Pakistan Studies3&4th Semester

Religion in Pakistan

IntroductionThe state religion in Pakistan is Islam, which is practiced by about 95-98% of the 187,343,000[5]

[6] people of the nation.[7][8][9] The remaining 2-5% practice Christianity, Hinduism and other religions.[9][10] Muslims are divided into two major sects: the majority of them practice Sunni Islam, while the Shias are a minority who make up an estimated 5-20%, depending on the source.[7][9][10][11][12][13] Nearly all Pakistani Sunni Muslims belong to the Hanafi Islamic law school.[9] The majority of Pakistani Shia Muslims belong to the Ithnā‘Ashariyyah Islamic law school, with significant minority groups who practice Ismailism, which is composed of Nizari (Aga Khanis), Mustaali, Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaymani, and others.

1 Constitutional provisions 2 Demographics of religion in Pakistan 3 Islam 3.1 Sunni 3.2 Shia 3.3 Sufi 4 Hinduism 5 Christianity 6 Bahá'í 7 Sikhism 8 Zoroastrianism 9 Kalash 10 Jainism 11 Buddhism 12 Judaism 13 Atheism and agnosticism

ISLAMIZATION IN PAKISTAN

A. INTRODUCTION:Quaid said, “We want to have a separate homeland where Islamic laws can be enforced. We want a separate homeland to prove that Islamic laws pronounced 1400 years ago are still practicable.”

B. ISLAMIZATION:

1. Objectives resolution:2. The Constitution of 1956:3. The Constitution of 1962:4. The Constitution of 1973: 5. Islamization Under General Zia-ul-Haq:When General Zia-ul-Haq took over as the Chief Martial Law Administrator on July 5, 1977, Islamization was given a new boost. General Zia-ul-Haq was a practicing Muslim who raised the slogan of Islam.1) Hudood Ordinance: it was promulgated in 1979.2) Qazf Ordinance: 3) Zakat & Usher Ordinance: it was promulgated on June 20, 1980.4) Establishment of Federal Shariat Court:5) Majlis-e-Shoora: in 1980.6) Nazam-I-Salat: 7) Ehtram-I-Ramzan:8) Ban on Nudity: display of nude scenes and moving films with nudity were also banned on the television.9) Islamic education:10) Financial system:11) Islamic laws for women: theory of “Chadar aur Char devari”.

1. Islamization in Pakistan: policy of Gen. Zia –ul-Haq 1977-88.

Slides Urdu Islamization under General Zia-ul-Haq

When General Zia-ul-Haq took over as the Chief Martial Law Administrator on July 5, 1977, Islamization was given a new boost. General Zia-ul-Haq was a practicing Muslim who raised the slogan of Islam. The Islamic sentiment has always been fully alive in Pakistan. Various governments have used this to their benefit. There are people who doubt Zia's reasons for raising the Islamic slogan; whether it was for political purposes to counter balance Bhutto's appeal or was it to enforce Islam in its true sense. In his first address to the nation, he declared that Islamic laws would be enforced and that earnest attention would be devoted towards establishing the Islamic society for which Pakistan had been created. General Zia wanted to bring the legal, social, economic and political institutions of the country in conformity with the Islamic principles, values and traditions in the light of Quran and Sunnah, to enable the people of Pakistan to lead their lives in accordance to Islam. The Government of Zia-ul-Haq took a number of steps to eradicate non-Islamic practices from the country. He introduced the Zakat, Ushr, Islamic Hadood and Penal Code in the country.

The Government invited eminent scholars to compile laws about Islamic financing. The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance to Islamize the economic system was promulgated on June 20, 1980. It covered only Islamic organizations, associations and institutions. Zakat was to be deducted from bank accounts of Muslims at the rate of 2.5 percent annually above the balance of Rupees 3,000. Ushr was levied on the yield of agricultural land in cash or kind at the rate of 10 percent of the agricultural yield, annually.

The Government appointed Central, Provincial, District and Tehsil Zakat Committees to distribute Zakat funds to the needy, poor, orphans and widows.

Shias were exempted from Zakat deduction from their accounts due to their own religious beliefs. The Zakat was to be deducted by banks on the first day of Ramazan. A Federal Shariah Court was established to decide cases according to the teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Appeals against the Lower and High Courts were to be presented before the Shariah Court for hearing.

Blasphemy of the Holy Prophet (S. A. W.) would now be punishable by death instead of life imprisonment.

Zia-ul-Haq selected his Majlis-i-Shoora in 1980. It was to be the Islamic Parliament and act as the Parliament of Pakistan in place of the National Assembly. Most of the members of the Shoora were intellectuals, scholars, ulema, journalists, economists and professionals belonging to different fields of life. The Shoora was to act as a board of advisors for the President.

A number of other Islamization programs were carried out including the teaching of Islamic Studies and Arabic, which were made compulsory.

Pakistan Studies and Islamic Studies were made compulsorily for B. A., B. Sc., Engineering, M. B. B. S., Commerce, Law and Nursing students.

For professional studies, extra marks were given to people who were Hafiz-e-Quran. The first Ombudsman was appointed to rectify the misadministration of the Federal Government, officials and agencies.

A Shariah Council consisting of ulema was established to look into the constitutional and legal matters of the State in order to bring them in line with Islamic thought. Since Islam does not allow interest, On January 1, 1980, Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq introduced a "Profit and Loss Sharing System" according to which an account holder was to share the loss and profit of the bank.

The media was also targeted. Television especially was brought under the Islamization campaign, news in Arabic were to be read on both television and radio, female anchor persons were required to cover their heads, the Azan was relayed regularly on radio and television to announce time for prayers.

In the armed forces, the status of the religious teachers was raised to that of a Commissioned Officer. This was done to attract highly qualified individuals from the universities and religious institution to serve on such assignments. As the government grew further in its Islamic leanings, the numbers of mosques were increased. Ordinance for the sanctity of Ramazan was introduced to pay reverence to the holy month of Ramazan. The Ordinance forbade public drinking and eating during the holy month of Ramazan. A three months imprisonment and a fine of

Rupees 500 were imposed for violating the Ordinance. A program to ensure the regularity of prayers called the Nizam-i-Salaat was launched by General Zia himself.

Zia's Government introduced the Hadood Ordinance for the first time in Pakistan, which meant the punishments ordained by the Holy Quran or Sunnah on the use of liquor, theft, adultery and qazf. Under this Ordinance, a culprit could be sentenced to lashing, life imprisonment and in some cases, death by stoning.

The Islamic laws of Zia also included laws for women. Zia put forward the theory of "Chadar Aur Chaar Devari" and this was to be applied to women. Thus, for the first time, a woman could be flogged for adultery. If a rape was reported, four witnesses were to be provided otherwise, legally, the rape could be termed adultery.

Another law, The Law of Evidence, under the Shariah laws proposed that the testimony of a woman was not equal to that of a man. In legal matters, two women would have to stand witness against the testimony of one man. The status of women was thus arbitrarily cut in half by Zia. There was little consensus amongst Muslim authorities over this law. The lack of consensus among the re1igious authorities combined with countrywide protests forced Zia to hold back on making the Shariah law the law of the country.

General Zia-ul-Haq wanted to make Pakistan the citadel of Islam so that it could play an honorable and prominent role for the Islamic world. The steps taken by General Zia were in this direction and had a long-term impact; the Zakat tax introduced by General Zia still holds and so does many of his the other laws.

2Foreign policy of Pakistan: principals and Determinants FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

3..Importance of Pakistan in Muslim World, OIC, ECO

4 . Relations with neighboring counries and Super Powers

5 . Pakistan in the changing World

Changing world scenario and Pakistan

Introduction

The change of government in Iran and moderation of stance on nuclear issue by President Rouhani led to melting of the ice. A deal has been inked between Iran and P5 plus 1 in Geneva by virtue of which Iran would freeze its nuclear program at least for six months and open its nuclear facilities for inspection by IAEA. In return, the sanctions would be gradually removed. However, Israel is still adamant that there should be no let up in sanctions till Iran abandons its alleged weapon oriented nuclear program. Improved Iran-US diplomatic relations would benefit Syria and also Pakistan. Iran is likely to persuade Washington to abandon its mission of changing Bashar al Assad regime and withdraw its objection to IP project. The latter has the potential to extend to India and to China as well.

America's decision to call off its plans to strike Syria with cruise missiles as a result of Russia manipulated agreement that Syrian regime would destroy its chemical stockpiles has angered Saudi Arabia. In a huff, it refused to accept

membership of non-members group of UNSC after getting elected saying that the UNSC was a dead horse. Restoration of Iran-US ties are yet another shock for Riyadh as well as Qatar and other Gulf kingdoms who perceive Iran as a threat. However, with US mediation desiring to reinvigorate its old twin pillar policy, Iran and Saudi Arabia are likely to develop better understanding. Iran will now be in a better position to play its role in the endgame of Afghanistan.

India on the other hand would keep pursuing its policy of encircling Pakistan by keeping USA, Afghanistan and Iran away from Pakistan and at the same time striving to attain pre-eminence in Afghanistan in post 2014 era. In the face of evolving geo-strategic scenario, Pakistan will have to play its cards shrewdly to retain its geo-strategic clout and will have to work extra hard to achieve economic self-reliance at the earliest. Mere policy of appeasement will not help in upholding dignity, honor and pride of the nation among the world comityWhile the US-Pakistan relations are stuck as the London Economist put it, “in a toxic atmosphere” and to use the weekly’s words, the two behave like bickering children unable to swallow their pride and make up, the world moves on. And much of what has been going on is not to Pakistan’s advantage. In fact, Pakistan is being pushed to a corner and is increasingly looked down upon as a country where political, economic and social conditions are fast deteriorating. The US Defence Secretary, Leon Panetta, spoke recently, at a conference in Singapore, about a “strategic pivot” announcing the decision to shift 60 percent of the US naval assets to the Pacific Ocean by 2020. Said Panetta: “The United States military is bringing enhanced capabilities to this vital region.” The phenomenal rise of Chinese economic and rapidly developing military power has upset the existing balance. This has led to the evolution of a new strategy in Washington, which aims at strengthening ties and alliances with regional powers, especially Australia, South Korea, Japan and Indonesia. In this new plan, India too figures as a “key partner”.China, of course, is deeply concerned about the American new strategy and initiatives, but has taken a characteristically mature and restrained view of these developments. In this scheme of “engaging and containing” China, how is India figuring out its place and role? India’s veteran journalist, C. Raja Mohan, in a column in the Indian Express has spelt out how New Delhi might chart its future course in the new security context. Raja refers to the US-India defence cooperation launched in the middle of last decade and mentions about the foundational agreements with Washington, which include the Logistics Supply Agreement (LSA), the Communications Interoperability and Security Memorandum (CIS-MOA) and the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA).He points out the need for a more purposeful and cost conscious approach to military modernisation and long-term defence industrial cooperation with the US. Recognising American “exhaustion” after two prolonged land wars and faced with the challenge of the emerging Chinese power, Raja undertakes its perceptive review of India’s role in the changing scenario. His analysis in his own words merit careful reading: “Ten years ago, Delhi had every reason to believe its external security environment was a benign one. Today, India must cope with the prospects of greater turbulence on its north-western frontiers amidst the downsising of international military presence in Afghanistan and of the Taliban’s return to power in Kabul with the support of the Pakistan army. Towards its north and east, India will have to deal with the consequences of rising Chinese military power, and to its south, the growing presence of Beijing. China’s GDP is nearly four times that of India’s and China’s official figure for military expenditure, at more than $100 billion, is more than three times that of India’s.” Now Raja’s recommendations: One, the US and India must lay the basis for greater defence industrial collaboration, co-production of weapons systems and joint research in advanced areas. Two, India and Afghanistan must coordinate their policies and institutionalise consultations on the security situation there: “Washington has begun to acknowledge Rawalpindi as a major obstacle to its goals in Afghanistan.” Third, India and the US have to work together in maritime security. They have to devise a framework for operational cooperation in the waters of India and Pacific Ocean. Lastly, India and the US have a common interest in constructing a stable balance of power in Asia. New Delhi and

Washington must now translate their political declarations into credible security cooperation in the region.Is our government (and what a government we have in Islamabad!) and in particular our Defence and Foreign Ministries taking notice of the new global security moves and how Pakistan is to play its role in the changing circumstances? The less said about it, the better!Panetta’s statements about Pakistan in Singapore, New Delhi and Kabul are, to say the least, alarming. He ridiculed Pakistanis for remaining ignorant about Osama bin Laden’s presence in Abbottabad and the American raid on his residence (he literally laughed while speaking about the country). This, indeed, was in bad taste. To use threatening language like “we are losing the limits of our patience”, and that Pakistan is helping al-Qaeda in Fata to attack the American forces in Afghanistan, while visiting India shows how crude and unmindful a high American official can be about the sensitivities of a country, who, over the years, has done so much and suffered so heavily in helping the US fight the war against terrorism. One may recall that it was Mr Panetta, who in his capacity as the CIA Director started stepping up the drone attacks in Pakistan and who publicly keeps rejecting Pakistan’s objections and protests against these unlawful strikes. It is, indeed, tragic that our government has all along been complicit or at least accommodative of these attacks. Having allowed these for so long, not raising the issue internationally and having lost face in so many episodes during the last year and a half (starting with Raymond Davis, issuing of thousands of visit to non-diplomatic contracted operators), are we to be taken seriously now that we have equipped ourselves with a parliamentary resolution? A somewhat similar resolution was passed earlier also, which remained woefully unimplemented. Why not make use of the observations of Navi Pillay, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, during her recent visit to Pakistan: “Drone attacks do raise serious questions about International Law…….I see indiscriminate killing and injuring of innocent people as a clear violation of human rights.”Panetta did not confine himself to take Pakistan to task for not acting against al-Qaeda elements in Pakistan while justifying drone strikes, he (knowing well that it would hurt and antagonise Pakistan) exhorted India to deeply involve itself in the Afghanistan affairs. Remarked Panetta in New Delhi: “I have urged India’s leaders to continue with additional support to Afghanistan through trade and investment, reconstruction and help for Afghanistan’s security forces.”Pakistan stands condemned in Washington and is, more or less, isolated in the Western world. India today is America’s bosom friend and partner. Both think alike and consider Pakistan an obstacle in the way of achievements of their goals. Internally, considering the dreadful conditions prevailing in most of the country, Pakistan is on the brink of an implosion. Is there a way out?Elections as a solution are a long way off. A week is a long time in politics. Imran Khan should rise to the occasion, discipline his ego, mobilise the opposition and organise a massive movement for putting in place an interim national government, which is commissioned to hold general elections within three months. The army must remain away from politics, but fully cooperate with the interim administration.

6 .Pakistan and South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC)Introduction

Saarc countries, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, have tremendous potential, the combined population would be around 1.5Billion, one can only imagine if there was freedom to travel, freedom to work, freedom to invest, freedom to learn, if governments and state’s opened up their borders. This is what we ( the

people of South Asia ) should force our governments to do. This is where the future for our region lies, just open up.

