befalls the earth befalls the sons of the earth. Man did not weave the web of life; he ismerely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.

___This is an excerpt from the reply of the Chief Seattle to the American president, who in 1854 had offered to buy the land

of Indians. The reply is profound and gripping and is as relevant today as it was 143 years

ago.


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FOREWORD

The accidents and diseases caused by the usage of chemicals remain one of the mostappalling tragedies of modern industrial era. Workers are one of the most productive and

economically useful segment of a society. If our workers would remain sick or suffer

from accidents during their work, it would result not only in suffering of the families and

individuals, but the national economy and the economic growth rate would be affected.

The Directorate of Labour Welfare Punjab has been entrusted with the welfare of the

workers in the Punjab province. Through its field inspection staff, the Directorate

enforces the legislation related to the protection of the rights of workers. The protection

of safety and health of the industrial workers (under Chapter-III of the Factories Act) also

falls within the jurisdiction of the Directorate.

Some recent tragedies involving chemicals resulted in terrible losses of lives. In one

incident involving the release of chlorine gas during transportation, more than 20 human

lives were lost in Baja Line area of Lahore. Earlier half a dozen workers were killed in a

fire in a bandage making factory in Lahore.

These tragedies point to the gravity of the situation of chemical safety in the country.

There was an urgent need to assess the true dimensions of the hazards posed by the usage

of chemicals in the workplaces to the health and safety of the workers and the

environment and ecology of the surrounding areas. The situation in the small-sized

enterprises needed special attention as the little protection afforded by the legislation tothe workers in the medium and large scale enterprises is generally not available to the

workers in such enterprises.

This prompted the Centre for the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment,

Lahore to undertake the present study. This centre is research, training advisory and

information wing of the Directorate and it has done commendable work in the past to

highlight the safety, health and environmental problems prevalent in the local industry.

The study, though undertaken in the Punjab province is as relevant to the other provinces

as similar patterns of work are followed everywhere. I congratulate the staff of the Centre

for undertaking this venture and hope that the findings of the present study will help lay

the foundations for some tangible improvement in the situation of chemical safety in thecountry.

Mohammad Ejaz Chaudhry

Director Labour Welfare

Punjab


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Chapter 1

Consumption of Chemicals inPakistan

A Gl impse in to the Economic and Geographic Dimensions of the

Usage of Chemicals in the Workplaces

The world around us is full of and is made up of chemicals and chemicals provide the

basis for virtually every activity that nurtures our civilisation. Whether it is space

technology or practice of medicine, agriculture or industry, weaponry or toiletry,

chemicals are used everywhere. The quality of life in the modern day world has improved

remarkably as a result of the usage of chemicals. Their use in the form of pesticides and

fertilisers has resulted in green revolution, and massive famines have been averted. Their

use in the chemotherapy brings hope in the fight against cancer and as drugs they bring

relief and good health to millions of sick humans. However, chemicals, if used

unscrupulously can pose major threats to the human health and quality of life on this

planet. In fact, the use of chemicals casts shadows of death and disease upon thousands of

people world wide every year.

The production of chemicals has increased 400-fold since the year 1939 and currentlyaround 400 million tonnes of chemicals are produced annually in the world. Around 10

million chemical substances have been discovered so far. Of these some 70,000 are

produced regularly for use in the industry, agriculture, households and other areas. Of

these, only a few thousand are produced in bulk quantities for use in the industry. Of the

chemicals available for marketing, 5-10% are considered hazardous including 200-300

known as carcinogens.

Use of Chemicals in Pakistan

Of the total world wide consumption of chemicals, around 80% takes place in thedeveloped world. The remaining 20% are consumed by the developing countries.

However, recently the consumption in the developing countries has been on the increase

and the trend is likely to continue in the coming years. In terms of risks posed to the

safety and health of workers and consumers and damage to the ecology, the developing

countries are faced with more severe and complex problems due to general lack of

awareness about the potential hazards of chemicals and lack of adequate protective

measures.


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Pakistan, like most of the developing countries needs a considerable amount of chemicals

for its agricultural, industrial and other needs. The economy of Pakistan is based upon

agriculture, therefore a sizeable amount of agrochemicals are required every year.

Similarly a number of industries, especially the textile and small scale engineering

industry consumes chemicals in large quantities.

About the Workforce

To estimate the numbers of workers potentially exposed to chemicals in the workplaces,

well have to look into the employment and occupational patterns of the workforce in the

country. According to the latest estimates, out of the total population of 135.28 million,

approximately 90.04 million were of the working age. The total labour force of the

country was estimated at 37.15 million people. Of these, 35.15 million were employed.

The labour force participation ratio of the country comes out to be 27.46%. The labour

force and employment data of the country for the last 5 years is given in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 Labour Force and Employment 1992-971

Year

1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97

Population 120.83 124.45 128.01 131.63 135.28

Working Age

Population

79.49 82.59 85.20 87.61 90.04

Labour Force 33.67 34.69 35.15 36.14 37.15

Employed Labour

Force

32.08 33.01 33.26 34.20 35.15

Labour Force

Participation Rate (%)

27.86 27.88 27.46 27.46 27.46

Pakistan has an agro-based economy, with agriculture constituting 24.2% of the total

GDP and employing 16.45 million workers, who form 46.8% of the total employedlabour force. The data for the sectoral share in the GDP and employment is given in

Tables 1.2 and 1.3. As can be seen from Table 1.2, mining and manufacturing sectors

employ only 3.69 million people. However, Pakistan has a large small scale sector, which

1Source: (Federal Bureau of Statistics, Labour Force Surveys)


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is largely undocumented and only rudimentary statistics for the employment and its

contribution in the economy are available.

Table 1.2 Employment of the Labour Force bySectors of Economy

2

(Millions)

Sector 1994-96 1996-97 (Estimated)

Agriculture 15.56 16.45

Mining & Manufacturing 3.49 3.69

Construction 2.40 2.53

Trade 4.82 5.10

Transport 1.69 1.78

Community & Social Services 4.75 5.02

Others 0.55 0.58

Total 33.26 35.15

Table 1.3 Sectoral Share in GDP 1996-973

Agriculture 24.2%

Manufacturing 17.9%

Mining & Quarrying 0.5%Construction 3.9%

The objective of the present study was mainly to assess the risks posed due to the

exposure to chemicals in the industrial enterprises. However, the story would remain

incomplete, if the chemical risks in the agriculture sector are not mentioned. As given in

Table 1.4, about 40000 tonnes of pesticides are consumed in the country every year. Most

of these pesticides are used on cash crops like cotton, a considerable proportion is used to

on rice, vegetables and fruit crops. Pesticides pose a major threat to the health and safety

of the agriculture workers as well as the ecology of the country (the risks are exacerbated

by the use of spurious and cheap formulations which are also sold in large quantities byunscrupulous dealers). Every year hundreds of cases of poisoning by pesticides are

reported in the press. Due to remote location of the victims and lack of communication

facilities, hundreds more go unreported. There is an urgent need to evaluate the risks

2Source: Labour Force Survey, 1994-95

3Source: Economic Survey 1996-97


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posed by the usage of pesticides. The present study does look into the health and safety

problems faced by the workers engaged in the formulation/packaging of pesticides.

Table 1.4 Import & Local Production/Formulation of Pesticides, 1994-96 (Tonnes)

4

Year Import Local Production/

Formulation

Total

1994-95 23442 17447 40889

1995-96 19946 19757 39703

A Profile of Manufacturing Industry in Pakistan

As described earlier, only 10.5% of the employed labour force of the country works in the

manufacturing sector. However this figure may be misleading as a large proportion of the

labour force is migratory in nature, working in the factories and construction sites for

some time and then returning back to homes in the harvest and sowing seasons. Also the

role of small scale sector is largely unrecognized. However the Economic Survey (1996-

97) acknowledges the role of small scale industrial sector in these words,The small scaleindustrial sector plays pivotal role in industrial development because it employs less fixed

capital investment, generates more employment opportunities, uses indigenous technology

and raw materials, and helps reduce urban migration. Its share in GDP is 4.7% and

employs about 80 percent of the industrial labour force. Its share in manufacturing sector

export is 30 percent, whereas contribution to industrial value addition is 27 percent.