7. National Integration: Need for unity, Brotherhood and Harmony.

8 .Future of Pakistan: Potential and Policies

2. Foreign policy of Pakistan: principals and Determinants FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

No state can live in isolation as individuals cannot live in isolation, they interact with each other. Similarly the states can not live in isolation and they will have to interact with other states that are there in the international system and they also interact with international organizations and other entities that play important role in the World affairs. You interact with the international system in order to project, protect and promote your national identity and national interests. Economic interests or economic needs also emphasize the need of working with other states and other actors in the international system. A large part of economic system relates with the financial and technical assistance that a country gets from outside. Similarly, issues of peace, security and stability in the international system cannot be promoted unless different

states work together, discuss their issues and decide about the ways and strategies to deal with the situation.

Pakistan is an active and an important member of the international community. It interact with other states at different levels, one level of interaction is bilateral which mean that you interact or you deal with or you develop relations with individual countries for example we can talk about Pakistan’s relations with Afghanistan, Iran and so on and this is bilateral level. There is another level of interaction which is called as multilateral level of interaction; Pakistan interacts with more than one state, this interaction is generally with reference to issues for example the issue of peace in the international system is something that has to be addressed along with a large no. of other states. Multilateral level of interaction also includes interaction with the international organizations. The third level of interaction is through the United Nations and other international organizations.

Pakistan is an active member of the UN and in addition to UN Pakistan is a member of several other international and regional organizations. You act as the member of these organizations within the framework, basic principles and charter of these organizations and work with others for the achievement of goals of these organizations like the goals of the UN, goals of the organization of Islamic Conference and that is another level that you function and operate within the framework of an international organizations and bodies.

The next level is the non official, in addition to official channels govt to govt communications there is also a non official side where ordinary citizens play an important role or various groups, various organizations play a role for example, lot of Pakistani students go abroad for education, they also go abroad for visits and other purposes, Pakistanis are settled abroad and they are doing jobs. All these peoples are not officials of Pakistan but what they do, how they live, how they interact with others affects a nation’s role at the international level. Similarly there are different organizations NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS they also interact with similar Non-governmental organizations else where in the World. So when you talk of Pakistan’s relations with the rest of the World you talk of the both official and non official level where individual, citizens and their groups interact with each other.

Now we will highlight some of important features of Pakistan’s foreign policy that is within the broad outline that I have given we will talk about certain principles which have influence on Pakistan’s foreign policy or you can say that these are certain goals which Pakistan wants to achieve.

Features:

1. protection of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Pakistan

The 1st feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is protection of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Pakistan, primary concern of Pakistan and for that matter every state is its security and survival. This is for key concern of Pakistan’s foreign policy and Pakistan is in a position all the times to conduct its foreign policy and domestic affairs on the basis of its national interests and goals as defined by the leadership. Therefore attention has to be paid to the security affairs. When we talk about security there are couple of things that have to be kept in mind.

First, for security diplomacy is must that you interact with other states and develop relations with other states and you try to deal with the issues with peaceful means through negotions by opening different channels of communications, so we can say that diplomacy is compulsory for the security of a country. For security we also need strong trained and professional and equipped military although problems and issues should be resolved peacefully through diplomatic means but there are some situations where non peaceful method are resorted too, when some other state may impose aggression on you then you need strong military to deal with the situation.

Along with that you also need security arrangements to deal with the conditions. In addition to military you need all kinds of security arrangements. An integral part of security system is social mobilization. You involve people in security and defense of the country because modern warfare is not limited to the border areas or to particular or specific battle fields. When modern war breaks out all parts of the country becomes the battle field because you can use Air Force, a country can use missiles and a lot of other ways therefore a perfect defense requires that the military must enjoy the sport of the nation as a whole. If nation as a whole stands up to the security challenge only then you can meet with the threats to security and sovereignty of your country.

Pakistan’s relations and problems with India have greatly influenced its foreign policy options and security issues, but we will talk about Indo-Pak relations later on.

2. Relations with all states:

The second feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is the relations with all states. Pakistan maintains its relations with all kinds of states irrespective with the type of the political system; these states are adopting that s not Pakistan’s concern, so Pakistan maintains relations with all kinds of states and the relations at the international level are maintained on the bases of common interest, what you need is certain areas of common interest. Those commonalities of interests are the bases of good relations. So if you have more common interests between Pakistan and other country relations would improve. Another thing that influences the relations is the relationship must provide some benefits; some rewards to both sides, relationship cannot

be one way traffic. Let’s say if Pakistan has relations with Iran then that relationship must be viewed by the both govts as serving their interests. So the basic criteria for Pakistan’s friendly relations with other countries is that there must be some common areas identified to work together and this relationship must be of use to benefit to both the countries. Another consideration which affects Pakistan’s relations s non interference with each others affairs. Pakistan does not interfere in the internal domestic affairs of all the states with which it has relationship. Similarly Pakistan will not like other states interfering in it domestic and internal affairs.

Another related principle is problems should be resolved peacefully, amicably and through negotians so that the problems are either resolved or kept within manageable limits.

Relations with Major Powers:

The nature of relations with major powers has varied. Here we can briefly mention Pakistan’s relation with the major powers to have an idea of the fact that Pakistan conduct relationship with different and diverse types of countries.

United States

First let’s say few words about United States, Pakistan-US relations have been generally friendly, smooth and cordial but problems developed from time to time and there are issues on which Pakistan and United States do not see eye to eye but despite differences they still work together for example some areas of differences are on nuclear issue, this is an area on which Pakistan and the United states have differences and there are certain other issues on which both countries have reservations like arms sales, Kashmir etc. However there are common grounds and shared areas on the bases of which Pakistan have maintained smooth relationship with the United Sates.

China

Since the 60s China proved to be a reliable trustworthy and consistent friend over the periods of decades and despite the fact Pakistan and China have different domestic political systems, their domestic priorities are different but still they maintain very close cooperation and interaction. China had provided affective and consistent economic assistance to Pakistan and it had also contributed to the industrial development of Pakistan and in this context it is also important to note that China had also made significant contribution to Pakistan’s Defense Industry and it also extends support on diplomatic forums and on Kashmir Chinese policy is symphatic to Pakistan’s position and emphasizes a peaceful resolution of the disputes which Pakistan has with India. Pakistan supported China diplomatically in the UN and the Outside.

Both the countries have developed close relations in the areas including science and technology, environment and trade.

Russia:

With Soviet Union before 1991 and now Russia Pakistan has working relations with Russia but frequent problems remained unsolved during the period of Cold War. Within the South Asian context Russia had always been remained favorable to India at the cost of its relations with Pakistan. On Kashmir issue, her attitude has been ranged from pro India to neutrality.

Despite these kinds of problems Pakistan and Russia have working relations and they regularly interact and try to expand the areas of common interests. Some economic relations strengthened the bilateral relations when Russia provided economic and technological assistance to Pakistan in establishing steel mill in Karachi. Russia had also helped Pakistan from time to time in oil exploration. In post-Cold War era, Pakistan is trying to normalize the relations. The recent tour of President Musharraf is a step towards this goal.

So what we have seen here is that Pakistan has maintained relations with different countries on the bases of sovereign equality, mutuality of interests, shared goals and consideration which give benefits and rewards to both sides.

3. Economic Issues, Trade, Investment:

The third important feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy relates o economic issues, trade and investment. These issues are important all the times even in the past but now for the last 10 years economic issues, trade and investment have gained a lot of importance in the foreign policy of all the countries and Pakistan also pursued that objective. For that purpose Pakistan deals with other countries and several other international financial institutions in order to obtain economic assistance for its development projects and to obtain loans which Pakistan gets from international financial institutions and also from the states. International financial institutions may be described as World Bank, IMF, Asian Development Bank and Islamic Development Bank. The issue of trade that is Pakistan goods go abroad is also important then investment Pakistan has been striving hard for attracting international investment for different kinds of industrial and other projects in the country because if you obtain international financial support and investment it speeds up the process of industrialization and economic development.

Issue of transfer of technology to Pakistan, issue of favorable trade that the trade is done in a manner that it provides advantage to Pakistan and also humanitarian assistance. Sometimes there are natural calamities in Pakistan and these calamities are in rest of the World. So Pakistan extends technical and humanitarian assistance to other countries when they face problems like

Earthquakes, Floods and other problems. Similarly when Pakistan is confronted with these kinds of problems it also seeks assistance from abroad.

Economic relations are both bilateral and multi-lateral. Technology, trade, access to market and investment are keys to the cordial relations between the two countries.

Pakistan is also trying to establish its relations with other countries on the same footings.

4. Muslim States:

The 4th feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is its relations with the Muslim states. Pakistan attaches great importance to developing relations and the ties with the Muslim States. It is one of the basic principles of Pakistan’s foreign policy but we are not going to discuss this relationship in detail at this stage. We will devote one of our lectures to this aspect that is Pakistan’s relation with Muslim World and in that lecture we will discuss this topic in detail. Being Islamic country, Pakistan has been always in search of good relations with the Muslim countries. It has been a central point in the ideology of Pakistan even before Independence.

5. Solidarity with the Developing States:

The next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is solidarity with the Developing States. Pakistan is a developing country, trying to develop itself in all fields of life in economic development in industry and in other areas. Pakistan had been concerned with the issues and problems of the states of Asia, Africa and Latin America. As it is developing countries it is well aware of the problems of underdevelopment, poverty, disease, famine, civil strife and border disputes, refugees and drug addiction. Pakistan has always cooperated with the developing countries so that they can meet with the problems of underdevelopment and poverty. In fact if you examine and study the social, economic and cultural problems of states of Asia and Africa and Latin America then you will find a lot of common problems, problems of underdevelopment, poverty, illiteracy, civil strifes, inter state wars, human migration and the problem of refugees. These are the issues which are common in varying degree in the developing World. So Pakistan works at two levels to deal with this kind of issue.

1. Pakistan raises these kinds of issues or the problems of the developing countries at the international forums like the United Nation and other forums and urges the industrialized and developed countries to contribute in solving these problems in the developing World because peace cannot be maintained in the international system if half of humanity is suffering with these kinds of problems. Stable peace can only be possible if globe as a whole prospers and develops. The disparity in the international system is reduced. This is one level on which Pakistan is working for the developing countries.

2. When Pakistan urges other developing countries to collaborate with each other that is Cooperation among developing countries in the areas of economic and technical assistance, trade and diplomacy. They can help and cooperate with each other for addressing the problems that I have highlighted. Since problems are common then you should learn from each other experience, you could also transfer technology from one developing country to an other. I give you an example, in Pakistan literacy rate is low but there are developing countries where literacy rate is very high, you can take the example of Sri Lanka a neighboring country of Pakistan where the literacy rate is over 90 percent therefore Pakistan can learn from their experience that how they have dealt with this problem and then Pakistan can also adopt the methods suitable to our conditions to raise literacy. Similarly Pakistan can help other country in the areas where Pakistan had made progress. So the issue is that for improving your conditions you should not look towards the developed and civilized World but you should also make effort and take certain steps to deal with the situation.

6.United Nations:

Next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy relates to its membership with UN and other international bodies. Pakistan joined the UN as a new member on Sept. 30, 1947. And since then it has commitment to the UN Charter and is an active member in UN bodies. One Pakistani has served as the president of the UN General Assembly and Pakistan has been a non permanent member of the UN Security Council for 6 times and the latest membership for the SC is the year 2003-04. In addition to the UN Pakistan is also a member of other international bodies and within UN Pakistan has been active in different specialized agencies and organs of the UN. An important role played by Pakistan relates to Peace Keeping Mission. It has been a part of UN Peace-Keeping Missions all over the world. UN sends its forces to different countries for peace keeping where conflicts exists and UN doesn’t have its own forces and then the UN sends the forces from different member countries and Pakistan has been contributing in this mission by sending its Army, Police personnel and others for UN peace keeping operations. Even today Pakistani army and other official are serving under UN to different countries which help Pakistan to build its image at the international level.

7.Anti-Colonialism, Right of Self Determination:

Next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is Pakistan’s support to anti-colonialism and opposition to the racial discrimination that existed in the past and sometimes it now manifest in certain parts of the World. As we have been suffering from colonial rule after our independence and we always support decolonization for Asia and Africa. Pakistan always opposed racial discrimination in the World for example Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) suffered from apartheid or racial discrimination where white minority was ruling the black population by force and Pakistan was the part of the global effort to eradicate this kind of injustice and ultimately Rhodesia became

an independent state with majority rule under the name of Zimbabwe, We can talk about South Africa where similar case existed, Namibia another case of racial discrimination etc. So in all three examples majority rule was established and Pakistan supported UN effort to promote the principle of equality and opposed racial discrimination.

Pakistan has always supported right of self determination for the people and the areas whose political future is not as yet settled. It is not merely in Kashmir that Pakistan supports the right of self-determination, Pakistan supports the Palestinian cause their national rights and their freedom, Pakistan had also supported very strongly Algeria’s freedom movement because that was another case of right of self-determination. In Afghanistan when Soviet troops marched in December 1979 and occupied Afghanistan. Pakistan opposition to Soviet occupation and support to Soviet resistance to Soviet occupation was part of its commitment to the right of self determination and the presence of foreign troops in a country.

8.Arms Control:

The next feature of foreign policy is Arms Control. Pakistan is not in favour of spread of weapons and arms in the international system because it diverts resources to non development purposes and if arms and weapons proliferate there is a danger of wars and conflict therefore Pakistan had joined global efforts to control weapons and that control. Pakistan believes that arms races to be controlled, resources to be used for human development. It has spoken for this cause in the UN and the outside. It opposed arms race not only at the superpower level because arms race in the past was at the super power level, I am talking about the period before the 1991 when Soviet Union and United States were competing so there was an arms race between them. But also at the regional and bilateral levels both for conventional and non conventional arms. It stressed that the root causes of arms races should be curtailed. Pakistan’s point of view is that the best way to control arms proliferation is to address the issues, the causes the factors which contributes to arms race, the factors that lead a country to obtain weapons and to engage in wars, conflicts and similar actions

9.Nuclear Policy:

Pakistan has been a great champion and supporter of peaceful uses of nuclear technology although Pakistan has acquired nuclear manufacturing capabilities in the mid 80s but Pakistan avoided making weapons. Pakistan avoided nuclear explosions despite having the knowledge and capability of processing Uranium, Plutonium. It was only for the sake of deterrence and reaction to India’s nuclear explosions. Pakistan was of the view that this technology should primarily be used for economic development and for betterment of the people rather than for making weapons. Pakistan exploded nuclear weapons in May 1998 in response to India’s nuclear explosions. India’s nuclear explosions created strategic imbalance in the region.

Pakistan decided to rectify and remove this imbalance there at the end of May 1998 Pakistan exploded its nuclear explosions. So had India not exploded the nuclear devices Pakistan would not have gone for that strategy. Even after its explosions Pakistan talked about nuclear restrained regime in this region that India and Pakistan should agree on basic principles for control of convential weaponry and also containment of Nuclear weapons proliferation.

There are other principles which are important for the foreign policy of Pakistan and which Pakistan emphasizes from time to time. One important area pertains to Pakistan’s relation with India.

Relations with India:

The most problematic area of Pakistan’s foreign policy is the relationship with India. The relations have been strained since independence in 1947. There were periods of normal relations but generally it remained troubled marked with distrust and conflict changes of tough statements have been the features. This bitterness caused three major wars in 1947-48, 1965 and 1971. Then there have been Limited conflicts and troubles at Loc (Line of Control) along with propaganda war are common practices. This relationship is of major concern due to which Pakistan have security measures. Tension escalated when India mobilize its troops on the Pakistan although at the end of this year most of the troops were withdrawn but even in the year 2003 there were problems in the relationship and despite Pakistan’s effort to start negotians to diffuse the tension and start dialogue India was not forthcoming. India was not ready to open dialogue. But now there is a hope of bilateral dialogue on Kashmir and other issues. It is the only way to bring prosperity and peace for 1.2 billion people of South Asia.

Kashmir:

Another feature pertains to Pakistan policy on Kashmir. Main source of conflict and bone of contention between India and Pakistan is Kashmir dispute. Pakistani position on Kashmir is that this is a disputed territory and its future should be determined in accordance with the resolution of the UN passed in 1948-49 which calls for a fair and free plebiscite to be held in Kashmir so that the people of Kashmir decide their political future. Despite Pakistani efforts India doesn’t want to hold plebiscite there. But India has declared it as integral part of it. Instead of having plebiscite, she has blamed Pakistan for initiating insurgency in Kashmir since 1989. India claims that it is engineered by Pakistan and equates this with terrorism.

Control of Terrorism:

The last feature of Pakistani foreign policy is control of terrorism. Since year 2001 Pakistan is an active participant in global efforts to contain terrorism. The issue of terrorism gained prominence as the UN took up the issue and passed a resolution calling up the states to

cooperate for controlling terrorism. Pakistan has been cooperating with the international community for the control of terrorism because Pakistan itself has been a victim of terrorism. Pakistan withdrew support to Taliban and joined hands with the international community. She also acted against terrorists within Pakistan, as it was victim of terrorism & sectarianism.

Pakistan believes that to eradicate terrorism first the root causes of the problem should be removed.

Concluding Remarks:

Pakistan has been an active member of the international community. It has been balancing the diverse pressures through diplomacy, engagement and compromises for the betterment of humanity. This concludes our discussion on important features and highlights of the foreign policy of Pakistan.

LECTURE 29

PAKISTAN AND THE MUSLIM WORLD

This discussion is going to be divided into three parts.

Foundation of Pakistan’s relation with the Muslim World Multilateral relations with the Muslim World Bilateral relations or you could say country to country relationship

Foundations:

First of all we will take up the first part and that is the foundations of Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim World and why Pakistan attaches great importance to its relations with the Muslim World that is the issue that will be dealt with in the first part of the lecture. As I have said that Pakistan assigns prime importance to its ties and relations with the Muslim World. Pakistan is an advocate of Pan-Islamism in the International system that is greater unity, greater cooperation amongst the Muslim states so that they can affectively project and protect their interests.

Another consideration s support to Muslim causes at the International level whether you are talking of international forums or bilateral levels Pakistan has supported Muslim causes at any level in the World. The Muslims of the sub-continent have deep-rooted affiliation with the Islamic countries on the basis of religion. They demonstrated this zeal of brotherhood on many

occasions. From the days of Pakistan movement, Muslims of India followed the traditional policy with the Muslim World. Pan-Islamism and Islamic values were the strongest motives behind the demand of a separate Muslim state. So after the partition, they always preferred close bilateral relations with the Muslim countries.

Another aspect relates to Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim World on country to country bases or what we call bilateral levels, when Pakistan conducts its relations with individual Muslim country. If you look at the constitution of Pakistan you find that one of the principles of policy urges the govt to maintain and pursue close and cordial relations with the Muslim World. So in other words it is imperative from constitutional perspective for the govt of Pakistan to maintain and pursue close and friendly relations with the Muslim World. Its not simply in the post independence period that Pakistan started pursuing cordial relations with the Muslim World, Pakistan heritage shows that Muslims of this region had great interest in and concern for Muslims living in any part of the World. You could find in the pre-independence period that the Muslims of this region and the ML that led the independence movement always supported the Muslim cause else where. After independence this became a permanent and regular aspect of Pakistan’s foreign policy.

So, we can say that the principles of policy in all the constitutions carry special attachment for Muslims and their heritage. The love for Muslim brotherhood continued during and after the independence.

Multilateral Relations:

Now we move on to the second aspect of today’s lecture that deals with multilateral relations that is the relations of Pakistan with other countries that involve several countries at the same time. In the multilateral domain, we can talk about Pakistan’s support for the de colonization of the Muslim World.

Support for Independence:

After becoming independent Pakistan championed the cause of liberation of those Muslim states that were under foreign control or domination and in this connection we can talk about Pakistan’s full moral support for the independence of Indonesia, Tunis, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Sudan and Eritrea. You would remember that Algerian freedom movement went on for a long time and Pakistan was a great supporter of their freedom movement and when Algeria became independent Pakistan welcomed this positive change that another Muslim country had become independent and sovereign.

Palestine:

Second issue that can be raised here is the Pakistan’s support for the Palestinian cause. There is a consistency and continuity in Pakistan’s support to the Palestinian cause. Pakistan, being a Muslim state, always sided with the national rights of the Palestinian people. It strongly supported the independent Palestinian state. This support goes back to the pre-independence period when ML passed resolution after resolution in support of the Palestine issue and after independence the state of Pakistan has been an ardent and an active supporter of the Palestinian cause at all levels. Sharing grievous concern over the atrocities inflicted on the Muslims, it condemned the Israeli policies. And Pakistan has criticisized time and again quite bitterly the atrocities that Israel commits against the Palestians from time to time. Pakistan supported their right to have sovereign and independent state.

Organization of Islamic Conference:

Third we can talk about OIC which is a manifestation of the Muslim World and a concept of Pan-Islamism. Organization of Islamic Conference is the largest Muslim forum in the world. Pakistan was very active in creating this forum and it had remained associated with the OIC right from the beginning of this organization Pakistan was among the 51 Muslim nations which attended the inaugural session in Rabat (1969). Its second conference was held at Lahore in 1974, its session held at the city chambers in the city of Lahore which was a matter of great honour and pride for Pakistan that the heads of states, govts and the top leaders of the Muslim World were present in Pakistan for sometime. Pakistani desired to make it an effective forum to address the political, economic, technical, scientific matters. The OIC has repeatedly extended support to Pakistan on Kashmir. It had passed resolutions demanding that the people of Kashmir should be given their right to decide their political future. One Pakistani had served as the secretary general of OIC

RCD and ECO:

Fourth important area in the multi-lateral field is RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) and ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization). RCD was set up in 1964 and this included Turkey, Iran and Pakistan, It worked in the area of economic trade, cultural and related fields. However, this organization became in active in 1979. In 1985-86 Turkey, Iran and Pakistan decided to set up ECO its objectives were very similar to the RCD. However, a significant development was that in 1992 6 other members were added to the ECO when Afghanistan and five Central Asian Republics, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan joined it. This means that now ECO has 10 members 3 original and others who joined later on and these members are trying to promote greater economic, trade technological and cultural cooperation and exchanges amongst the members.

Economic Assistance and Investment in Pakistan from the Middle East:

Some of the Middle East Countries had been extending economic cooperation to Pakistan from the beginning, trade relations were there from the beginning. From 1972 this relationship, economic relationship, economic assistance, economic cooperation, investment extended rapidly. Some of the Middle Eastern Countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, UAE and Libya provided economic assistance to Pakistan in the 70s and in the 80s. These countries also made investment in Pakistan primarily in the 70s and some assistance in the 80s. Their economic assistance and cooperation contributed to Pakistan’s economic development and stabilization in the 70s and the 80s.

Further more; Pakistan extends military training facilities to the number of the Gulf States and other Middle Eastern States in Pakistani institutions. Pakistan military personnel retired and serving also go these countries for different trainings and staff appointments. We all know another dimension of relationship between Pakistan and the Middle Eastern States that is thousands of thousands of Pakistanis are employed in different states of the Gulf region and other Middle Eastern Muslim states and from these states these Pakistanis working there send part of their earnings back home and this becomes an important source of earning, foreign exchange earning for Pakistani state. In this way Pakistanis living abroad especially in the Middle Eastern region are playing a significant role in Pakistan’s economy.

This relationship is very important for Pakistan and if there is a crises in the Middle East this adversely affects the trade between Pakistan and the ME and also those Pakistanis who are living and working there and their dependents in Pakistan who get their financial support from these countries from their own family members.

Rights of Muslim Minorities in different counties:

There is another dimension at multilateral level that pertains to the rights and issues of Muslim minorities in different countries of the World. Muslims are living as minorities that is where majority community is Non-Muslim. The rights and interests of Muslim minorities living in other countries is a matter of interest for Pakistan and its people. Usually Pakistan operated through the organization of Islamic Conference which monitors the rights and interests of the Muslims living in Non-Muslim majority areas.

Muslim World:

Now we move on to the third part of our lecture today which deals with country to country relationship that is Pakistan’s bilateral relations with individual Muslim countries. It is not possible to discuss all the details of this relationship with all Muslim countries. Pakistan has good relations with all the Muslim countries but we will highlight Pakistan’s relations with some of the Muslim countries so that you have a fair idea of the nature of relationship and the kind of interaction that takes place between Pakistan and different Muslim countries.

Saudi Arabia:

Let’s take up Saudi Arabia first, this has been an important relationship which is characterized by continuity of cordiality going back to the early years of Pakistan. The two countries Pakistan and Saudi Arabia shared views on major international and regional issues. Both countries consult each other on regional and international issues from time to time. They work together on Organization of Islamic Conference. Saudi Arabia supported Pakistan in all its wars with India and its position on Kashmir is supportive of Pakistan. Saudi Arabia being sacred country is a centre of the Muslim ‘Ummah’.

Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have an extensive economic relationship that expanded rapidly after 1972. Saudia had always provided economic assistance and loans to Pakistan and it had also invested capital in Pakistan in various projects. An important aspect of relationship is oil supply to Pakistan from Saudi Arabia. Since 1998 SA had been supplying crude oil to Pakistan on deferred payment bases which mean that you get the oil now but you make the payment of its price later on gradually. This has help to ease economic pressure on Pakistan and Pakistan has been able to obtain oil. SA is the biggest oil supplier to Pakistan at the moment. This relationship is going to expand over the years because both have been expanding the area of cooperation for example latest addition to this cooperation is counter terrorism that is both are cooperating to contain terrorism in the region.

UAE, Kuwait and other Gulf States:

The second important relationship is with UAE, Kuwait and other Gulf States. As a matter of fact Pakistan maintains very cordial and friendly relationship with all Gulf States and Pakistanis are based in all these states. They are working there and contributing to the economy of these countries. These countries and States have close and cordial relations with Pakistan. The new era of economic relations has set in after the Gawadar port was built. These countries have been providing economic assistance and investment in Pakistan. UAE had established hospitals and Islamic centers in some of Pakistani universities where students get knowledge and instructions about Islamic studies and related subjects. I may mention here that the kingdom of Umman have a large no. of Pakistanis living there, it recruits its people in Baluchistan from its army from time to time. So there is a special relationship between this kingdom and Baluchistan. The ruling families of these states make official and personal visits to Pakistan. So far as QATAR is concerned the relations are cordial and friendly. There is a plan under consideration that a gas pipeline from Qatar to Pakistan and if this project is implemented then the economic ties of both the countries would deepen.

Iran:

Pakistan maintains good and cordial relations with Iran. Iran is a neighboring state with long historical and cultural ties. Iran had another distinction. Iran was also the first country which extended formal recognition to Pakistan that is Iran was the first that recognized Pakistan. Iran’s King was also the first head of state who visited Pakistan after it came into existence. Pakistan and Iran had worked together in different organizations; both had joint arrangements in regard to CENTO which was earlier called as the BAGHDAD PACT, RCD, and ECO in addition to other global organizations where they are partners. Iran supported Pakistan in the wars with India. It stressed on liberty of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan welcomed the Iranian Revolution of February 1979. However in the initial years of the revolution the relations were rather at low key. Firstly because Iran was busy in its internal affairs, secondly Iran had some reservations over the strong ties of Pakistan with the United States at that time. However since the mid 80s the relations have been revived and Iran and Pakistan have gradually become close friends and partners with lot of exchanges and visits at different levels. In fact, 3 Iranian presidents have visited Pakistan since the revolution. In January 1986, president Khamani visited Pakistan later he became the Rahber n Iran. The 2nd president who visited Pakistan was Ali Akbar Rafsanjani who visited Pakistan in March 1997. The 3 rd Iranian president who visited Pakistan was president Khatmi who visited Pakistan in December 2002. From Pakistan side there have been similar important visits. Currently there is a project under consideration for constructing a gas pipeline from Iran to Pakistan and then from Pakistan it will go to India and if this project is materialized naturally the relations would further expand in the economic domain.

Turkey:

Turkey is another Muslim country with a long history of close and cordial relations with Pakistan. Turkey had stood by Pakistan in all kinds of situations in wars or in peace Turkey has supported Pakistan. On Kashmir Turkey has supported Pakistan and called for a peaceful resolution. If Turkey had been supportive of Pakistan then Pakistan has also supported in all kinds of situations especially on the Cyprus issue. In Cyprus people of Turkish origin or you can say that Turkish Cypriotes were a minority and there was a problem of their rights and interests in Cyprus. In 1974 Turkey landed its troops in Northern Cyprus and Turkish Cypriotes established their own separate entity. Pakistan has been supportive of Turkey and Turkish Cypriotes for this problem and Turkey had appreciated that gesture. There have been high level civil and military visits, in fact their top military leaders visited Pakistan and Pakistani top military leaders responded to that and go back to Turkey for similar visits. Both have great contribution in the multilateral arrangements of CENTO, RCD, ECO, etc.

Egypt:

Egypt Pakistan relations are normal and cordial; currently they exchanged views on regional and international issues. However in the past in the 50s and 60s there was a problem in Pakistan’s relation with the Egypt. Egypt under Nasser had some reservations due to Pakistan’s ties with the West. Pakistan supported Egypt when it was attacked by Israel in 1956, 1967, 1973. The relations began to improve and the cordiality has increased since 1967 and especially after the death of Nasser in 1970.

Libya:

Libya’s head of state Col. Qazzafi has been a great well wisher and supporter of Pakistan. He and his govt extended valuable support to Pakistan in the 70s, this support was not only diplomatic support but also economic support and in the 70s Libya invested in Pakistan. When in 1986 American army launched air raids on Libya Pakistan despite its close ties with America condemned American air raids on Libya, We can look Pakistan and Libya relations in another dimension since the 70s Pakistani military and civilian retired personnel have been doing job and employment in Libya and this has been an important bond between the two countries. Now the Libya is overcoming its problems with the United States Libya Pakistan relations are becoming friendlier and activated.