The employment data in major large/medium scale industrial enterprises is given in Table

1.5. As would be clear from these tables, bulk of the industrial workforce is employed in

textile sector, the other major industries in terms of employment are food, leather and

products, ginning of cotton, drugs and pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, industrial

chemicals, non-electrical and electrical machinery manufacture, transport equipment

manufacture and manufacture of fabricated metal products.

Contrary to the industrialised countries, the small-scale sector in Pakistan is not capital

intensive and technologically modernised. Except for a few sectors like (manufacture of

garments, sports goods, hand-made carpets, surgical goods, leather products etc.) thesmall-scale sector usually caters to the demands of the local consumption in the areas

where such enterprises are located. The consumption of chemicals among the small scale

enterprises is also very unevenly distributed. While the small scale enterprises based in

the rural areas are concerned mainly with the fabrication or manufacture of labour

intensive goods like garments, rugs, handicrafts etc. with very little exposure of the

4Source: Economic Survey 1996-97


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workers to chemicals, the urban based enterprises are usually more technical and skill-

oriented, and use machines, tools, electric devices and chemicals in their processes.

Industrial Consumption of Chemicals in Pakistan

The consumption of chemicals in Pakistan has been on the rise for the last few years,

which is evident from a look at Fig 1.1, which gives 5-year import bill of chemicals and

allied products, including dyes & colours, pharmaceuticals and chemical fertilisers. The

volume of chemical imports (in terms of the cost incurred on imports) has shown a steep

upward curve for the last 3 years, and is expected to rise even further in the coming years

as demand for consumer goods and industrial products is expected to rise to meet the

requirements of burgeoning population and increasing standards of living. Table 1.7

provides the 5-year data for all imports in the country, including the chemicals and allied

products.

Fig 1.1

Imprort Trends for Chemicals & Allied Products(1991-96)

1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-960

10

20

30

40

50

Chemicals

Dyes &

Colours

Rs. Billion

ChemicalFertilizers

Pharma-

ceutical

products.


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While assessing the health, safety and environmental risks posed by chemicals, we

shouldnt concentrate only on the volume consumed by particular industries, but on how

the chemicals are used and how many people are involved, will have to be kept in mind.

While large fertilizer and chemical plants may consume huge amounts of chemicals, the

actual numbers of workers exposed may not be very high owing to the closed processes,safety precautions in-built within the processes and the level of training information of

the workers in such plants. On the other hand the workers in small scale enterprises are

usually exposed to a plethora of health and safety hazards. The safety and health facilities,

the skill/training and information level of the workers in such enterprises are not

adequate, also the workforce in such enterprises tends to be mobile.

As mentioned earlier, small scale sector is the backbone of the economy. In the last few

years, while the large/medium scale sector has been stagnating and has shown negative

growth rate, the small-scale manufacturing sector has been thriving , which is evident

from the comparison of GDP/GNP real growth rates of different sectors of economy.


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Table 1.5 Average Daily Employment in

Major Industries (1984-91)5

Average daily Employment (000 Nos.)

Industry 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1990-91

Food 64 66 69 67 84

Beverages 5 6 5 6 5

Tobacco 10 10 9 9 6

Textiles 175 177 168 171 238

Wearing Apparels 7 9 12 12 20

Leather & Products 6 7 11 12 15

Ginning, Pressing & Bailing of

Cotton

14 11 10 10 10

Wood & products 2 3 3 3

Furniture & Fixture 2 1 2 2 2Paper & Products 8 8 7 9 8

Printing & Publishing 8 9 11 12 8

Drugs & Pharmaceutical

Products

15 15 14 15 18

Industrial Chemicals 17 19 17 16 18

Other Chemical Products 8 10 13 11 9

Petroleum Refining 3 3 3 2 2

Petroleum & Coal products 1 1 1 1 2

Rubber Products 10 11 7 8 8

Plastic products 4 4 5 4 5

Non Metallic Mineral Products 23 25 27 28 28Iron & Steel Basic Industries 40 43 42 39 44

Fabricated Metal Products 9 9 9 9 12

Non-Electrical Machinery 18 19 19 19 25

Electrical Machinery 18 17 19 20 19

Transport Equipment 19 17 21 23 19

Measuring, Photographic &

Optical Goods

3 3 3 3 4

Sports & Athletic Goods 1 1 2 1 8

Others 2 3 2 3 2

Total 493 507 532 515 622

5 Source Economic Survey 1996-97


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Table 1.6 GDP/GNP Real Growth Rates of Different Sectors of

Economy

Sector 1995-96 1996-97

Agriculture 5.27 0.70

Mining & Quarrying 7.07 2.05

Large Scale Manufacturing 2.57 -1.43

Small Scale Manufacturing 8.40 8.40

Total Manufacturing 4.40 1.78

Construction 3.25 2.42

Table 1.7 Values of Major Imports (1991-96)

6

(Value Rs. Million)

Item 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96

Chemicals 21997 23144 25946 32700 45897

Drugs &

Medicines

5184 5980 6992 8147 11007

Dyes & Colours 2945 3219 4109 4174 4982

Chemical

Fertilizers

6367 6438 8018 3954 11767

Total 229889 258643 258250 320892 397575

Geographical Distribution of the Industry

Due to one or the other reason, certain geographical areas become famous for some kinds

of industries. The reason for clustering of industries may be manifold, including

proximity of ports, markets, roadways, availability of raw materials, skilled manpower,

utilities and facilities to dispose of waste etc. Each industry has its own peculiar

processes, work practices, traditions and poses unique problems of occupational safety,

health and environment. The chemicals and technological requirements also vary from

industry to industry. The knowledge of the geographical distribution of differentindustries would be helpful in appreciating the particular ecological, safety and health

problems encountered in certain areas and may also help in seeking collective solution to

these problems.

6Source : Economic Survey, 1996-97


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Although it is not possible to associate a particular geographical region with a particular

industry, an attempt has been made in Table 1.8 (based upon the experience of the author)

to present a picture of the size and distribution of those industries, which consume

chemicals during their processes and activities and are likely to be clustered in particular

geographical regions. The other industries may have no particular affinity for some

typical regions and are likely to be scattered all over the country.

Table 1.8 Geographical Distribution of Chemical-Consuming Industries

Type of Industry Typical Size Geographical Area,

where Concentrated

Textile (Spinning, Weaving, Dyeing &

Processing

Medium/Large Faisalabad, Karachi

(also scattered around

major urban centres

Soap/Detergent Manufacture Small/Medium Faisalabad, KarachiPharmaceutical Manufacture Medium Karachi, Lahore & other

urban centres

Printing Presses Small Lahore, Karachi & other

urban centres

Auto Repair Workshops Small Along the major and

urban centres

Leather Tanning Small/Medium Kasur, Sialkot, Karachi

Pesticide Formulation/Packing Small/Medium Multan, Karachi

Wool Dyeing (for hand-made carpets) Small Lahore

Washing/Finishing of hand-made Carpets Small Lahore

Surgical Instruments Manufacture Medium Sialkot

Electric Household Items manufacture Small/medium Gujranwala, Gujrat

Fibreglass items Manufacture Small/medium Lahore, Gujranwala,

Karachi


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Chapter 2

Methodology

As small and medium sized industrial enterprises are scattered all over the country, it was

not possible within the limited time frame to cover each type of industry. However

attempt was made to cover as many types of industries as possible, which are known for

their use or exposure of the workers to chemicals. In this regard, the experience of

working with Centre for the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment,

Lahore proved very useful, as this institution has to provide inspection, training,

information, research and advisory services to the industry in combating with their day to

day safety and health problems.

A questionnaire was designed containing multiple-choice as well as open-ended questions

about the enterprise. Following areas were covered in the questions: (The questionnaire

used is attached as Appendix C).

Basic information about the enterprise (including, name, address, size and process

detail

Age/gender distribution of the workers

Pattern of work (working hours, shifts, rest breaks, free days etc.)

Eating/washing facilities available to the workers

Information about the chemicals (including names, quantities used, labelling, methods

of use for each chemical substance and waste disposal facilities.) Occupational hygiene controls adopted by the enterprise.

Numbers of workers expose to different chemicals (through inhalation, skin, ingestion

routes).

Specific diseases mentioned by the workers or from the dispensary record, if

available.

Magnitude of fire, explosion and spill hazards.

Emergency and other control measures available at the enterprise.

Classification of the Enterprises

The definition of factory provided under the Factories Act, 1934 was followed to

categorise the workplaces into small or medium-sized enterprises. This Act, which

regulates the work in the industrial enterprises including health & safety, working hours,

child labour, etc., defines a factory as any premises, including precincts thereof, whereonten or more workers are working, or were working on any day of the preceding twelve


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months, and in any part of which a manufacturing processes is being carried on [or is

ordinarily carried on with or without the aid of power].

Those enterprises having 9 or less number of workers were categorised as small-sized,

while those with a workforce of 10-300 were included in the medium-sized category. The

cut-off number of 300 was fixed arbitrarily, as most of the enterprises listed in thedirectories of factories in all the four provinces of the country fell in this category. It may

be noted that only workers related to production/manufacturing were included for

determining the size of the enterprise. Those engaged in managerial, administrative and

research/development activities were not included in the workforce.

The types of enterprises to be covered under the survey were selected after consulting the

directory of registered factories. Most types of small scale enterprises are not listed

anywhere, to select such enterprises the knowledge of the pattern of local industry was

used.

One hygienist and two technicians from the CIWC&E were trained for using thequestionnaires by making preliminary visits to three enterprises (one medium and two

small-sized). Each enterprise was visited by this team, who met the manager/owner of the

enterprise and filled in the answers to relevant questions. A walk-through survey of each

enterprise was carried out, during which the hazards and their magnitude were assessed.

The workers and supervisors were also approached for information about any specific

problems, hazards, occupational diseases or accidents, which might have happened in the

enterprise. The chemical handling, storage and disposal practices were observed and

where permitted, photographs were also taken. To assess the problems posed to the

surrounding communities/localities, people in the neighbourhoods were also contacted.

Depending upon the size of the industry or the complexity of hazards, 1-3 enterprises

from each category of industry were covered in the survey. In case an industry exists bothas medium and small scale enterprises, 1-3 enterprises from each category were covered.

Not only the structured questionnaires used to collect the information, but the team

members took extensive notes about the specific circumstances and problems of each

enterprise, through informal discussions held with the employers, workers, supervisors or

members of surrounding communities. The findings of the study in the subsequent

chapters are based not only on the data collected through questionnaires, but the

information collected through personal discussions has also been extensively used to

describe all the dimensions of the story. Descriptions of the specific accidents/disasters

and chemical safety and ecological problems posed by some particularly hazardous

industries have been included in an effort to present the problems of chemical safety in

their true perspective.


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Chapter 3

A Profile of the Small and Medium

Sized Enterprises

A total of 60 enterprises were included in the study. Of these 31 were of the small-sized

category, while the remaining 29 were medium-sized enterprises. As mentioned in the

previous chapters, due to constraint of time not all types of the industry in the country

could be included in the study. Therefore the focus was narrowed down to those

enterprises, which are known for their use of chemicals during their processes. Even

within an industry, only those types of enterprises were covered, which consume

chemicals in large amounts. For example, textile industry consists of ginning mills,spinning factories, weaving looms and dyeing/processing and printing factories. Of these,

the dyeing & processing factories consume bulk of the chemicals and were covered in the

study.

Pattern of Workforce in the Enterprises

A total of 2935 workers were employed in the 60 enterprises. Of these 152 were working

in the 31 small-sized enterprises, while the remaining 2783 were employed by the 29

medium-sized enterprises.

The distribution of the workforce in the small and medium-sized enterprises covered in

the study is given in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 respectively. It may be noted that the workers

working in the small-sized enterprises may not strictly be defined as wage workers, but

most often they are self-employed workers, who are members of a family or an extended

family, running an enterprise for the whole family. An elder brother or the father, who is

usually more skilled, receives the payments for the services rendered or work performed

by such enterprises.

As presented in Fig 3.1, most small-sized enterprises had 6-9 workers. There was no set

workforce pattern in the medium-sized enterprises, with 9 enterprises out of the 29 having

workers in the range of 21-50 and 7 in the range of 101-200.


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Distribution of Enterprises by the Numberof Workers

Fig 3.1

9

7

15

6

9

2

7

5

1-2

3-5

6-9

10-20

21-50

51-100

101-200

201-300

No. of Enterprises

No. of Workers

As mentioned earlier, small-sized sector in Pakistan is not capital intensive and

technological modernised as in the developed countries. Most such enterprises are 1-2

man affairs, providing services like dyeing of clothes, welding, auto repair and dry

cleaning to the households in their vicinity. Since they are located at a convenientdistance, they are easily approachable for the people to get these services virtually at their

door steps.

Gender Profile of the Workforce

Apart from the packaging section of a surgical instruments and a pharmaceutical

formulation plant, women were not found to be working in the surveyed enterprises. It

does not mean that females dont have participation in the labour force of the country.

They constitute a considerable proportion of the workforce in certain sectors of economy

especially agriculture and household based enterprises, particularly those concerned withhandicraft manufacture, stitching, carpet-weaving etc. However the professions, in which

women are engaged are not known for exposure to chemicals. Even in agriculture, where

pesticides are used, women are usually involved during the harvesting, cotton picking or

sowing seasons, when exposure to pesticides is at the minimum.


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Table 3.1 Processes and Workforce Pattern in the Small-sized

Enterprises

Establishment TypeNo. of Enterprises

CoveredNo. of workers ineach Enterprise

Auto Repair ((Electrical &

Mechanical Repair)

2 2,6

Auto Repair (Body Repair &

Painting)

3 2,6,7

Battery Repair 1 3

Carpet washing (hand-made

carpets)

1 7

Dental Workshop 1 8

Laundries 3 2,6,9

Dyeing Shop (head-dresses &

clothes for women)

1 1

Furniture making 3 2,6,9

Paint manufacture 1 8

Painting of Publicity Boards 1 2

Plate making for Printing Press 1 3

Printing Press 3 5,6,6

Rubber Adhesive Solution

Manufacture

1 2

Screen Printing 1 5Shoe Making 2 5,8

Plastic Scrap remoulding 1 3

Tannery 2 7,8

Welding (Oxyacetylene) 1 1

Wool Dyeing (for rugs) 1 5


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Table 3.2 Processes and Workforce pattern in the Medium-sized

Enterprises

Establishment Type

No. of Enterprises

Covered

No. of workers in

each Enterprise

Auto Repair (Electrical,

Mechanical, Body Repair)

1 22

Carpets (Machine-made) making 1 283

Chipboard/Plywood Manufacture 2 165,290

Chloralkali Plant 1 175

Dyeing/Processing of Cloth 2 105,150

Fibreglass Items Manufacture 1 30

Formaldehyde & Glue

Manufacture

1 50

Match Manufacture 1 26

Paint Manufacture 1 285

Pesticide Filling & Packing 3 12,18,20

Pharmaceuticals Formulation &

Packing

1 122

Polyester Fibre Manufacture 1 225

Polypropylene Bags Manufacture 1 57

Polyurethane Foam Manufacture 1 135

Shoes (sports, leisure)Manufacture 1 50

Soap (Washing) Manufacture 2 20,25

Stearic Acid, Soaps & Glycerine

Manufacture

1 120

Sodium Silicate manufacture 1 30

Steel Rerolling 1 66

Surgical Instruments Manufacture 1 210

Tannery 3 12,13,30

Age Distribution of the Workers

An overwhelming majority of the workers in both the small-sized and medium-sized

enterprises were young and fell in the age group of 19-35 years (55.9% in the small sized

and 55.6% in the medium sized enterprises). The incidence of child labour in the

surveyed enterprises was almost negligible 1.4% of the total workforce were children

below the age of 14. Small-sized enterprises had 5.9% and medium-sized enterprises had

1.2% child workers. Out of the 31 small-sized enterprises, children worked in 5


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enterprises, while only one medium-sized enterprise out of the 29 had some child

workers. The reason for

Age Distribution of the Workers

Fig 3.2

15-18 yrs.