Jordan:

Jordan is another example of cordiality and friendship. King Hussein had special regard for Pakistan and throughout his rule he supported Pakistan. He worked for close relation with Pakistan. He supported us on India-Pakistan issues. Now his son King Abdullah continued with this tradition, tradition of friendship, cooperation and supportive to Pakistan on different issues. Both have an arrangement of cooperation in the military relationship and since the mid 60s Pakistani military personnel were based there in different capacities for training purposes, which strengthened the relationship between Pakistan and the state of Jordan. Both have trade and diplomatic exchanges. Pakistan supported Jordan on all international issues especially in its problems with Israel.

Afghanistan:

Afghanistan is a neighboring state. At the moment Pakistan has good and friendly relations with Afghanistan but if we go back especially to the early years of independence we do find problems in the relationship. It was mainly because of the govt of that time questioned the legitimacy of the Durand Line that is the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, and laid claim Pakistani territory on the name of Pakhunistan. It sided with the ‘Pakhtunistan’ issue and created problems for Pakistan, but as this issue was pushed to the background with the passage of time, relationship between Pakistan and Afghanistan improved. No matter what was the relationship between the govt of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the early years the relationship at

the common person level or at the individual level was always cordial. Afghanis are coming into Pakistan and Pakistanis are going into Afghanistan that has always been the features. The Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan in December 1979, Pakistan opposed the Soviet intervention and supported the resistance against the Soviet Union which gave birth to the Mujahideen groups, Taliban. Pakistan supported the Taliban govt in Afghanistan but in Sept 11, 2001when the regional and international environment changed Pakistan withdrew support to the Taliban, because incident in America concluded major changes in the world diplomacy. Pakistan got involved in global efforts to contain terrorism. After Taliban, Karzai government took responsibility of Afghanistan’s reconstruction. Pakistan extended all kinds of economic and technological assistance to the Karzai govt for reconstruction and rehabilitation of Afghanistan. The interest of Pakistan is that a friendly neighboring country should stabilize, overcome its problems so that the refugees that are there n Pakistan can go back to their homes in security and they might have better future there.

Bangladesh:

Bangladesh came into existence in December 1971 in a situation which created a lot of bitterness in Bangladesh against Pakistan and in Pakistan against Bangladesh. So in the initial years there was a lot of bitterness between the two countries. Bangladesh was East Pakistan but the internal instability and external conspiracies gave birth to Bangladesh. Pakistan had initially bitter relations but recognized it in February 1974 and from that time its relation with Bangladesh have gradually improved. Despite the fact that in the initial years both the countries have complaints against each other. In the present day context countries have cordial relations, trade has improved and the visits of senior official and political leaders has been there. Both worked together within the framework of SAARC, OIC. With the passage of time the relations of both these countries are going to expand.

Other Muslim Countries :

Then there are other Muslim countries with which Pakistan has good and friendly relations. I can mention some of the names Indonesia, Malaysia, and then there are Muslim countries in Africa like Algeria, Tunis, Morocco and Sudan. With all these countries I have named Pakistan has close and cordial relations. This reflects Pakistan’s effort to maintain close relations with the Muslim World which is an important feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy. This reflects the aspiration of the people of Pakistan who have been great supporter of Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim countries. Whenever there is a problem in the Muslim World the people of Pakistan have always stood by them and supported them in all respects therefore the govt of Pakistan has always been doing the same thing because this is enjoin on the govt from the constitution and this is also part of Pakistan’s political heritage, this also fits in Pakistani identity derived from and based on Islam that it must reflect these values in its foreign policy.

3. Pakistan’s Foreign Policy in a Changing World

IntroductionPakistan’s geopolitical and security environment is in a flux. Lately, Pakistan’s Balochistan province has assumed tremendous importance due to its potential to become an international energy corridor and transit route, and to serve as a site for military bases to monitor and, if required, intervene in the Gulf region, the Central Asia and Afghanistan. For a variety of reasons, the principal actors in this ‘great game’ are the United States, China and India. To understand the difficult choices that lie ahead for Pakistan, one should take into account the motives and moves of the principal actors in the region.

The United States:

Since 9/11, the United States has shown renewed interest inPakistan that goes beyond its ‘war on terror’. Even a cursorylook reveals that the United States wants Pakistan:

1. To serve as American policeman for Central and South WestAsian regions.

2. To cooperate with the United States in the security of the sea route that passes through the Strait of Hormuz. For this purpose the coast of Balochistan offers ideal sites formilitary and naval facilities.

3. To extend logistic support to American and NATO forces stationed in Afghanistan and to fully cooperate with the US Central Command in implementing American agenda for theregion.

4. To allow use of Pakistani territory against Iran if the United States and Israel opt for a military operation to destroy Iran’s nuclear installations or go for regime change.

5. To provide all details about ‘the Khan network’ of nuclear proliferation, in particular to supply necessary information and evidence to implicate Iran for its clandestine nuclearweapons programme.

6. To continue to cooperate in American ‘war on terror’.

7. Not to offer China any military-naval facilities on the coast of Balochistan that would enable China to project its power in the Arabian Sea.

8. To coordinate its policy with India in furtherance of American design to contain China.

9. To help isolate Iran by declining to implement Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline project.In this regard we may refer to Section 4082 of the recently adopted 9/11 National Commission Recommendations Act (Law 2845) which is reproduced below:

“Section 4082: United States commitment to the future of Pakistan”

(a) Sense of Congress: It is the sense of Congress that the United States should, over a long-term period, help to ensure a promising, stable, and secure future for Pakistan, should in particular provide assistance to encourage and enable Pakistan: (1) To continue and improve upon its commitment to combating extremism.

(2) To seek to resolve any outstanding difficulties with itsneighbors and other countries in its region.

(3) To continue to make efforts to fully control its territoryand borders.

(4) To progress towards becoming a more effective andparticipatory democracy.

(5) To participate more vigorously in the global marketplaceand to continue to modernize its economy.

(6) To take all necessary steps to halt the spread of weaponsof mass destruction.

(7) To continue to reform its education system; and

(8) To, in other ways, implement a general strategy ofmoderation.”

The same Act also calls upon the US President to “transmit to Congress a detailed proposed strategy for the future, long-term, engagement of the United States with Pakistan.”

In line with the policy adopted after 9/11 the United States has declared Pakistan a non-NATO ally and announced $ 3 billion package over a five-year period, half of which is fordefense purposes. The United States has agreed to sell Pakistan arms and weapon-systems including P-3C Orion planes, F-22 P frigates and F-16 fighter aircrafts. Since Pakistan isrequired to concentrate on the Gulf region, South West Asia and Central Asia, the United States has simultaneously offered anti-ballistic missile systems (Patriots) and F-18 to Indiawith the declared intention that it would like India to emerge as ‘world power’.

China:

Militarily China is far behind the United States but in recent years its economic performance has been miraculous. In order to sustain its high growth rate, China is in search of secure and viable energy resources, and a transit trade route to the Arabian Sea that may be cost effective.

Although work on Kazakhstan-China pipeline has begun, presently China’s 60% energy supplies come from the Middle East. Nearly 80% of China’s oil imports pass through the Strait of Malacca.

China, therefore, would like Pakistan:

1. To provide transit facilities for its imports and exports through Pakistani territory via the ports of Gwadar and Karachi.

2. To offer naval facilities on the coast of Balochistan so that it can project power in the Arabian Sea in the vicinity of the Strait of Hormuz.

3. To reject any role in the United States policy directed at the containment of China.

4. To curb the jihad culture in particular in Kashmir so that its spill-over effect is not felt in Xingiang.

5. To normalize its relations with India so that the two countries have to rely less on the United States.

India:

India has long cherished the idea of dominating the Indian Ocean region. Since the Sino-Indian war of 1962, the United States has always viewed India as counter-poise to China in the region and has recently announced that it would like India to emerge as a ‘world power’. India would prefer to avoid confrontation with China provided China acknowledges Indian interests in the Indian Ocean region. With an economy that is growing at a rapid pace, India is also in search of energy resources and at some stage this may cause friction between India and China. Indian interests would be best served if Pakistan agrees:

1. To settle the Kashmir dispute by accepting the Line of Control as permanent international border between the two countries.

2. To concede the dominant status of India in the region, give-up arms race and not to create any hurdles in Indian designs for permanent memberships of the UN Security Council and to otherwise coordinate its policy with that of India.

3. To prevent China from projecting its power in the Arabian Sea through the coast of Balochistan.

4. To facilitate construction of and to ensure security of the proposed gas pipeline from Iran to India or Turkmenistan to India.

5. To promote confidence-building measures and people-to-people contacts and to normalize relations in all respects.

6. To grant most-favored nation (MFN) status to India.

Let us now examine what developments have taken place on different important issues:

Mega Projects in Balochistan:

Comprising 43% of Pakistan’s territory and about 5% of Pakistan’s population, Balochistan is rich in natural resources. Since the time of the British Raj more than 90% of Balochistan territory is controlled and governed indirectly through tribal chiefs or Sardars who receive monetary and other benefits by way of royalty or on other pretexts. This arrangement was looked upon as convenient both by the Pakistan government and most of the tribal chiefs although at times military action was taken against Baloch nationalists and recalcitrant tribal chiefs. During early 1980s, the former Soviet Union did try to foment trouble in Balochistan byforming Balochistan Liberation Army to punish Pakistan for its role as frontline state and organizer of jihad against the Soviet military occupation of Afghanistan.

Balochistan might have remained a neglected province of Pakistan had the following develop ments not served as catalyst:

1. The collapse of the Soviet Union and emergence of the landlocked Central Asian Republics that need transit routes for trade and corridor for export of energy resources.

2. The economic miracle of China and its requirement for transit route for its western region and, therefore, a suitable port. Simultaneously China’s desire to have a foothold on the Arabian Sea to augment security of its, Life Line- oil supply from the Middle East.

3. The growing energy need of India which may be met by construction of gas pipeline from Iran and/or Turkmenistan via Balochistan.

4. The United States’ newly acquired status as the only Super Power and its policy to command the sources of energy in the Middle East and Central Asia, to protect corporate oil interests and to hamper China’s growing stature as a world power and economic giant.

5. The realization on the part of Pakistan government that in case of any military conflict with India Pakistan would need a more secure alternate port if, as happened in the past, Indiais able to blockade Karachi.

Thus Balochistan has come into international limelight with a couple of mega projects that have potentials to drastically change the geopolitical and strategic scenario in the region.

In 2001, Pakistan and China agreed to develop a deep-sea port at the fishing village of Gwadar on the Arabian Sea coast of Balochistan. Situated at a distance of 72 km from the border of Iran and a little over 400 km from the Strait of Hormuz, Gwadar is most likely to attract transit traffic at the expense of ports Abbas and Chabahar of Iran, particularly at a time when Iran itself is in trouble. It may be noted that India has stakes in the Iranian port of Chabahar and hascommitted $ 84 million on improvement of 213 km long Zaranj-Delaram road with a view to facilitate trade links with Central Asia via Iran and Afghanistan. The development of Gwadar would also make some dent on the economies of United Arab Emirates and Oman.

In March 2002, work began on the Gwadar port with an estimated total cost of US $ 1.16 billion and its first phase was completed in January 2005. China is said to have contributed $ 198 million in the construction of the first phase of the port and $ 200 million in the building of a highway joining Gwadar to Karachi. Nearly 450 Chinese engineers are working on the project.

Apart from transit trade, the Gwadar port is very important for China in ensuring energy security. After it is fully developed, China would be able to use it as transit terminal for crude-oil imports from the Middle East and Iran to Xingiang. At present China feels insecure because 80% of its oil imports pass through the Strait of Malacca which is, like the Strait of Hormuz, under American presence.

Another mega project in the offing is the gas pipeline from Turkmenistan via Afghanistan to the port of Gwadar. On completion this project could serve as the shortest route for supply of hydro-carbon resources from Central Asia to South East Asia, including Japan, and some countries of Europe. Alternatively, the same pipeline may go to India.

There is also a proposal for US $ 4 billion Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline that is opposed by the United States. In January 2005, India and Iran concluded a multi-billion dollars deal under which Iran undertook to supply 7.5 million tons of liquefied natural gas annually from2009 for next 25 years. On its part, India is prepared to contribute in the development of oilfields at Yadavaran and Jufeyar in Iran. Interestingly, there is also a move that thispipeline may be shared by China.

The United States is in favor of Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan pipeline or Qatar-Pakistanpipeline via Indian Ocean that may extend to India. Since Turkmenistan has commitment to supply gas to Ukraine also, India has doubts if it would be able to fulfill Indian demand on a long-term basis.

The prospects for the development of Balochistan are very bright. Pakistan government intends to expand its direct control over Balochistan territory and also to build more cantonments. Some analysts believe that the establishment of cantonments is linked to military preparedness against Iran at the behest of the United States. The tribal chiefs consider it as interference in their domain. The Baloch nationalists have dreams of an

independent Balochistan to reap the harvest of economic bonanza. There are genuine grievances against the federal government also which relate to exploitation of natural resources, in particular Sui gas, without adequate compensation, and unfairly low share in the award of National Finance Commission. The Baloch people also fear that the mega projects, in particular the Gwadar port city, would invite an influx of population from other provinces reducing the ethnic Baloch to a minority at some stage, and show serious concern about interference in their cultural values. They also complain about injustice in grant of employment and apprehend that the benefits of the mega projects would go to outsiders.

Since last several months a sort of an insurgency is going on in Balochistan. Hundreds of rockets have been fired on military installations and government offices and a number of times supply of gas has been disrupted to different parts of Punjab and Sindh. Pakistan armed forces have also shown their muscles by using mortars against the insurgents leading to civilian casualties. Although Pakistan government blames the trio of Marri, Bugti and Mengal Sardars, the fact is that a sizable number of young Baloch have lost trust in the government and faith in Pakistan. The Balochistan Liberation Army is reportedly receiving arms and ammunition from Indiaand that too surprisingly via Sindh also. The BLA reportedly has training camps in Kohlu. The Marri, Bugti and Mengal Sardars have their private armies. The RAW is said to be active from Afghanistan from its bases in Herat, Kandahar and Jalalabad, in Afghanistan and from Mashad and Zahedan, in Iran.

If Pakistan acts upon the American agenda, Iran would certainly take counter measures and foment trouble in Balochistan. Some analysts even suspect that the United States is involved to checkmate China. Pakistan government is obliged to look toward Islamic forces to counter nationalist elements.

Although lately things have somewhat cooled down and negotiations are in progress, it is not a time for complacency. A three -pronged strategy is needed: carrot or stick policy towards the sardars, grant of provincial autonomy within the framework of 1973 Constitution and resources for development at grassroots level. The idea of setting up cantonments may be dropped if the sardars are prepared to ensure the security of installations.