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above the age of 55 was found working in the small-sized enterprises, also the proportion

of 36-55 year old workers in the workforce of the small-sized enterprises was worked out

to be 16%, while in the medium-sized enterprises this age group comprised 24% of the

workforce. The reason for relative youth of the workforce in the small-scale sector may

be the mobility of the workforce, which was reported high by the employers. Workers in

the young age join such enterprises, learn the ins and outs of the business and either opentheir own shop or join a medium/large-sized concern, where working conditions and

emoluments are generally better. Workers from the medium-sized enterprises rarely move

away.

Work Routines

All of the small-sized enterprises surveyed during the study worked in single shift, during

the day. Out of the 29 medium-sized enterprises, 11 performed work in shifts, the

remaining 18 had no shift-work. Again some of the enterprises (notably the cloth

dyeing/processing mills) had two shifts of 12-hour each. All the enterprises at least onehour lunch break. Some of the enterprises, observed staggered beaks, every 3-4 hours, so

the process may not suffer due to the absence of workers.

Working Hours Observed by the SurveyedEnterprises

Fig 3.3

8-Hr.

9-Hr.

10-Hr.

11-Hr.

12-Hr.

8-Hr.9-Hr.

10-Hr.

11-Hr.

12-Hr.

As presented in Fig 3.3, almost one third of both types of enterprise observed an 8-hour

workday. Also another third observed 10-hour workday. A large number of medium-sized

enterprises (24%) observed 12-hour workday. Most small-sized enterprises work like


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other shops and stores. They open late in the morning (around 10 a.m.), have a long break

in the noon and remain open till late in the evening. They follow the pattern of time

observed by most markets. There might be exceptions, especially in the auto-repair

sector. Those workshops, which are located on busy inter-city roadways, remain open late

into the night (in some cases whole nights) to provide service to the customers who may

drop in for repair to their vehicles developing problems during the journey.

General Housekeeping

According to the observations made during the walk-through surveys of the enterprises,

there were surprisingly marked differences between the small and medium-sized

enterprises in general organisation of the work. The work area, stores and the work

routines in the small enterprises can be described on the whole to be haphazard, relaxed

and rather disorganised. Empty and semi-filled chemical containers, machine tools, waste

generated by the process and trash/litter in general was scattered in such enterprises.

While the general housekeeping and storage of materials in 80% of the small-sizedenterprises covered in the present survey could be described as dirty, only 31% of the

premises in the medium-sized enterprises could be categorised as dirty. This general lack

of proper housekeeping in the small-sized enterprises can be attributed to a number of

factors including; lack of adequate work space, lower skill/literacy level of workers,

higher workloads etc.

About the Eating Facilities

There are three main routes for the entry of chemicals into the body. They either enterthrough inhalation or through skin or in some cases through ingestion. The chemicals are

rarely eaten as such. However they can enter the body through the mouth, if due care is

not exercised during eating, drinking or smoking.

It was observed during the survey, that a large number of workers were exposed to

chemicals unnecessarily due to wrong practices of eating. In a large number of small and

a significant number of medium-sized enterprises, the meals were brought by the workers

from home and eaten at the premises, sometimes while the work was still going on. In

many cases workers were seen sitting on the floor, opening their meal boxes (or cloth rags

in which meals had been wrapped) and eating with unwashed hands. In many such cases

chemicals with potential long term health implications were not properly washed beforeeating. Smoking and drinking tea during the work is customary among workers especially

in the small-sized enterprises. As shown in Table 3.3, one third of the medium sized

enterprises had their own canteen, while none of the small-sized enterprises had a canteen

(which is quite reasonable considering the small number of workers in such enterprises).

Also workers in 34% of the medium-sized and 84% of the small-sized enterprises brought

their meals from home or from a nearby restaurant and ate it at the work floor. Such

practice especially in the tanneries, auto workshops, furniture shops etc. exacerbates the


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hazards to the health of the workers. This aspect needs some attention if a meaningful

improvement in the workers exposure to the chemicals has to be brought about. A water

tap with soap and clean towel and a table with some chairs in a separate room from the

premises will help a long way in reducing the exposures of the workers in the small-sized

enterprises.

Table 3.3 Where do the Workers Eat?

Small-sized

Enterprises

Medium-sized

Enterprises

At the canteen of the enterprise 0% 34%

At a nearby restaurant 16% 32%

Bring meal from home/restaurant and eat at

the premises

84% 34%

Washing and Sanitation Facilities

While all the medium-sized enterprises covered in the study, had their own washing and

toilet facilities a large number of small-sized enterprises (68%) had no washing/toilet

facility. Workers in these enterprises either went to a nearby public toilet or a water tap

for their washing/toilet needs. The basic sanitation facilities are not much different in the

industry than in the community in general. In fact such facilities are better in the medium

sized enterprises than those available to the general public and in most households. The

lack of adequate washing/toilet facilities combined with the inadequate eating facilitiesresults in accentuation of the chemical and in many cases biological hazards to which the

workers are already exposed.

Impact of the Enterprises on the Environment

Except for two chemical manufacturing plants (both belonged to multinationals) none of

the enterprises had an arrangement for treating the solid, liquid waste and the gases,

fumes before releasing to the environment. However some industries made economic use

of their waste. The soap factories did not waste even the sludge of soap from the soapbaths. These baths were washed and the soapy solution was bought by the surrounding

households for their washing requirements. Similarly most woodworking and furniture

making enterprises used the waste wood shavings and powder as fuel. Wood powder is

also used in the villages to preserve the ice. Even tanneries, which were discharging

hazardous waste into the environment untreated, sold the meat debris (removed from the

skins during dehairing process) to the glue making enterprises, leather shavings were sold


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to the cardboard making factories. A detailed description of the types of wastes generated

by different types of enterprises and how they are disposed of is given in the next chapter.

Chapter 4

Industry-wise Profile of

Chemical Hazards

Now we look one by one into the chemical usage, handling, storage, disposal,

occupational hygiene controls, specific health problems of the workers for each of the

industrial process covered during the study. The information presented in the subsequent

paragraphs is based on the data collected during the visits to these enterprises and the

observations made during the walk-through surveys. Where required, auxiliary

information from other sources, such as press, neighbouring community members has

been used. Wherever known, the exact quantities of chemicals used by the enterprises,

have been given, otherwise the types of chemicals used by the enterprises are given. The

lists of chemicals may not be exhaustive, as some of the chemicals might have been

overlooked by the employers/managers while giving details.

Auto Repair Workshops (Body Work)

Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed

Paint (Nitrocellulose based) 1-7 litre/week

Putty 2-3 Kg/week

Thinner 0.5-4 litre/week

Polish (Lacquer) 0.5-1 Kg/week

Filler (Redoxide primer) 0.5-1 Kg/week

Calcium carbide 2-5 Kg/week

Rubbing compound 0.5-1 Kg/week

Commercial enamel 0.5-3 litre/week

Glasso small amount

Caustic soda 0.5-2 kg/week

A large number of such workshops (mostly small-sized) exist in all the urban areas, with

high concentration in major urban centres like Lahore, Karachi, Faisalabad etc. The work

in such workshops is manual, with very little use of machinery. The damaged bodies of


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the automobiles are repaired in these workshops. The dents from the damaged parts are

removed first, manually. The surface is smoothed by sand papering, thinners are also used

by rags to remove paints if required, putty is filled in the damaged area by means of putty

knives, the area is again smoothed by rubbing, the surface is spray painted, another coat

of lacquer is applied to harden the paint. Oxyacetylene flame is used for welding the

damaged parts, if required. Calcium carbide is placed in acetylene generator in whichwater is poured to generate acetylene.

The whole process is labour intensive and manual in nature. All the chemicals are mixed

and used manually. Most such workshops are in the open, therefore natural ventilation

reduces the intensity of exposures. However the work practices are not hygienic. No

personal protection or exhaust ventilation was seen being used in the workshops visited

during the study. The solvent vapours from the paint spray guns could be smelled all

around the workshops. The dresses of the workers were splattered with all kinds of

solvents and chemicals used during the process. Workers wear proper working dress in

some modern workshops, but in most of the workshops, the working dress consists of

dirty clothes which are worn until the rags fall away in tatters. The washing facilities insuch workshops were found to be inadequate. The workers in most workshops ate their

meals on the shop floor, in many cases without even washing their hands. This practice

exacerbates the hazards already posed due to exposure through inhalation and skin.

The solid waste from the process was swept aside daily or after every few days and

sometimes dumped into a drum at the premises, which was emptied by a sweeper

occasionally and in turn dumped in the municipal waste collection sites. When asked

about any particular health problems faced by them, most workers did not feel they were

affected by the process, however a few complained of headaches from use of solvents,

others told of skin irritation from the use of chemicals. One of the workshops had an

explosion in the acetylene cylinder three months ago, which occurred due to leak ofacetylene from the acetylene gas generator. No one was injured in the explosion.

Auto Workshops (Electrical & Mechanical Repairs)


Kerosene 0.5-10 litre/week

Diesel 1-10 litre/week

Gasoline 1-5 litre/week

Such workshops can be found all over the country. They provide repair services to the

auto users in their local area. Most such workshops specialise in the repair of some

particular type of automobile. A large number of motor cycle workshops exist in every

urban and rural centre as motor cycles are the most popular mode of travel and daily

commute for small distances in the country. Similarly other workshops specialising in

particular brands of cars, trucks, buses and tractors are scattered in all regions of the

country. Most of these workshops have a head mechanic alongwith a few apprentices,


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who repair/replace the mechanical parts of the engines. Still others specialise in the

electrical repairs. Whatever the specialisation, three chemicals are used in almost every

workshop i.e., gasoline, kerosene, and diesel. These fuel oils are used as solvents to

remove grease and oils from the surface of auto parts. The parts are normally dipped in an

open container containing the solvent and washed with the help of rags with bare hands.

Kerosene and sometimes diesel are used for preliminary washing. The final washing isgiven by gasoline. These workshops normally remove the fuel from the tanks of the

vehicles brought in for repair. Kerosene is brought in bottles from nearby grocery stores.

Auto electricians also require small amounts of kerosene or gasoline to clean the ends of

cables during electrical repairs. Most of such workshops work in the open, therefore the

intensity of exposures is reduced due to the natural ventilation. However the work

practices are such that the workers are exposed to the hydrocarbons and tetraethyl lead

and benzene (in case of gasoline) through skin and inhalation. The solvent soaked

clothing increases the intensity of exposure, which are further complicated due to lack of

adequate washing and eating facilities. Most often the workers bring their meals from

home wrapped in a cloth sheet, which is opened at lunch time and eaten in a corner of the

workshop. Smoking and tea-drinking continues, long with work the whole day. Howevernone of the workers complained of any specific health problem during the survey.

However a close inspection of the hands revealed evidence of skin damage which the

workers considered only minor problem.

The used rags were usually burnt by these workshops, the remaining were thrown in a

heap in a corner, which was lifted by a sweeper occasionally and thrown in the municipal

dump. The fuel oils dirtied by use were not wasted, rather most workshops sold them to

some hawkers who sold these to the households to be used as fuel in the stoves etc.

Battery Repair Workshop


Sulphuric acid 50 litre/week

Such workshops are usually small-sized specialising in the repair of auto batteries. Most

of their work consists of recharging the weak storage batteries by a battery charger, which

does not involve the usage of any chemicals. However the workers were exposed to

sulphuric acid mist, when they opened the batteries or diluted sulphuric acid in water and

poured it in the batteries. There was also the risk of skin burns due to the acid. The spilled

acid was left to be absorbed in the soil, the floor was occasionally swept and the wastethrown by the sweeper in the municipal dump.

Carpet (hand-knotted) Washing


Sodium hydroxide (liquid) 300 litre/week


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Bleaching liquid (Sod. hypochlorite) 250 litre/week

Most of the hand-knotted carpets in Pakistan are made in the rural areas of the Punjab

province, where dyed yarn is distributed in the households having looms. The carpets are

collected by the manufacturers and mostly brought to Lahore, which is the main centre of

export of carpets. The carpets from loom have to be finished, before they are ready forsale. Hundreds of carpet washing/finishing centres have been established in Lahore, one

such centre was visited during the study.

Defects from the carpets were removed by skilled workers through patch work. Long

scissors were used to shear extra wool strands from the surface to make it even. A strong

comb with plastic teeth was used to remove twist from the wool. The carpets were then

laid on the floor and soaked in caustic solution and later in bleach solution. Thorough

washing was given after each soaking. Workers sprayed the solution from a sprinkler

manually by walking bare feet on the carpet. After washing, the water was wrung by

heavy moppers and the carpets which were now clean with all the dirt and stains

removed, were allowed to dry in the sunshine by spreading them on the walls.

No personal protection was seen being used by the workers, who were exposed through

direct contact with caustic and bleach solutions. They were also likely to be exposed to

chlorine gas given off by the bleaching solution. Like most other industries the effluvea

was allowed to drain into the sewers and some could be seen stagnating in small pools

outside the enterprise. Workers complained of skin burns and scalds from the corrosive

solutions.

Dental Workshop


Methylmethacrylate 2 Kg/month

Plaster of Paris 50 Kg/month

Modelling wax 2 Kg/month

Like most of such workshops, the enterprise visited during the study was in the small

scale sector. They made dentures by pouring thermosetting plastic materials in the

moulds. Some workers told of addiction to solvents, others mentioned skin problems due

to the handling of plastic material. Natural ventilation was good as the workshop was

based in an open shed, however personal protective equipment were not used.

Plate Making (for printing presses)


Copper salt 0.5 Kg/month

Hydrogen peroxide 800 ml/month


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Acetic acid 800 ml/month

Developer G90 250 gm/month

Developer Flex 250 gm/month

Photo Opaque 25 gm/month

The two enterprises visited during the study were catering to the needs of printingindustry by making positives and plates for printing. As printing industry in the country is

mostly in the small-scale sector, it has diversified itself into small enterprises specialising

in different aspects of the printing operation. The workshops visited during the study used

the above mentioned chemicals in different stages of the positive and plate making. Large

open baths containing chemical solutions were used to dip the plates/positives. Splashes

of liquids were common, workers were not much concerned with the splashes as they

considered the chemicals to be innocuous. The liquid waste was drained in the sewers or

thrown on the road outside.

Laundries


Laundry soap 60-70 Kg/month

Bleaching powder (Calcium hypochlorite) 12-20 Kg/week

Gasoline 10-15 Litre/week

Three such shops were visited during the study. They washed the clothes in large washing

machines, bleaching powder was used for some clothes. Gasoline (according to the

owners) was used to dry clean the clothes and to remove grease stains from other clothes.

One of the laundry had caught fire six years ago from the short circuiting of a machine,

all the materials were burnt, but no casualty occurred. The engineering control on the

machines were not adequate to control the workers exposure to the gasoline vapours.

The affluveae were discharged in the sewers.