Iran and the Issue of nuclear Proliferation: It is no more a secret that ‘the Khan network’ was involved in transfer of nuclear know-how to Iran. On 23 November 2004, the US CIA issued a report that Dr. Khan not only sold advanceduranium-enrichment centrifuges to Iran but probably also an actual nuclear-weapon design and some nuclear material. Although Pakistan government has placed complete responsibility on Dr. Khan, common sense finds it difficult to swallow that this happened without the knowledge of the top brass in the armed forces when virtually the whole nuclear program was under military control. It is understood that Pakistan government has conceded to provide all information that it owns about Iran’s nuclear program, provided other sensitive people in Pakistan suspected of involve- ment in the clandestine activity are not taken to task. Pakistan has agreed to hand over used centrifuge to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and it is anticipated that by compa- ring the levels of enrichment found in the traces of uranium discovered in Iran with that ofPakistani centrifuge, the IAEA would implicate Iran. The United States is said to have infiltrated its agents into Iran from Afghanistan with detection devices known as sniffers that would check atmosphere for evidence of radioactive emissions. Once irrefutable evidence of nuclear weapons program against Iran is available, the United States may refer the matter to the UN Security Council for imposition of sanctions on Iran,

or may opt for military strike on Iran’s nuclear installations or go for regime change in Iran. Since internal security situation in Iraq and Afghanistan is not conducive, the UnitedStates may seek Pakistan’s support for its overt or covert operation against Iran. For covert action the United States may demand use of Pakistani territory to relay broadcasts andtelecasts, to disseminate propaganda material, to establish contacts with dissident groups or to infiltrate them into Iran from Pakistani Balochistan. It is believed that General Musharraf has been cooperating with the United States against Iran since February 2002 and this cooperation has been stepped up since early 2004. Reportedly the CIA is planning to re-activate the Sunni Baloch against the Shia regime of Iran and to shift the Mujahideen-e-Khalq cadres based in Iraq into Iran for destabilizing the government. ‘War on Terrorism’ After 9/11, Pakistan had offered all out support to the United States in its war against the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Subsequently, a large number of Al-Qaeda warriors, probablyincluding some high-value targets, and Taliban remnants had based them inside Pakistani territory particularly in South Waziristan from where they continued to mount sporadic attackson the coalition and Afghanistan forces. During April-May 2004, ‘Hammer and Anvil’ operation was launched jointly, by the coalition troops and the Pakistan armed forces, from twosides on Afghanistan-Pakistan border. Although most of the foreigner’s ____ Arabs, Chechens and Uzbeks ____ left Pakistan, the operation proved very costly with casualties on both sides running into hundreds. Along with Islamic militants, a large number of civilians were killed creating much bad blood among the Pushtuns. Within the armed forces there was strong resentment and some officers and troops refused to obey the order to fire on fellow Muslims resulting in their court martial. Desperate attempts were made on the life of President General Pervez Musharraf and Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz who escaped miraculously. Since then sporadic warfare had continued in South Waziristan.Reportedly, now Mulla Omer, the Taliban leader, has issued instructions to his followers not to confront the Pakistan armed forces. The militants of Waziri tribes have concluded truce with Pakistan authorities. Only a small group under Abdullah Mehsud is sticking to guns. Hopefully things would cool down due to Mulla Omer’s instructions. Apparently there is realization on the part of Pakistan government that it would be a bad strategy to confront the Islamic militants when Balochistan is simmering under nationalists. Islamic militants are Pakistan’s most trust-worthy line of defense that must be tamed but not lost. The Composite Dialogue with India: The composite dialogue with India that began with much funfair in early 2004 is likely to enter the troubled water over the core issue of Kashmir. Nevertheless, the agreement on Muzzaf- arabad-Sri Nagar bus service is a major break-through. It is also a good sign that progress has been made on the opening of the Khokharapar-Monabao rail link.

Although some so-called jihad elements have threatened to disrupt the bus service, Pakistan and India seem determined to thwart such designs. The Hurriyat Conference has appreciatedthe softening of the borders and has called for more positive steps, which is, understandable. However, the human right violations in occupied Kashmir is a matter of grave concern and so is the news that banned militant Kashmiri outfits have been allowed by Pakistan to reappear with new names.

Pakistan’s Options: Referring to the dilemma of mid-1960s when Pakistan decided to pursue a policy based on ‘bilateralism’ in its relations with the Great Powers, President Ayub Khan observed in his Friends, Not Masters: “The objective was to establish normal relations with the major powers involved in Asia without antagonizing any one of them. A simple strategy was evolved to achieve this objective. We should endeavor to set up bilateral equations with each of them, with the clear understanding that the nature and complexion of the equation should be such as to promote ourmutual interests without adversely affecting the legitimate interests of third parties.”Highlighting the difficulties involved in pursuing such a policy, Ayub Khan stated: “No bilateral equation could be established in isolation, other equations would influence its level. In the end each equation would be determined by the limits of tolerance of third parties. So each equation would have to be acceptable to third parties with whom we might be able to establishbilateral relations of mutual benefit. That is where all the complications and difficulties would arise. It would be like walking on a triangular tightrope. It would be vital to determine clearly the limits of tolerance within which bilateral equations might be constructed.” Although easier said than done, Ayub Khan’s observations offer some important guidelines his successor.If Pakistan goes along with the United States to become its regional policeman, it is likely to receive substantial economic and financial assistance. The United States would be pleased to strengthen Pakistan’s conventional defense capabilities and would ensure that no problem arises from its eastern neighbor, India. Simultaneously, Pakistan would be expected to freeze its nuclear program, accept American role in command and control system of its nuclear assets on the pretext that they should be safeguarded from falling into the hands of the terrorists and, at some stage, to recognize Israel. In due course, Pakistan would become a liberal society with divorce between state and religion. Perhaps it would become an Egypt of Asia, with pockets of Islamic resistance occasionally showing its presence. If

Pakistan goes too far with China i.e., if it allows China to project military power in the Arabian Sea, it is likely to face the wrath of the United States and India. In such an eventuality, the United States and India are bound to joinhands in destabilizing Balochistan. There should not be slightest doubt about it. God forbid, the United States may even successfully conspire to severe Balochistan and Karachi from Pakistan and allow India to establish its hegemony over Punjab and Sindh who would then be nominally independent. If Pakistan goes all along with India, its ultimate fate would be that of a client state playing second fiddle to that country. Pakistan’s market would be at the mercy of India’s giant economy and there would be complete erosion of its ideology leading to a big question mark about its very existence as an independent state. Pakistan should proceed with the Gwadar port project without offering any military facilities to China on the Balochistan coast that may be of genuine concern to the United States. According to some reports China has already acquired facilities to monitor oil shipment from the Strait of Hormuz that passes from near Gwadar. It is also important that the fears and apprehensions of the Baloch nationalists are addressed to the maximum extent. In case there are still substantial chances of foreign interference, the prospects of economic benefits should not make Pakistan blind to its national security and it should slow down the progress on themega projects till the time is propitious. It was a right decision that the opening of the Gwadar port at the hands of the Chinese Prime Minister on 5 April 2005 was cancelled. Similarly, Pakistan should never become an instrument in American hands for ‘containment’ of China. The United States’ interest in Pakistan is for negative purpose whereas China has very vital strategic interests in Pakistan and can be relied upon in hour of need. During 1960s Pakistan had successfully withstood American pressure when it befriended China. In themidst of the Afghanistan war Pakistan turned down the offer of AWACS because China apprehended that they would be used by Americans to monitor parts of Xingiang. This time Pakistan should decline to accept any role that is meant to militarily contain China. This means that Pakistan should not offer any military facilities on the Arabian coast to the United Stateseither or establish any links with NATO or the US Central Command specifically against Chinese security interests.

Pakistan should never allow its territory to be used against Iran for military strike on its nuclear installations or regime change. This may lead to serious resentment and active dissent within the armed forces from Islamist and Shia elements. However, it may postpone a final decision onIran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline for an indefinite period. In the meantime, Turkmenistan- Afghanistan- Pakistan gas pipeline project should proceed and India be offered its benefits.Beset my multiple dangers, Pakistan cannot do with a hostile India in its neighborhood. At a time when India is spreading its tentacles of defense cooperation to Iran, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan, it is all the more important. It is in the interest of Pakistan to continue with its composite dialogue with India even if no substantial progress is made onthe Kashmir dispute. The confidence-building measures should ultimately extend to the activities of the ISI in India’s eastern and north-eastern provinces and of the RAW inBalochistan, Sindh and tribal areas. Both should adhere to the five principles of peaceful co-existence. However, Pakistan should never be oblivious to its defense capabilities ____conventional and non-conventional ____, and should not be liberal in promoting cultural ties with India lest it erode Pakistan’s ideological foundation. As regards American ‘war on terrorism’, Pakistan has already done a lot and could do more. However, Pakistan’s responsibility is confined to ensuring that its territory is not used by Al-Qaeda or the Taliban remnants. Let it be absolutely clear that Pakistan cannot afford to alienate its own people to ingratiate the United States. In his first public speech as Pakistan’s Ambassador in Washington, General Jehangir said:“From a policy of active interference and destabilization of Afghanistan, Pakistan is working with the US for a stable and friendly Afghanistan. From a policy of hostility and confrontation with India, Pakistan now has a policy of dialogue and conflict resolution. From a policy of appeasement and political expediency with extremist religious elements, Pakistan has moved to confronting them to end their negative influence and activities. From a clandestine nuclear program with proliferation consequences, Pakistan has moved to a regime of command, control and international cooperation.

Creation o f Pakistan:

A joint Struggle by the Political leaders and Civil Society

The Pakistan Movement or Tehrik-e-Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستان کِ� Tẹḥrīk-e Pākistān) refers to the — تحریsuccessful historical movement against British Raj and Indian Congress to have an independent Muslim state named Pakistan created from the dissolution of the British Indian Empire. It had its origins in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (present day Uttar Pradesh). Muslims there were a minority, yet their elite had a disproportionate amount of representation in the civil service and a strong degree of cultural and literary influence. The idea of Pakistan spread from Northern India through the Muslim diaspora of this region, and spread outwards to the Muslim communities of the rest of India.[1] This movement was led by lawyer Muhammad Ali Jinnah, along with other prominent founding fathers of Pakistan including Allama Iqbal, Liaqat Ali Khan, Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, Aga Khan III, Fatima Jinnah, Bahadur Yar Jung, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, A.K. Fazlul Huq, Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar, Jogendra Nath Mandal, Victor Turner, Ra'na Liaquat Ali Khan, and Dr. Sir Ziauddin Ahmed.The movement ultimately achieved success in 1947 with the Partition of India into largely Muslim-majority and non-Muslim majority regions

Political leaders and Founding fathers

M uhammad Ali Jinnah Allama Muhammad Iqbal Liaquat Ali Khan Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar Aga Khan III Muhammad Zafarullah Khan Ghulam Bhik Nairang Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari Khwaja Nazimuddin Jalal-ud-din Jalal Baba Chaudhry Naseer Ahmad Malhi Maulana Zafar Ali Khan

Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan

Sir Allama Iqbal

I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.

Choudhary Rahmat Ali

At this solemn hour in the history of India, when British and Indian statesmen are laying the foundations of a Federal Constitution for that land, we address this appeal to you, in the name of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in Pakistan – by which we mean the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan – for your sympathy and support in our grim and fateful struggle against political crucifixion and complete annihilation.[12]

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state

1. Sir Aga Khan III. (Head of the delegation); (Bombay).2. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. (Aligarh).3. Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk. (Muradabad).4. Maulvi Hafiz Hakim Ajmal Khan. (Delhi).5. Nawab Syed Sardar Ali Khan (Bombay).6. Syed Abdul Rauf. (Allahabad).7. Maulvi Habiburrehman Khan. (Aligarh).8. Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan. (Aligarh).9. Abdul Salam Khan. (Rampur).10. Raees Muhammed Ahtasham Ali. (Lucknow)11. Khan Bahadur Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan. (Aligarh).12. Haji Muhammed Ismail Khan. (Aligarh).

13. Shehzada Bakhtiar Shah. (Calcutta).14. Malik Umar Hayat Khan Tiwana. (Shahpur).15. Khan Bahadur Muhammed Shah Deen. (Lahore).16. Khan Bahadur Syed Nawab Ali Chaudhary. (Memon Singh).17. Nawab Bahadur Mirza Shuja'at Ali Baig. (Murshidabad).18. Nawab Nasir Hussain Khan Bahadur. (Patna).19. Khan Bahadur Syed Ameer Hassan Khan. (Calcutta).20. Syed Muhammed Imam. (Patna).21. Nawab Sarfaraz Hussain Khan Bahadur. (Patna).22. Maulvi Rafeeuddin Ahmed. (Bombay).23. Khan Bahadur Ahmed Muhaeeuddin. (Madras).24. Ibraheem Bhai Adamjee Pirbhai. (Bombay).25. Syed Allahdad Shah. (Khairpur).26. Khan Bahadur Col. Abdul Majeed Khan. (Patiala).27. Khan Bahadur Khawaja Yousuf Shah. (Amritsar).28. Khan Bahadur Mian Muhammad Shafi. (Lahore).29. Khan Bahadur Shaikh Ghulam Sadiq. (Amritsar).

Role Ulama and Mashaekh

1. Syed Jamat Ali Shah2. Allama Shabbir Ahmed Usmani3. Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi4. Pir Sahib Manki Sharif5. Maulana Abdul Hamid Badayuni6. Maulvi Syed Karamat Husain. (Allahabad).7. Maulvi Sharifuddin (Patna).8. Syed Nabiullah. (Allahabad).9. Khalifa Syed Muhammed Khan Bahadur. (Patna)10. Maulana H. M. Malik. (Nagpur).11. Maulvi Abdul Raheem. (Calcutta).

12.

Role of ladies in Tehreek-e-Pakistan

1. Bi Amman (Mother of Ali brothers-Muhammad Ali Johar and Shaukat Ali)

2. Begum Maulana Muhammad ali Johar(Member of all India msuslim working committee- Participated in 1940 Resolution)

3. Miss Fatima Jinnah(Organised muslim wing of Muslim league and many other services)4. Lady Nusrat Abdullah Haroon(Social worker and established social club in Dehli by the

name of Nusrat club)5. Begum Jahan Ara Shah Nawaz(Daughter of Founding member of muslim league Sir

Muhammd Shafi- later member of Punjab assembly 1955-616. Begum Ra’ana Liaquat Ali khan7. Begum Salma Tasadduq Hussain(Delegation to UNO)

Begum Shaista Ikram Ullah

1. Initial Problems : Challenges and opportunities, influx of refugees 2. Initial Problems: River Water disputes distribution of Asset 3. Accession of princely States: Kashmir disputes a nuclear flash Point in South

Asia.