Dyeing of Head-dresses and Clothes


Dyes 200 gm/day

Sodium hydroxide 100 gm/day

Calcium hypochlorite 250 gm/daySulphur powder 250 gm/day

Dying of headdresses and clothes has been fashionable among the women in sub-

continent for centuries. To cater the to needs of dyeing a cottage industry has developed

which can be found in most urban centres and many rural areas. The typical enterprise

consists of a small shop with an open water bath heated by a gas or kerosene stove, in

which clothes are bleached and dyed to produce single or multiple-coloured patterns. The


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enterprise visited during the study had only one person working there. However normally

according to the work load (increases around the festivals) 4-5 persons work in such

enterprises, several of which are located in the local bazaar of each locality. One person

mixes the colours in right proportions, caustic, natural salt and sulphur powder are added

as required, some clothes are bleached by dipping in boiling solution of bleaching

powder. Splashes of chemicals occur frequently during stirring with a wooden prod andduring mixing. Small quantity of chlorine also escapes from bleaching powder. The used

water containing dyes/caustic etc. was thrown on the road in front of the enterprise, which

was visible in the form of pools. Some workers complained of cough from inhalation of

vapours from dye bath, specially when salt is added to the dye bath.

Furniture Making


Glue (formaldehyde & casein based) 1-12 Kg/week

Methylated spirit 5-30 litre/weekThinner 6-10 litre/week

Lakh grains (a tree gum) 0.5-5 Kg/week

Sindoor (red oxide of mercury) 50-250 gm/week

Dyes 100-500 gm/week

Putty powder 0.5-1 Kg/week

Furniture industry is quite widespread throughout the country, a large number of small-

sized enterprises are in the rural area catering to the dowry and other needs of local

populace. The work was highly labour intensive (some workshops dont even have

electric power) the workers applied glues, putty and different colour and varnish coatings

manually by rags. The shops visited during the study were all in the outdoors, facilitating

the drying of items on which coats of varnish or spirit were applied. The workers

exposure to potentially toxic chemicals seemed high especially due to unhygienic eating,

drinking and smoking practices observed. Only a small amount of waste is generated as

wood shavings, powder and soaked rags were used as fuel by the workshops or the

households. One of the three shops visited during the study had burnt down three years

ago in a fire, when a methylated spirit container had caught fire from a cigarette thrown

by a passerby.

Paint Manufacture

Two enterprises, one small and the other medium-sized were visited, the variety of

chemicals used by both enterprises was quite different. Therefor separate lists of

chemicals for both enterprises are being given here.


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Small Enterprise Medium Enterprisea

Chemicals Quantities

Consumed

Chemicals

Turpentine oil

VarnishTitanium dioxide

Lithophone (zinc oxide)

Talc

Pigments

21 litre/day

21 litre/day175 Kg/day

150 Kg/day

250 Kg/day

100 Kg/day

Alkyl resins, Synthetic resins

Calcium carbonate, Lead oxide,Zinc oxide, Titanium dioxide,

Xylene, Methylene chloride, White spirit

Butyl acetate, Turpentine oil

Mineral oil, Diacetone alcohol, MEK,

MIBK, Isobutanol, Isopropanol,

While the small enterprise manufactured only a limited variety of paints for use in the

construction industry, the medium one made a whole range of paints and allied products

for domestic and industrial usage. The process in the small enterprise was mostly manual,

while that in the medium one was mostly mechanical and where possible, automated. The

small one had only a weeks supply of the raw materials, the medium one had almost sixmonths supply stored at the premises increasing the risks of fire and explosion. The work

practices were more relaxed and unhygienic in the medium sized enterprise, while strict

safety and health measures were adopted by the medium one no smoking was allowed in

the premises, local exhaust and forced ventilation and adequate personal protection

equipment was provided to the workers, who were also monitored occasionally for any ill

effects due to workplace exposures. The medium enterprise had an incinerator for

disposing of the waste, while the small-sized enterprise dumped its waste in the

municipal dump. Despite the precautions, a large number of workers (almost 50%) in the

medium-sized enterprise were exposed to VOCs through inhalation, however exposure

through skin and ingestion was minimal in this enterprise.

Painting of Publicity Boards


Paints/Enamels 1 litre/week

Kerosene oil 2 litre/week

Fluorescent dye 25 gm/week

Glue 100 gm/week

Such enterprises are mostly small scale with 2-5 persons working on publicity boards.The boards are spray painted with the background colour, then required words/images are

painted using brushes. Kerosene is used to dilute the paints/enamels and to clean the

boards. The work is done along the roadside, where boards are left in the sunlight to dry.

Housekeeping in the visited enterprise was poor, the enterprise was also causing traffic

aThe quantity of chemicals could not be noted, however considering the production volume thousands of

litres of solvents and similar quantities of related ingredients was consumed daily.


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problems by cluttering the footpaths. The smells of paints and solvents could be smelled

at a long distance. Both the workers complained of gastric troubles, which was perhaps

due to poor eating facilities and ingestion of the chemicals during eating and smoking.

The kerosene soaked rags and waste kerosene oil was used by the enterprise to dissolve

some water based dyes.

Printing Presses


Printing inks 3-10Kg/week

Benzene 100ml-1litre/wek

Kerosene oil 4-8 litre/week

Thinner 100-200 ml/week

Mobil oil (lubricant) 2-4 litre/week

Chromic acid (only one enterprise) 200 gm/week

Grease (only one enterprise) 250 gm/week

Varnish 1-5 Kg/week

Printing presses usually consist of 1-2 printing machines with 4-5 workers. Although

there are a few medium sized printing establishments, but bulk of the industry is small

scale. Three such enterprises were visited during the study. They were using offset and

rota processes. Printing inks were mixed manually and compared with the colour chart

and if the desired colour was achieved the ink was fed into the machine by metal spoons.

The exposure of workers occurred during the cleaning of rollers. After each colour had

passed rollers were cleaned by rags soaked in kerosene, rubber rollers were cleaned with

benzene. Some inks were cleaned by thinners. After a printing job was completed a

thorough cleaning of the machine was carried out by kerosene soaked rags. Mobil oil and

grease was applied to the rollers and gears during cleaning. All the printing shops were in

the basements of buildings, local exhaust ventilation was not provided in any of theenterprises. The work practices aggravated the exposure of workers through skin and

inhalation. The waste oils, inks, paper etc. was dumped in a drum, daily cleaned by a

sweeper, who dumped it in the municipal waste. No health related complaint was

mentioned by the workers. However considering high skin exposure to solvents and inks

there was a likelihood of skin related ailments.


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Rubber Solution (Adhesive) Manufacture


Smoke rubber 350 Kg/weekResin 6 Kg/week

Magnesium oxide 5 Kg/week

Gasoline 7 barrels/week

Such enterprises (all are small sized) are concentrated along the river bank in Lahore.

They cater to the need of adhesive rubber solution for puncture shops scattered

throughout the country. One such enterprise was visited. Rubber pieces were cut by

knives and soaked in a barrel of gasoline for 24 hours, the slurry was then agitated in a

mixing machine and magnesium oxide and resin were added during mixing. The prepared

mixture was filled in small containers. Both the workers working in the enterprise were

exposed to gasoline vapours through inhalation and skin. They also complained ofrespiratory problems. The enterprise posed a serious fire and explosion risk as large

quantities of gasoline was handled and no fire fighting equipment was at hand.

Screen Printing


Benzene 1 litre/week

Butyl acetate 3 litre/week

Nitrobenzene 1 litre/weekInks 1 Kg/week

Most such enterprises are small-sized and are located in major urban centre like Lahore,

Karachi, Faislabad, Sialkot etc. One enterprise was visited employing 5 workers

(including the proprietor). Different solvents were used to thin the inks and to clean the

screens. Work was all manual including printing and washing etc. Due to the congested

nature of the shop, lack of personal and industrial hygiene control measures and absence

of local exhaust ventilation, the exposures of workers and the visitors in the surrounding

shops seemed high. The waste was placed in a drum and removed daily by a sweeper,

who dumped it in the municipal waste.

Shoes Manufacture

A variety of processes are involved in the shoe making depending upon the type of shoes.

Four enterprises, one medium sized (making sports shoes) and three small-sized (two

making leather shoes and one making plastic soles for the shoes) were visited during the


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study. As different processes and chemicals were involved the lists are given separately

below:


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Leather Shoes/Sandals Shoe Soles (Plastic) Sports Shoes

Chemicals Quantities Used Chemicals Quantities Used Chemicalsa

Glue Bond 2 litre/week GasolineThinner

Dyes

Plastic Scrap

50 litre/week50 litre/week

200 gm/week

800 Kg/week

PVC grainsDOP

MEK

Toluene

MDI

Glues

The small scale leather shoe making facilities were based in homes, where household

members alongwith neighbours worked on cutting and joining different shoe parts by

stitching and by applying glue bond. The smell of solvents (from glue) could be smelled

in all the homes in the locality as most were engaged in this occupation. Children and

women of the households were also exposed to the smells from the process.

The plastic shoe sole manufacturing was like other plastic extrusion processes, where

waste plastic and grains mixed with gasoline and other organic solvents was extruded

through an extruding machine to make the plastic shoes. Dyes were also added during the

process. Smell of gasoline and other volatile organic compounds could be smelled in and

around the workshops. Waste from the shop was thrown in the nearby garbage dump.

In the sports shoes manufacturing facility, the soles were made by injection moulding of

PVC granules at high temperature. Different parts of shoes were joined by glues and

epoxy resins. The exposure of workers engaged in the joining operations seemed high.

Otherwise the enterprises had good forced and local exhaust ventilation in the injectionmoulding room which was isolated from the other processes. The waste from the

enterprise was thrown in the waste dump of the industrial estate, in which the enterprise

was located.

aExact quantities not known, however most plastic items and solvents were consumed in hundreds of

kilograms/litre per week


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Leather Tanneries


Sodium sulphide 150-600 Kg/week

Sulphuric acid 80-300 Kg/weekFormalin 6-25 litre/week

Urea 150 Kg-600 Kg/week

Sod. bicarbonate 30-120 Kg/week

Ink 50-90 Kg/week

Katha (coloured wood for large hides) 15-60 Kg/week

Mineral oil 35-150 Kg/week

Chrome Pak (Chromium sulphate) 60-240 Kg/week

Lime 150-750 Kg/week

Ammonium chloride 40-150 Kg/week

A total of 5 tanneries (two small and three medium sized) were visited in the town ofKasur near Lahore, famous for its tanneries and toxic waste. There are around 200 small

and medium sized tanneries in the town. All the tanneries visited were carrying out the

same processes albeit, at different scales. Hides/skins were brought in and salt from them

was removed by soaking in water. Then they were soaked in lime + sodium sulphide

solution to loosen the hair/flesh, which were removed manually at the shop floor.

Deliming was done in rotating drums containing bating solution (ammonium chloride).

Tanning chemicals and sulphuric acid etc. were added in different stages and drained into

the open sewers visible throughout the city. Dyes and oils were added to colour the skin

and rotated in the drums. Buffing and starching operations were carries out later on.

Finally the hides/skins were polished by spray painting (on the roof tops usually) with

paint solutions containing formalin. Most workers were exposed through skin, inhalation

and ingestion as personal hygiene conditions and engineering controls were poor.

Workers were seen using improvised personal protective equipment (e.g., vehicle tubes

were used to make gloves and foot protection) which seemed inadequate to protect

against the corrosive and toxic effects of chemicals. Many workers were seen eating their

meals in the middle of floors splattered with all kinds of toxic chemicals. Many workers

complained of respiratory and skin problems (TB was said to be common in the area).

Liquid waste was thrown by each tannery in the open sewers which remained stagnant

around the town and has seeped into the ground water. It has become a serious pollution

and public health issue. A waste water treatment and chrome recovery plant is beinginstalled but the progress is very slow. Flesh debris was sold by the tanners to the glue

making factories, leather shavings to the cardboard manufacturers and the leather cuttings

were either burnt outside the tanneries or thrown outside to rot in the open.


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Gas Welding


Calcium carbide 15 Kg/month

Oxygen cylinders 2 Nos./month

Fluxes 250 gm/monthWelding rods unknown

Such enterprises are scattered all over the country, usually attached with some other

workshop but also a large number of these exist on their own. One such typical shop with

only one worker was visited. He worked on small jobs of welding in the area. Acetylene

was generated in a generator in which calcium carbide was added and water poured on it.

Calcium carbide was handled with bare hands. The lime from the process was thrown

outside in the street. The main source of exposure of the worker was the fumes from

brazing and heating enamelled surfaces. He did not complain of any particular health

problem.

Wool Dyeing


Acetic acid 70 litre/week

Sulphuric acid 30 litre/week

Dyes (chrome, acid & metal complex) 5 Kg/week

A number of wool dyeing enterprises (mostly small-sized) are based in the inner city area

of Lahore, catering to the needs of carpet weaving (hand-made) industry. Theseenterprises work mostly on contract basis for some major carpet manufacturer. The

enterprise visited during the study had (like all similar establishments) an entirely manual

and labour intensive process. Acetic acid was added to boiling water in which dissolved

dyestuffs were added, then wool yarn supported on long bamboo rods was dipped in the

boiling water, wool was occasionally turned manually. After boiling for 45 minutes, wool

was given 2-3 washings with water containing sulphuric acid. Splashes of hot water

containing dyestuffs and acids were common. Lot of steam was generated. The place was

at the ground floor of a house, there were no local exhaust or forced ventilation available.

Workers worked without personal protection. It was estimated that for dyeing of 20 Kg

bundle of yarn 500-800 ml of acetic acid and 200 ml of sulphuric acid were consumed.

The water containing the dyestuffs and other chemicals was disposed of into the sewers,some remained stagnating outside in the street. Skin burns and scalds were the health

related complaints mentioned by the workers.


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Carpet Manufacture (machine made)

Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumeda

Sulphuric acid 300 litre/weekAcetic acid 1500 litre/week

Wool dyes 150 Kg/week

The enterprise visited was a medium-sized one employing 283 workers, the process

consisted of dyeing of wool yarn, spinning of yarn into carpets and finishing operations. It

was during the wool dyeing process that workers were exposed to chemicals. 10 workers

were found working in this section. In this process, the wool yarn was soaked in large hot

water baths, in which dyes were dissolved alongwith acetic acid, the dyed yarn was

washed with sulphuric acid solution to remove the acetic acid. The process overall was

clean with very little manual handling involved. The exposures occurred mostly from

splashes or during the mixing of chemicals. The floor was kept clean by repeatedwashing. Like most other industries, this enterprise also had no arrangement for treating

the liquid waste. Like most other medium-sized enterprises, workers here were better off

with better sanitary, emergency treatment, eating and social security facilities available to

them. They did not mention any specific illness due to their work.

Chipboard & Plywood Manufacture


Formaldehyde 3000 Kg/dayUrea 1500 Kg/day

Ammonia 4 Cylinders/day

Caustic soda 1 Kg/day

Ammonium chloride (sol) 300 litre/day

Phenol small amount

Sodium meta bisulphite 250 mg/day

Sulphuric acid 1.5 Kg/day

Antifoam small amount

Two medium sized enterprises were visited. The process consisted of shredding or

making plies of different types of woods and then joining them using urea formaldehyderesin. Other chemicals were also added during bonding. As good engineering and

administrative controls were observed, only a small number of workers were exposed to

the chemicals, mostly during maintenance of equipment. The liquid waste was thrown in

a ditch outside, while some solid waste was buried, less toxic waste was thrown in a

dump outside the factories.

aExact quantities not known, estimated from the production volume


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Chloralkali Plant

Chemicals used and the Quantities ConsumedaSodium chloride Hydrochloric acid

Sodium Hydroxide Chlorine gas

Sod. hypochlorite Calcium hypochlorite

Mercury (in process) Lime

Only a few such plants (2 in Punjab province) are working in the country. However the

plant visited had profound impact on the environment of the area and its products were

used in a large number of industrial processes. Brine solution was electrolysed in cells

containing mercury. Caustic soda and chlorine were produced. Excess chlorine was

converted into hydrochloric acid and drained in a nearby stream. Sodium and calcium

hypochlorites were also produced. There were occasional instances of chlorine escapeduring liquefaction, due to which the vegetation outside the plant was badly affected. The

process was closed and as most plants were in open air, workers exposure was not very

high except during leaks of gas.