Post Independence Problems

Pakistan was carved out in desperate urgency. It came into existence with horrible loss of life and property, and the migration of millions of dazed and destitute men, women, and children. The cost was heavy in terms of human suffering. But what the Muslims wanted and what they achieved was a homeland of their own. They now had the freedom to worship, practice their religious faith and develop their culture. Moreover, independence had opened up a bright future for the Muslims, who hoped for a better standard of living, economic development, prosperity and a fuller life. But it seemed in those early years (1947-58) that the immense sacrifices might have been in vain for Pakistan had been struggling from one major crisis to another, fighting to ward off the multiple problems that threatened the nation. The main problems were: 1. Refugees 2. Indus Water 3. Accession of Princely States

1. Refugees

It had been agreed between Jinnah and Nehru that a Boundary Commission should be setup to define the borders between India and Pakistan. The British Government immediately appointed a Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate permanent borders. The boundaries had to be defined as such that provinces, districts, and villages that were predominantly Muslim went to Pakistan, while Hindu majority areas went to India. Provinces like Baluchistan, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and East Bengal provided little difficulty. But deep problems arose when boundaries in Punjab had to be fixed; there were also a substantial number of Hindus and Sikhs residing in this region, other than the Muslims. However, the province was partitioned.

When the boundaries were drawn between India and Pakistan, it resulted in many tragic events. In an almost frantic, cruel rush, the commission divided districts, villages, farmlands, water and property. Thousands of innocent men, women and children were caught unaware. The result was that many hastened across the border, leaving their homes, land and personal property to seek refuge. Panic, fear, revenge and reprisals followed. Both India and Pakistan were soaked in blood. It left on Pakistan's doorstep, seven million refugees who had to be rehabilitated, clothed, fed and sheltered. Partition also involved dividing of the assets of the Sub-continent. India, being the larger country, got the lion's share in all transactions, leaving Pakistan with minimal resources to survive and build on. Equally disastrous was the economic situation. There were not sufficient skilled personnel to run the railways, hospitals and offices. There weren't enough chairs, tables or even stationery and paper pins for administrative purposes. Food was scarce. Pakistan had no industry. At the time of partition, the cash balances of undivided India stood at about Rupees 4,000 million. At the beginning of December 1947, India and Pakistan mutually came to an agreement that Pakistan would get Rupees 750 million as her share. Rupees 200 million had been already paid to Pakistan while Rupees 550 million were to be paid immediately. But this amount was withheld on the plea that Pakistan would use it in the war going on in Kashmir. However, as this stand was morally untenable, the remaining amount was later on released after Gandhi's fast and under world pressure on January 15, 1948. Soon afterwards, Sardar Patel threatened that the implementation of the agreement would depend upon the settlement of the Kashmir issue. But, it was upon Gandhi's request that the Reserved Bank of India paid Pakistan Rupees 500 million, retaining the balance of Rupees 50 million to adjust some trumped up claim against Pakistan

2. The Indus Water

The most explosive of Indo-Pakistan disputes was the question of sharing the waters of the Indus basin. On April 1, 1948, India cut off the supply of water from the two headworks under her control. Fortunately, Eugene Black, President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered the offices of the Bank for the solution of the water problem in 1952. A solution acceptable to both governments was agreed upon in 1960 at the Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement at Karachi. This treaty is commonly known as the "Indus Water Treaty". The treaty allowed for a transitional period of 10 to 13 years, after which the three eastern rivers would fall exclusively to India's share and the three western rivers to Pakistan. During the transitional period, Pakistan would construct a system of replacement works consisting of two dams, five barrages and seven link canals financed by the Indus Development Fund.

3. Accession of Princely States

Prior to partition, there existed in British India many semi-autonomous Princely states whose future had to be settled before Britain withdrew from India. There were some 560 such states all over the Sub-continent. Some fell within Indian territory, others in Pakistan. On July 25, 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India) in his address to the Chamber of Princes advised them that in deciding the question of accession, they should take into consideration communal composition and the geographical location of their states. Nearly all the states accepted the reality of the situation and opted either for Pakistan or India accordingly. But there were four states, Junagadh, Hyderabad, Jodhpur and Kashmir, which defied the principle of partition.

I. Junagadh: The ruler of Junagadh was a Muslim but 80 percent of his subjects were Hindus. On September 15, 1947, the Nawab acceded to Pakistan, despite the fact that his state did not fall within the geographical grouping of Pakistan. India protested, stormed in her troops, and forcibly reversed the Nawab's decision and Junagadh became a part of India. II. Hyderabad: Hyderabad, the second of the defiant states was the largest and richest in India. Its population was 85 percent Hindu but the ruler (Nizam) was a Muslim. He was reluctant to accede either to India or Pakistan but was dismissed by Mountbatten for adopting this course. The Nizam was forced by the Indian government and Lord Mountbatten to join India. A standstill agreement was concluded between India and Hyderabad. The Hindu subjects were incited to revolt against the Nizam's desire to be independent. The whole province suffered turmoil and violence. Hyderabad filed a compliant with the Security Council of the United Nations. Before the hearing could be started, Indian troops entered Hyderabad to "restore order", and under the pretext of "police action" Hyderabad was forced to join India. The Hyderabad army surrendered on September 17, 1948, and finally Hyderabad was annexed into the Indian Union. III. Jodhpur: Yet another prince, the Maharaja of Jodhpur, expressed a wish to join Pakistan but Mountbatten warned him that his subjects were mostly Hindus and his accession to Pakistan would create problems. As a result Jodhpur, too, acceded to India. IV. Kashmir: Please see "Kashmir Crisis".

Kashmir Crisis [1948]

Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 78 percent of the total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before August 15, 1947. The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the Indian and the Pakistani government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India refused. The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August 1947, they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The Maharaja panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire, and within a matter of seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir government and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had begun in earnest. The Pathan tribesmen from the North West Frontier Province, wanting to avenge the deaths of their brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the Maharaja's troops and reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital. The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to send troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India. On October 27, 1947, India began to airlift her troops to Srinagar, and launched a full-scale attack on the tribesmen. Pakistan was stunned. Despite her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to send in her troops but the British General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed an immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir. In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused Pakistan of aggression and demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had been brought about by force. The government requested the Security Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both the tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free and impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the wishes of the people of Kashmir.

While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border. Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948, called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under United Nations' supervision. Both the Indian and Pakistani governments accepted the resolution. In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit, and a great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the Tibet border. The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed and unresolved.

9.Nuclear Policy:

Pakistan has been a great champion and supporter of peaceful uses of nuclear technology although Pakistan has acquired nuclear manufacturing capabilities in the mid 80s but Pakistan avoided making weapons. Pakistan avoided nuclear explosions despite having the knowledge and capability of processing Uranium, Plutonium. It was only for the sake of deterrence and reaction to India’s nuclear explosions. Pakistan was of the view that this technology should primarily be used for economic development and for betterment of the people rather than for making weapons. Pakistan exploded nuclear weapons in May 1998 in response to India’s nuclear explosions. India’s nuclear explosions created strategic imbalance in the region. Pakistan decided to rectify and remove this imbalance there at the end of May 1998 Pakistan exploded its nuclear explosions. So had India not exploded the nuclear devices Pakistan would not have gone for that strategy. Even after its explosions Pakistan talked about nuclear restrained regime in this region that India and Pakistan should agree on basic principles for control of convential weaponry and also containment of Nuclear weapons proliferation.

There are other principles which are important for the foreign policy of Pakistan and which Pakistan emphasizes from time to time. One important area pertains to Pakistan’s relation with India

4. The land o f Pakistan: Location and geo Strategic ImportanceGeo-Strategic Significance of Pakistan

1. Introduction2. Pakistan geographical location3. Strategic significance:a) - Proximity of great powersb) - Gateway to central Asia- oil and energy gamec) - Significance as a transit economyd) - Significance as an important link in the chain of Muslim countriese) - Only Muslim country having nuclear capability

4. Conclusions/ Analysis

1- INTRODUCTION:

Pakistan is located at a region which has great political, economic and strategic location. It has been hub of activities of great powers for last 20 years. It has witnessed intervention of three great powers i-e Britain, USSR, and USA. Its significance was further enhanced during cold war when it becomes ally of US policy of containment of USSR and now the post cold war era has witnessed its significance particularly after the events of 9/11.

2- PAKISTAN GEOGRAPHICALLY LOCATION:

Location: Southern Asia lies between 24 and 36.75 northern latitude and between 61 and 7505 eastern longitude.Area: 7, 96000 sq.km.

Towards north apart from the state of Kashmir is china. It shares 400 km long boarder with china. Towards north Tajikistan though no boarder but a narrow strip as Wahkhan strip separate the two. Towards east, Punjab-Rajasthan boarders which is 1650 km longTowards west, Afghanistan and Durand line of 2250 km.Towards south, Arabian and Indian sea. Coastal belt is about 700 km.

Pakistan significance is enhanced as it lies near the Persian Gulf where 65% of the world’s oil is produced.

3- STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE:

GEOSTRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF PAKISTAN

Geo strategic means the importance of a country or a region as by virtue of its geographical location.Pakistan is a very fortune country in respect of its location.It came into being on August 14,1947.It has an area of 796096 square kilometers.Pakistan is a junction between South Asia,Wesat Asia and Central Asian Countris,a way from energy efficient countries to energy deficient countries.The world is facing energy crisis and terrorism.Pakistan is a route for tranportation,a front line state agaanst terrorism.That's why Stephen Cohn says:"While history has been unkind to Pakistan,its geography has been its greatest benefit.It has resource rich areas in areas inthe north-west,people rich in the north-east"Pakistan occupies a position of great geo strategic importance borded by Iran in the west,Afghanistan in the north-west,China on tha north-east India on the east and Arabian sea on the south.Geographically Pakistan is located in South Asia.Persian gulf has a geographical importance and countries like Iran,Iraq,Kuwait,Qatar,Bahrain,Suadia Arabia,Oman,UAE `etc., are located along it.These MUlim countries possess the wealth of oil which has enhanced their importance.Pakistan has cardial relations with these countries.Afghanistan and Central Asian Countries are far away from coastal areas and they are land locked countries.These countries have to go through the land of Pakistan to reach the sea.They are famous for oil and gas fields and high production of agriculture.Thus,they are very important for our future.China is situated in the north of northen mountains.the silk route connects Pakistan and China.These countries have warm realtions and their friendship is stronger than Hamalayas.China has helped Pakistan in the

development of many defence and economic projects like Gawader.Pakistan is a bridge between South Asia and South West Asia.Iran and

a) Proximity of great powers:

Pakistan is located at the junction of great powers. In its neighbor’s one world power Russia and the other emerging power china lies. Any alliance among world powers enhances its significance. This factor has been utilized by Pakistan after 9/11. Security and business are two main US interests in the region while Pakistan is playing a front line role in the war against terrorism. Apart from this US interest in the region to contain the growing china, nuclear Iran, terrorist Afghanistan and to benefit from the market of India. Today the political scenario of the region is tinged with preemption policy and US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan. Iran’s nuclear program, India’s geopolitical muscles (new strategic deal with US) to gain hegemony and to counter the rise of china. Which has earned all the qualities to change unipoler world into bipolar world? In all these issues, Pakistan is directly or indirectly involved especially after al-Qeada operations. The American think tank has repeatedly accepted that war against terrorism could never be won without the help of Pakistan. Pakistan has rigorously fought and an ongoing operation in Waziristan is also targeting the suspected Taliban in the bordering area.

b) Gateway to central Asia-(oil and energy game):

Central Asia is the center stage of new Great games. Western quest for resources- oil and energy resources in the central Asia. After USSR decline, new quest started which is as manifested by politics of oil. Pakistan is located very close to the oil rich Middle Eastern countries. The belt started from Iran and extended to Saudi Arabia. Thus, Pakistan can influence shipment of oil. Iran is struggling to export its surplus gas and oil to eastern countries, Qatar, Pakistan and Turkmenistan pipeline projects highlight the position.In the energy scarce world, Pakistan is located in the hub of energy rich countries i-e Iran and Afghanistan: both are energy abundant while India and china are lacking. China finds way to Indian Ocean and Arabian sea through Karakoram highway,

c) Significance as a Transit economy:

Pakistan has the potential to develop transit economy on account is its strategic location, land locked Afghanistan now at the phase of reconstruction finds its ways through Pakistan. China with its fastest economy growth rate of 9% us developing southern provinces because its own part is 4500 km away from Sinkiang but Gwader is 2500 km away. Moreover, Pakistan offers central Asian regions the shortest route of 2600 km as compared to Iran 4500 km or turkey 5000 km. gwader port with its deep waters attracts the trade ships of china, CAR and south east Asian countries., also the coastal belt of Balochistan can provide outlet to china’s western provinces to have access to middles eastern markets with the development of coastal highways and motorways.

d) Important link in the chain of Muslim countries:

If we look at the map of Muslim countries, Pakistan occupies a central location. Towards west of Iran, china extends to North Africa. Thus it can actively participate in the activities of Muslim world-

economic development, transport of resources and above all combat terrorism.

e) Only Muslim country with nuclear capability:

in the region Pakistan is the only Muslim country having nuclear capability which has great influence on the political, socio-economic activities in the region and the maintenance of status quo in the region.

4- CONCLUSION / ANALYSIS:

Geo strategic means the importance of a country or a region as by virtue of its geographical location. Stephen Cohn describes this importance “while history has been unkind with Pakistan, its geography has been its greatest benefit.”

Pakistan is a junction of south Asia, west Asia and central Asia; a way from resource efficient countries to resource deficient countries. The world is facing energy crises and terrorism. Pakistan is a route for transportation and a front line state against terrorism. Moreover Pakistan has been traditionally ally of emerging economic giant; china. So in the vague of any change in world politics, Pakistan’s geo-strategic significance would further be enhanced.

A recent Xinhua report has for the first time shed light on China's growing concerns with US pivot to Asia which could threaten China's international trade and its economic lifeline of energy and other natural resources it needs to sustain and grow its economy. This concern has been further reinforced by the following:

1. Frequent US statements to "check" China's rise. For example, former US Defense Secretary Leon Panetta said in a 2011 address to the Naval Postgraduate School in California: "We try everything we can to cooperate with these rising powers and to work with them, but to make sure at the same time that they do not threaten stability in the world, to be able to project our power, to be able to say to the world that we continue to be a force to be reckoned with." He added that "we continue to confront rising powers in the world - China, India, Brazil, Russia, countries that we need to cooperate with. We need to hopefully work with. But in the end, we also need to make sure do not threaten the stability of the world."

2. Chinese strategists see a long chain of islands from Japan in the north, all the way down to Australia, all United States allies, all potential controlling chokepoints that could block Chinese sea lanes and cripple its economy, business and industry.

Chinese Premier's emphasis on "connectivity and maritime sectors" and "China-Pakistan economic corridor project" is mainly driven by their paranoia about the US intentions to "check China's rise" It is intended to establish greater maritime presence at Gwadar, located close to the strategic Strait of Hormuz, and to build land routes (motorways, rail links, pipelines) from the Persian Gulf through Pakistan to Western China. This is China's insurance to continue trade with West Asia and the Middle East in case of hostilities with the United States and its allies in Asia.

As to the benefits for Pakistanis, the Chinese investment in "connectivity and maritime sectors" and "China-Pakistan economic corridor project" will help build infrastructure, stimulate Pakistan's economy and create

millions of badly needed jobs.

Clearly, China-Pakistan ties have now become much more strategic than the US-Pakistan ties, particularly since 2011 because, as American Journalist Mark Mazzetti of New York Times put it, the Obama administration's heavy handed policies "turned Pakistan against the United States". A similar view is offered by a former State Department official Vali Nasr in his book "The Dispensable Nation".

Resources of Pakistan: agriculture, industry and Human Capital

1: Natural Resources• Mineral Resources• Rivers and Canals• Forests• Animals

2: Agriculture

1: Natural Resources:The resources endowed by the nature to the country and the people are called National Resources, e.g., Mineral resources, rivers, forests and animals. Agricultural lands hold key to development and prosperity of a country.The rate of development and prosperity of a country depends on efforts to make use of it. Effective management and human efforts are needed to avail them. Modern technology is also required to make use of it.

Mineral Resources:Pakistan is blessed with considerable mineral resources. Some of them are explored but much remains to be done for the search for more. Some important resources are:• Iron Ore is used for industry, especially steel industry. It is found in limited quantity and low quality. Most of the required Iron ore is imported from abroad. Its deposits are found in Chitral, Chaghai, Kohat, Kurram Agency, Mardan, Hazara, Mianwali (Kalabagh) and DG Khan.• Chromite: is used in preparing other metals, leather tanning, making of steel products, armament and stainless steel. The deposits of Chromite are found in Zoab (Muslim Bagh), Chaghai, Malakand, Mahmand, Waziristan, Fort Sandaman etc.• Gypsum is used for plaster of Paris, Paints and Cement. It is found in Jhelum, Mianwali, DG Khan, Kohat and Loralai.• Sulphur is used by chemical industry. Its deposits are found in Kalat, Khairpur, Mardan, and Jacobabad etc.• Coal is used in power generation. It is basically used as fuel. It is not found in good quantity and quality. It is mostly found in Sindh (Thatta, Tharparkar, Manara) Balochistan (Deegari, Sharig, Soer, Khost, Maach, Hernai), Punjab (Makarwal, Dandot), NWFP (Cherat and Noshera).• Oil: It is a major source of energy. It is mostly imported from Iran and Gulf states. Now some valuable reserves are found in Jhelum, Mianwali, Attock, Balkasar, Mial, Chakwal, and Dhodak.• Gas: it is itself a source of energy and fuel, and also used as a source of power generation. It is found in

Sui, Mari, Uch, Khairpur, Jacobabad etc. Now some new discoveries are also found.• Uranium: It is the basic element for atomic power, indispensable for the defence. Its deposits are in DG Khan, Hazara and Kohat.Rivers:

The river system of Pakistan is consisted of Indus and other associated rivers. We have a well- defined Canal system. The most important one is the Indus Basin project.What we require is the proper management of water, its conservation, effective use, storage, dams and flood control. Water is dangerous if it is too much, it become a problem if it is too little. It is used for Agriculture where it is the backbone of agro-economy. It is also a cheapest source of hydroelectric Power generation.

Forests:Normally 25 percent area of a country should be covered with forest. But in Pakistan it is only 4 to 5 percent.Some areas are not suitable for plantation like deserts and dry mountains. It is because of shortage of water and rainfall. Deforestation is also due to unplanned cutting of trees.5. Advantages:6. Forests have many advantages. They are helpful in improvement of weather. Protect against windstorms,

help in slow melting of snow to stop floods. They add greenery, beauty and fresh air to the environment. Plants are source of food, medicine, timber, chemicals and fertilizers. They are the homes of animals, birds and insects. They are also used as fuel.

Animals:Animals provide milk, meat, hide and skins, wool etc. They are also used for agriculture and transportation. They are a source of foreign exchange.Their proper breeding requires planning and care. Animal husbandry and colleges of research are established to breed and cure useful species of animals. Department of Live Stock also provides Support System for raising animals both privately and through Government Projects. Government farms and military farms are also working for that purpose.Fisheries:It is also a source of food and income. Department of fisheries also encourage private farmers to invest in this field and add to personal and national wealth.2: AgriculturePakistan is an agricultural country. More than 70 percent of its population lives in rural areas. Over 50 percent are directly engaged in farming or agro-based activities.• Share of agriculture to GDP is 26 percent.• In Punjab and Sindh plains are very large. There are irrigated farmlands.• Two major crops are yielded in a year(a) RABI: Sown in October-November and produce obtained in April-May. Important produces are Wheat, Gram, Oil seeds.(b) KHARIF: Sown in May-June and produce is obtained in October-November.Important crops are Rice, Sugar Cane, Cotton etc.• Main crops: Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Sugar Cane, Gram, Maize, Mustard, Tobacco, Oil seeds, Fruits and vegetables.• Land Reforms are introduced from time to time by different governments: in1959, 1972, and 1977. The aim was to reduce land holding and to strengthen the position of tenants. It was done for improving yield per acre and poverty alleviation in agriculture field.

Problems in Agriculture:There are number of problems in our agriculture, for instance:1. Outdated modes of cultivation, which cause low per acre yield.2. Water Logging and Salinity.Attention is being given to these since mid 1960.3. Crop diseases are big problem. Technical support is being provided by Department of Agricultural. It helped to overcome the problem. Our inputs have problem of quality, which cause low prices in market. Other handicaps are low quality seeds, costly fertilizers, non-availability of electricity or oil for tube well etc.4. Water related problem, sometimes it is too little, but sometimes it is too much. Cleaning of Canals is also necessary to provide water at the end of canal.5. Credit facilities are also problematic.6. Access to market is difficult.7. Availability of reasonable price should be ensured for the welfare of the farmers and high yield of crop.7. Agriculture and Development Plans:8. • Research is done for the development of high yield seeds giving better output. Information and

guidance is being provided to the common farmer to enjoy the fruits of the advance research in the field of agriculture. University education is developed in various parts of Pakistan especially in Faisalabad and Jamshoro. Emphasis is laid on modern technology in practical field.• Communication and transportation facilities are increased.• Government ensures the payment to the farmers for their produce immediately.

- Industrial Development 1. Importance2. Historical Overview3. Major Industries4. Future Directions1. ImportanceIndustrialization is the key to economic development and overall prosperity. Without it no economy can grow. It is the backbone of a strong and stable economy. It is the basis of modernization and development of the state. Industrialization helps the international standing of a state. Industry and technology go together. It enhances trade and save foreign exchange. Industrialization brings self-reliance for a nation.It is also important for agriculture. Agriculture provides raw materials and so input for industry and output is the finished goods.Industrialization improves the quality of life, help in Poverty reduction, and provide employment facilities.Industrialization has close relevance with the defence and security of the country.

2: Historical Overview:In 1947 Pakistan inherited very small industrial infrastructure. Only about 4 percent of India’s industry was there in areas of Pakistan. It was insufficient to meet the needs of the day-to-day life. Initially sugar mills, biscuit factories, cigarettes factories, oil mill, cement units, match factory, steel rolling, and glass work factories were set up.Priorities set out in the early years:

1. Industry would be based on indigenous raw materials.2. Consumer goods should be manufactured to meet the immediate needs of the people.3. Private initiative to be encouraged.4. The state to be involved in the process through: facilitation and help, financial help, tax incentives, protective tariffs etc. It also played direct role to set up industry.5. Training and research facilities would be provided.6. Industrial Development Board was formed in 1948. All Five Years Plans from 1955, 1960, 1965-70 paid greater emphasis on private sector and rapid industrialization. It added to aggregate economic growth.9. Institutional Arrangements:10. • Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) was established under a law in 1950. It

encouraged the setting up of industry that was less attractive for the private sector. Initially 15 industries were identified.• Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan (IDBP) was set up in 1961. It provided loan facilities for industrial projects at concessional rates to middle and small investors.• PICIC: Pak Industrial Credit & Investment Corporation was established to give loans and credit facilities, including foreign exchange facility, for setting up industry. It also launched investment schemes.• Investment Promotion Bureau, 1959 was formed for the promotion of domestic and foreign investment and to provide advice and guidance to investors and provision of necessary help to them.• Other institutions like ICP, NDFC, NIT were established.• External financial and technical support was provided both bilateral and multilateral by World Bank, IMF, and Colombo Plan etc.

11. Nationalisation of the Seventies:New democratic government of PPP after assuming power adopted the policy of nationalisation. Ten basic industries were nationalised. Later some others were also taken over to have a greater state role. Initial euphoria ended and industrial output suffered. It also caused flight of capital from the country

Since the early 1990s:The policy of the governments in 1990s changed. Since 1990s all the governments including that of PPP followed the policy of denationalisation and privatisation. They are promoting free economy, foreign investment, non-governmental initiatives, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and investment from Pakistanis settled outside the country.

3: Major Industries:12. • Textiles: It is major industry based on agriculture, heavy textile industry caters to domestic and

external market. Major Centres are Faisalabad, Multan, Lahore and Karachi. Woollen Cloth is manufactured in Karachi, Lawrencepur, Harnai, Quaidabad, Multan and Bannu.• Sugar: Pakistan has made tremendous progress in this industry. It is a food item; agro based industry, located in Sindh, Punjab and Sindh.• Cement: This industry has gone through major expansion. Over 20 factories are established in the pubic and private sectors which cater to Pakistani needs. Still it is imported in limited quantity. Most of the sites are in Dandot, Daud Khel, Wah, Rori and Karachi.• Vegetable Ghee: Cooking oil is a major food item. There is much expansion over the years both in private and public sectors. Now we are self sufficient, although some raw material for making cooking oil is imported. About 60 units are in Sindh, Punjab and NWFP.• Iron and Steel: Steel Mill near Karachi was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union. The major

problem was that of raw material. The iron ore found in Pakistan is very poor in quality. Steel rolling units and iron related factories exist in different parts of Pakistan.• Paper: Major paper industry was in East Pakistan, which was lost in 1971. We had to face shortage of locally made paper after 1971. Now this industry is located in Noshera, Charsada, Gujranwala, Lahore, and Gharo. Some quality paper has to be imported.• Machine, tools: Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) Texla serve this purpose. HMC was set up with Chinese cooperation.• Machinery, industrial equipment, engineering goods, engines, machinery for sugar, cement, and fertilizer industry is prepared here.• Defence Industry: Wah Ordnance Complex is established for weapons and armaments. HMC is making Tank Rebuild Factory. Kamara Aircraft Rebuild factory overhaul F-6 and Mirage. It is also manufacturing Maashak, K-8.• Other Important Industry: Fertilizer, Tobacco and cigarettes, Oil Refineries, Cars and Tractors production, Shipbuilding: Karachi Shipyard, Ship breaking.• Cottage Industry: Industries established on small scale, involving a household or small number of people, use of limited resources, having less investment are called small or cottage industries e. g., Carpets, sports goods, toys, power or handlooms, handicraft etc.

13. 4: Future Directions:There is no escape from industrialization. It is a must for prosperity and development.We are having Mixed economy with an emphasis on private initiative. Privatisation and Foreign investment need appropriate conditions: political and economic stability, infrastructure, less bottle necks, corruption issue, low interest loans and state support and above all security of investment

14. Constitutional foundation: Ideological Consideration in state System

15. Constitutional foundation: Islamic Provisions of 1956-1962-1973 Constitutions.

Mid Term Examinations

1. Importance of Pakistan in Muslim World, Oic, Eco2. Relations with neighboring counries and Super Powers3. Pakistan in the changing World4. Pakistan and SAARC5. National Integration : Need for unity , Brotherhood and Harmony.6. Future of Pakistan : Politential and Policies

19& 20 End Term Examination

Pakistan's History From 1947-till present

Liaquat Ali Khan as Prime Minister [1947-1951]

Liaquat Ali Khan's contributions to the struggle for independence were numerous. After independence, he was thus the natural choice for the premiership. Liaquat Ali Khan was appointed as the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. Being the first Prime Minister of the country, Liaquat Ali Khan had to deal with a number of difficulties that Pakistan faced in its early days. He helped Quaid-i-Azam in solving the riots and refugee problem and in setting up an effective administrative system for the country. He established the groundwork for Pakistan's foreign policy. He also took steps towards the formulation of the constitution. He presented The Objectives Resolution, a prelude to future constitutions, in the Legislative Assembly. The house passed it on March 12, 1949. It is considered to be the "Magna Carta" in Pakistan's constitutional history. Liaquat Ali Khan called it "the most important occasion in the life of this country, next in importance, only to the achievement of independence". Under his leadership a team also drafted the first report of the Basic Principle Committee and work began on the second report. During his tenure, India and Pakistan agreed to resolve the dispute of Kashmir in a peaceful manner through the efforts of the United Nations. According to this agreement a ceasefire was affected in Kashmir in January 1948. It was decided that a free and impartial plebiscite would be held under the supervision of the After the death of Quaid-i-Azam, he tried to fill the vacuum created by the departure of the Father of the Nation. The problem of religious minorities flared during late 1949 and early 1950, and it seemed as if India and Pakistan were about to fight their second war in the first three years of their independence. At this critical moment in the history of South Asia, Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan met Nehru to sign the Liaquat-Nehru Pact in 1950. The Liaquat-Nehru Pact was an effort on his part to improve relations and reduce tension between India and Pakistan. In May 1951, he visited the United States and set the course of Pakistan's foreign policy towards closer ties with the West. An important event during his premiership was the establishment of National Bank of Pakistan in November 1949, and the installation of a paper currency mill in Karachi. Liaquat Ali Khan was unfortunately assassinated on October 16, 1951. Security forces immediately shot the assassin, who was later identified as Saad Akbar. The question of who was behind his murder is yet to be answered. The government officially gave Liaquat Ali Khan the title of Shaheed-i-Millat.

Jinnah - Mountbatten Talks [1947]

The history of bilateral negotiations pertaining to Kashmir between the leaders of India and Pakistan at the state level can be traced back to November 1947. The meeting of the Joint Defense Council was scheduled at Delhi only four days after the occupation of Kashmir by the Indian forces. The venue of the meeting was changed

from Delhi to Lahore. The Governor General and Prime Minister of the two countries were supposed to attend the meeting. However, to avoid direct talks with his Pakistani counterpart, Jawaharlal Nehru declared himself ill and his deputy, Sardar Patel, refused to come to Lahore, stating that there was nothing to discuss with the Pakistani leadership. This left Mountbatten alone in his visit to Pakistan. Mountbatten came to Lahore on November 1, 1947, and had a three and a half hour long discussion with the Governor General of Pakistan. Mountbatten made an offer to the Quaid that India would hold a plebiscite in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, provided Pakistan withdrew the Azad Kashmiri forces and their allies. He also made it clear that the Indian forces would remain in the valley and Sheikh Abdullah in the chair. Quaid-i-Azam opposed the unjust plan and claimed that the State of Jammu and Kashmir, with its massive Muslim majority, belonged to Pakistan as an essential element in an incomplete partition process. He was also convinced that plebiscite under the supervision of Sheikh Abdullah and Indian regular army would be sabotaged. Presenting his proposal, Quaid-i-Azam asked for the immediate and simultaneous withdrawal of both the Pathan tribesmen and the Indian troops. Afterwards, he suggested that the leaders of India and Pakistan should take control of the State of Jammu and Kashmir and sort out all matters including the arrangement of a free and fair plebiscite. Quaid-i-Azam guaranteed his counterpart that the two of them would be able to solve the problem once and forever, if Mountbatten was ready to fly with him to Srinagar at once. As India was not interested in the immediate resolution of the problem and wanted to gain time, Mountbatten told the Quaid that unlike him, he was not the complete master of his country and had to take the consent of Nehru and Patel. Thus the talks ended and the problem remained unsolved.