Dyeing/Processing of Cloth


Detergent 400-500 Kg/month

Desizer (diastase) 100-200 Kg/monthCaustic soda 400-600 Kg/month

Sod. hypochlorite 100-200 Kg/month

Disperse dyes 50-70 Kg/month

Direct dyes 50-100 Kg/month

Hydrogen peroxide 300 Kg/month

Formic acid 300-350 Kg/month

Hydrochloric acid 150-200 Kg/month

Elastomer 500-600 Kg/month

Softener 100 Kg/month

Acetic acid 30-50 Kg/month

Faisalabad and Karachi are two major textile industry centres with large number of

dyeing processing units based in these cities. Two such enterprises were visited in

Faislabad. Both used similar processes and dyed the cotton and mixed clothes. Cloth was

desized, scoured, bleached, dyed and finished in a closed process. Good engineering

aExact quantities not known, but large amount of chemicals were produces (several thousand tonnes per

annum)


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controls were observed. Exposures of some workers occurred during the handling of

chemicals and during maintenance. The workplaces were clean and tidy. The liquid waste

was drained in the sewers.

Fibreglass Items Manufacture


Glass fibres Toluene

Styrene Acetone

Spirit Epoxy resin (828 Germany)

DER 331 (DOW Chemicals) Unsaturated polymer

MEK Paints

Thinner Plaster of Paris

MDI (ICI)

Such enterprises are mostly medium and some are small-sized and usually manufacturewater storage tanks and other household items. The enterprise visited was medium sized.

Glass fibres were wound around moulds and adhesives and plasticizing materials were

applied manually. Items were ground by abrasive wheels resulting in considerable

exposure of workers to glass fibres. Some items were painted by brushes and spray

painting. Workers mentioned headache, skin and respiratory problems and a few

mentioned solvent addiction. Liquid waste was drained in the sewers, solid waste was

thrown on the dump outside.

Formaldehyde & Resin Manufacture


Methanol 10 tonnes/day

Formaldehyde 9.2 tonnes/day

Urea 4.5 tonnes/day

Formic Acid 4 litre/day

Caustic Soda 4 Kg/day

The enterprise visited, produced formaldehyde from oxidation of methanol.

Formaldehyde was mixed with urea to produce urea formaldehyde resin. All the process

was closed with good engineering controls in place. However a few workers were likelyto be exposed especially those involved with maintenance and stores. Liquid waste was

drained in nearby ditch.

aExact quantities not known, however hundreds of litres of solvents/paints was consumed every week.


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Match Manufacture


Potassium nitrate 50 Kg/day

Glue, Glass powder, Kissal, 50 Kg/day

Zinc oxide, Sulphur, Lead oxide,

Phosphorus00-500 Kg/month

Like most other similar establishments, the enterprise visited made safety matches from a

slurry of chemicals mentioned above, wooden matches were dipped in the slurry and

packed. The process was closed with little direct exposure of workers to chemicals.

However small exposure through skin and inhalation was likely during mixing of

chemicals and maintenance/cleaning of equipment. Solid waste was thrown outside the

factory in a dump. Some workers complained of headaches.

Pesticide Packing

Three enterprises with different capacities and varieties of pesticides were visited during

the study. The list of pesticides and quantities packed by each enterprises is listed nbelow

Enterprise No.

1 2 3

Pesticide Qty. Pesticide Qty. Pesticide Qty.

Methamidophos

Monocrotophos

Cypermethrin

Fenpropathrin

Endosulfan

Feslan

3500 litre

per day of

each

Methamidophos

Monocrotophos

Cypermethrin

Fenpropathrin

Endosulfan

Dimethoate

Fenvalerate

Methylparathion

One

contain-

er of

16000

Kg per

year of

each

Methamidophos

Monocrotophos

Cypermethrin

Methylparathio

n

Fenfluorid

Dimethoate

3000

litre

per

day of

each

A large number of small and medium sized pesticide formulation and repacking

enterprises are located in Multan which is in the heartland of cotton growing region of the

country, where most of the pesticides are consumed. The three enterprises (like most


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others) were seasonal and imported pesticides in large containers, which were off loaded

and emptied into large tanks, from which one-litre plastic bottles were filled, sealed

labelled, packed and sold in the market. There was some contact of the workers with

pesticides during handling of filled bottles. They used improvised gloves (from polythene

bags) to protect their skin. Some workers died in a small enterprise (not included in the

study) one year ago. The liquid waste was drained into a nearby drain resulting in toxicand foul vapours for the surrounding locality. It might also affect the live stock and

vegetation in the surrounding area. Workers mentioned headache, skin and respiratory

problems as the main health related problems.

Pharmaceuticals Manufacture

The one enterprise included in the study used a large number of liquid and powder

pharmaceutical ingredients and made different kinds of medical formulations and

medicaments. Most processes were closed, good industrial hygiene controls were

adopted, making the likelihood of exposures very minute. Workplace was tidy and theworkers seemed healthy.

Polyester Fibre Manufacture


Tere phthalic acid Antimony oxide

Mono ethylene glycol Cutting oils

Sod. sulphite Trichloroethylene

Hydrazine Chlorine (for water treatment)Titanium dioxide

The enterprise produced polyester fibres by polymerisation of tere phthalic acid with

monoethylene glycol. The process was all closed and automated, with very little chances

of workers exposure. Workers were well trained and drilled in emergency response and

first aid and were often monitored for any health effects. Waste water was disposed of

after treatment in a plant.

Polypropylene Bags Manufacture

Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumedb

Polypropylene chips

Stabilisers

aExact quantities not known, however considering the size of plant hundreds of tonnes of raw materials

(Monoethylene glycol and tere phthalic acid were consumed daily)bExact quantities not known, however hundreds of kilos of polymer grains were consumed daily


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Pigments

The enterprise produced polypropylene bags after producing fibres from extrusion of

polypropylene chips, stabilisers and pigments were also added during the process, which

resulted in some airborne dust. As local exhaust ventilation was not sufficient to remove

all the aerosols, some workers were exposed to the airborne dusts.

Polyurethane Foam Manufacture

Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumedc

TDI (Toluene diisocyanate) Stannous octoate

Polyol (Polyethylene glycol) Tegoamine (mixture of ter. amines)

Silicone oil Methylene chloride

The enterprise produced foam by passing carbon dioxide gas through a mixture of TDI

and polyol containing tertiary amines and fillers. Foam was left to dry then removed andcut to pieces of desired size and filled into different fabric covers. Although the process

was closed one and chemicals were pumped directly from stores, the local exhaust system

was not able to remove all the toxic vapours resulting in exposure through inhalation of

some workers in the reaction chamber area. These workers complained of asthma

symptoms. The respirators available were not being used, anyway the cartridges had

already expired. The liquid waste was drained in the sewers. Solid waste was thrown on a

dump.

Rubber Items Manufacture


Rubber Accelerators (PBM, MBTS, MBT)

MEK Gasoline

Clay Chalk

Pigments

The enterprise visited was medium-sized and produced a number of rubber items

including rubber-coated cloth. Rubber pieces were cut and fed into a two-roller

masticating machine, accelerators and additives were added during mixing. Rubber was

shaped into different items through presses. Some articles were heat treated and painted.The whole process was dirty and poorly organised, chemical containers were scattered all

around the place was reeking of rubber smell and solvent vapours. Fire fighting

arrangements were not adequate, which may result in some tragedy. Solid and liquid

waste was drained and thrown away untreated.

c Exact quantities not known. However several tonnes of foam was produced dailyaExact quantities not known. However several tonnes of rubber was processed daily


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Soap & Allied Products Manufacture

Tree enterprises, all medium sized, (one making toilet and laundry soaps and glycerine,

the other two making laundry soap only) were visited during the study. Most of the soap

industry is located in Faisalabad and Karachi. The lists of chemicals and quantities used

by each enterprise are given below:

Enterpris

chemical risk assessment & occupational hygiene measures

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