Post Independence Problems

Pakistan was carved out in desperate urgency. It came into existence with horrible loss of life and property, and the migration of millions of dazed and destitute men, women, and children. The cost was heavy in terms of human suffering. But what the Muslims wanted and what they achieved was a homeland of their own. They now had the freedom to worship, practice their religious faith and develop their culture. Moreover, independence had opened up a bright future for the Muslims, who hoped for a better standard of living, economic development, prosperity and a fuller life. But it seemed in those early years (1947-58) that the immense sacrifices might have been in vain for Pakistan had been struggling from one major crisis to another, fighting to ward off the multiple problems that threatened the nation. The main problems were: 1. Refugees 2. Indus Water 3. Accession of Princely States

1. Refugees

It had been agreed between Jinnah and Nehru that a Boundary Commission should be setup to define the borders between India and Pakistan. The British Government immediately appointed a Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate permanent borders. The boundaries had to be defined as such that provinces, districts, and villages that were predominantly Muslim went to Pakistan, while Hindu majority areas went to India. Provinces like Baluchistan, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and East Bengal provided little difficulty. But deep problems arose when boundaries in Punjab had to be fixed; there

were also a substantial number of Hindus and Sikhs residing in this region, other than the Muslims. However, the province was partitioned. When the boundaries were drawn between India and Pakistan, it resulted in many tragic events. In an almost frantic, cruel rush, the commission divided districts, villages, farmlands, water and property. Thousands of innocent men, women and children were caught unaware. The result was that many hastened across the border, leaving their homes, land and personal property to seek refuge. Panic, fear, revenge and reprisals followed. Both India and Pakistan were soaked in blood. It left on Pakistan's doorstep, seven million refugees who had to be rehabilitated, clothed, fed and sheltered. Partition also involved dividing of the assets of the Sub-continent. India, being the larger country, got the lion's share in all transactions, leaving Pakistan with minimal resources to survive and build on. Equally disastrous was the economic situation. There were not sufficient skilled personnel to run the railways, hospitals and offices. There weren't enough chairs, tables or even stationery and paper pins for administrative purposes. Food was scarce. Pakistan had no industry. At the time of partition, the cash balances of undivided India stood at about Rupees 4,000 million. At the beginning of December 1947, India and Pakistan mutually came to an agreement that Pakistan would get Rupees 750 million as her share. Rupees 200 million had been already paid to Pakistan while Rupees 550 million were to be paid immediately. But this amount was withheld on the plea that Pakistan would use it in the war going on in Kashmir. However, as this stand was morally untenable, the remaining amount was later on released after Gandhi's fast and under world pressure on January 15, 1948. Soon afterwards, Sardar Patel threatened that the implementation of the agreement would depend upon the settlement of the Kashmir issue. But, it was upon Gandhi's request that the Reserved Bank of India paid Pakistan Rupees 500 million, retaining the balance of Rupees 50 million to adjust some trumped up claim against Pakistan

2. The Indus Water

The most explosive of Indo-Pakistan disputes was the question of sharing the waters of the Indus basin. On April 1, 1948, India cut off the supply of water from the two headworks under her control. Fortunately, Eugene Black, President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered the offices of the Bank for the solution of the water problem in 1952. A solution acceptable to both governments was agreed upon in 1960 at the Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement at Karachi. This treaty is commonly known as the "Indus Water Treaty". The treaty allowed for a transitional period of 10 to 13 years, after which the three eastern rivers would fall exclusively to India's share and the three western rivers to Pakistan. During the transitional period, Pakistan would construct a system of replacement works consisting of two dams, five barrages and seven link canals financed by the Indus Development Fund.

3.Accession of Princely States

Prior to partition, there existed in British India many semi-autonomous Princely states whose future had to be settled before Britain withdrew from India. There were some 560 such states all over the Sub-continent. Some fell within Indian territory, others in Pakistan. On July 25, 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India) in his address to the Chamber of Princes advised them that in deciding the question of accession, they should take into consideration communal composition and the geographical location of their states. Nearly all the states accepted the reality of the

situation and opted either for Pakistan or India accordingly. But there were four states, Junagadh, Hyderabad, Jodhpur and Kashmir, which defied the principle of partition. I. Junagadh: The ruler of Junagadh was a Muslim but 80 percent of his subjects were Hindus. On September 15, 1947, the Nawab acceded to Pakistan, despite the fact that his state did not fall within the geographical grouping of Pakistan. India protested, stormed in her troops, and forcibly reversed the Nawab's decision and Junagadh became a part of India. II. Hyderabad: Hyderabad, the second of the defiant states was the largest and richest in India. Its population was 85 percent Hindu but the ruler (Nizam) was a Muslim. He was reluctant to accede either to India or Pakistan but was dismissed by Mountbatten for adopting this course. The Nizam was forced by the Indian government and Lord Mountbatten to join India. A standstill agreement was concluded between India and Hyderabad. The Hindu subjects were incited to revolt against the Nizam's desire to be independent. The whole province suffered turmoil and violence. Hyderabad filed a compliant with the Security Council of the United Nations. Before the hearing could be started, Indian troops entered Hyderabad to "restore order", and under the pretext of "police action" Hyderabad was forced to join India. The Hyderabad army surrendered on September 17, 1948, and finally Hyderabad was annexed into the Indian Union. III. Jodhpur: Yet another prince, the Maharaja of Jodhpur, expressed a wish to join Pakistan but Mountbatten warned him that his subjects were mostly Hindus and his accession to Pakistan would create problems. As a result Jodhpur, too, acceded to India. IV. Kashmir: Please see "Kashmir Crisis".

Kashmir Crisis [1948]

Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 78 percent of the total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before August 15, 1947. The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the Indian and the Pakistani government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India refused. The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August 1947, they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The Maharaja panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire, and within a matter of seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir government and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had begun in earnest. The Pathan tribesmen from the North West Frontier Province, wanting to avenge the deaths of their brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the Maharaja's troops and reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital. The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to send troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India. On October 27, 1947, India began to airlift her troops to Srinagar, and launched a full-scale attack on the tribesmen. Pakistan was stunned. Despite her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to send in her troops but the British General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed an immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir. In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused Pakistan of aggression and demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had been brought about by force. The government requested the Security Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both

the tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free and impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the wishes of the people of Kashmir. While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border. Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948, called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under United Nations' supervision. Both the Indian and Pakistani governments accepted the resolution. In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit, and a great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the Tibet border. The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed and unresolved.

Jinnah Passes Away [1948]

Quaid-i-Azam had been ailing since long before Independence. By the time of Independence, he was quite an old man but still possessing a strong spirit. He hid the debilitating weakness caused by severely advanced tuberculosis. Researchers like Professor Stanley Wolpert believed that by the end, cancer had developed as well. Quaid-i-Azam was convinced that if word of illness leaked out, his opponents would make the most of it. He denied his illness even to himself and remained intent and unflinching so as to achieve the dream of millions of Muslims. He worked almost 24 hours a day and always preferred performing his national obligations to his own ailment.At the time of independence, he was worn out by his intense struggle and opted to take the position of Governor General instead of that of Prime Minister. It had been proposed that the last Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten, be allowed to continue as a joint Governor General of both Pakistan and India. Quaid-i-Azam refused to accept this proposal as he felt that a joint Governor General would not be able to do justice to both the countries. He firmly believed that since Pakistan was a sovereign state, it must be sovereign in all respects with its own executive and government. By this time, both aging and illness had mounted a terrible toll upon the Quaid. Although the flame still burnt bright, it was now at the cost of his own life. His physicians regularly advised him to take care of his health and to ease back on his work. But he never cared for it and kept on working hard day and night. After the establishment of Pakistan, India created numerous problems. The refugee problem, the withholding of Pakistani assets by India, and the Kashmir problem were a real test for the Quaid. However, his indomitable will prevailed. He also worked out a sound economic policy, established an independent currency and the State Bank of Pakistan. He selected Karachi as the federal capital. His health deteriorated to such an extent, that he had to go to Ziarat for the restoration of his health. Despite the warning from his physicians, he went to Karachi to inaugurate the State Bank of Pakistan. This was his last public appearance. His sickness grew more serious until his death on September 11, 1948. He was buried in Karachi amidst the tears of the entire nation mourning an irreparable loss.

Khawaja Nazimuddin Becomes Governor General [1948-1951]

After Pakistan came into being on August 14, 1947, Nazimuddin was appointed the first Chief Minister of the Province of East Bengal. When the founder of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam, Muhammad Ali Jinnah died on

September 11, 1948, Nazimuddin was appointed as the second Governor General of Pakistan.

Objectives Resolution is passed [1949]

The history of formulation of the constitution of Pakistan begins with the Lahore Resolution in 1940. It was here that the idea of Pakistan, a separate homeland for the Muslims of India, was first outlined. It came to be known as the Pakistan Resolution. On June 3, 1947, the British Government accepted in principle the partition of India in order to create two independent dominions of Pakistan and India. The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on July 18, 1947. Accordingly, the new state of Pakistan came into being on August 14, 1947. This new state was formed of East Bengal, a part of Assam (Sylhet), West Punjab, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and Baluchistan provinces of undivided India. Under Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act of 1947, the Government of India Act of 1935 became, with certain adaptations, the working constitution of Pakistan. However, the Quaid's aim was the establishment of a truly Islamic society. As a result, a Constituent Assembly was set up under the Independence Act. The Constituent Assembly had a dual purpose; to draft the constitution of Pakistan and to act as a legislative body till the new constitution was passed and enforced

Objectives Resolution

On March 12, 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted a resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan, the then Prime Minister of Pakistan. It was called the Objectives Resolution. It proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not be modeled on European pattern, but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam. The Objectives Resolution, which is considered to be the "Magna Carta" of Pakistan's constitutional history, proclaimed the following principles: 1. Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone but He has delegated it to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him as a sacred trust. 2. The State shall exercise its powers and authority through the chosen representatives of the people. 3. The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam, shall be fully observed. 4. Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah. 5. Adequate provision shall be made for the minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures. 6. Pakistan shall be a federation. 7. Fundamental rights shall be guaranteed. 8. Judiciary shall be independent. The Objectives Resolution is one of the most important and illuminating documents in the constitutional history of Pakistan. At the time it was passed, Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan called it "the most important occasion in the life of this country, next in importance only to the achievement of independence". The importance of this document lies in the fact that it combines the good features of Western and Islamic democracy. It is a happy blend of modernism and Islam. The Objectives Resolution became a part of the constitution of Pakistan in 1985 under the Eighth Amendment.

Basic Principles Committee [1949-1952]

After the Objectives Resolution was passed in 1949, the Constitution Assembly set up a number of committees to draw the future constitution on the basis of the principles given in the Objectives Resolution. The most important among those committees was the Basic Principles Committee set up on March 12, 1949, by Khawaja Nazimuddin on the advice of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. The main function of this committee was to determine the basic principles of the future Constitution of Pakistan. The committee comprised 24 members. Maulvi Tamiz-ud-din Khan headed it and Liaquat Ali Khan was its Vice President. The committee presented its interim report to the Legislative Assembly in 1950. This was a short document presenting the guidelines and principles of the future Constitution of Pakistan. Representatives of East Pakistan raised objections against the report. The main criticism was against the quantum representation in the Central Legislature. East Pakistan, with a majority of the population, was given an equal number of seats in the Upper House as West Pakistan, thus reducing the representation of the majority of the population in Pakistan by one-fifth. East Pakistan representatives also did not like Urdu being declared as the only national language of Pakistan. Liaquat Ali Khan agreed to consider the objections with an open mind. He, therefore, postponed the deliberation of the Constituent Assembly in order to enable the Basic Principles Committee to examine and consider suggestions that might be made by the people regarding the principles of the Constitution. In order to include public opinion, Liaquat Ali Khan called forth general comments and suggestions by the public on the report. A large number of proposals and suggestions were sent by the public, which were examined by a special subcommittee headed by Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar. The setting up of the committee was a right and commendable step, but its working was immensely affected by the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan. The subcommittee, however, gave its report to the Basic Principles Committee in July 1952, which was presented by Khawaja Nazimuddin in the National According to the Basic Principles Committee Report, the head of the state was to be a Muslim, elected by a joint session with the majority vote of the Central Legislature for a period of five years. The Prime Minister was to be appointed by the head of the state. The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses: the House of Units with 120 members and the House of People with 400 members. There were to be three lists of subjects for the division of power between the Federation and the Units. Adult franchise was introduced. The judiciary was to be headed by the Supreme Court of Pakistan consisting of a Chief Justice and two to six other judges. The Chief Justice was to be appointed by the head of state. There was to be a High Court for each of the units of East Pakistan, Punjab, Sindh Baluchistan and the N. W. F. P. A Board of Ulema was to be set up by the head of state and provincial governors. The Board of Ulema was to examine the law making process to ensure that no law was passed that went against the principles of the Quran and Sunnah. The Objectives Resolution was adopted as a preamble to the proposed Constitution. The Basic Principles Committee's report was severely criticized and raised much bitterness between East and West Pakistan. The Prime Minister, Khawaja Nazimuddin, however, welcomed the report and commended it as a valuable document according to the aspirations of the people of Pakistan. But the fact was that the nation was not satisfied with the report and hence there was a serious deadlock in making of the constitution.

Liaquat-Nehru Pact 1950

At the time of independence, many communal riots broke out in different areas of India and Pakistan. These riots had a great impact on the status of minorities in the two nations. Due to brutal killings by the majority community, a huge number of Muslims migrated from India, and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan. Yet, the mass migration failed to solve the minority problem. Even after the migration, almost half of the Muslims living in the Sub-continent were left in India and a sizable number of Hindus in Pakistan. Those who were left behind

were unable to become an integral part of the societies they were living in. The people and government of their countries looked upon them as suspects. They were unable to assure their countrymen of their loyalty. This problem escalated during the late 40's and early 50's. It seemed as if India and Pakistan were about to fight their second war in the first three years of their independence. At this critical juncture in the history of South Asia, Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan issued a statement emphasizing the need to reach a solution to the problem. He also proposed a meeting with his Indian counterpart to determine how to put an end to the communal riots and the fear of war. The two Prime Ministers met in Delhi on April 2, 1950, and discussed the matter in detail. The meeting lasted for six long days. On April 8, the two leaders signed an agreement, which was later entitled as Liaquat-Nehru Pact. This pact provided a 'bill of rights' for the minorities of India and Pakistan. Its aim was to address the following three issues: 1. To alleviate the fears of the religious minorities on both sides. 2. To elevate communal peace. 3. To create an atmosphere in which the two countries could resolve their other differences. According to the agreement, the governments of India and Pakistan solemnly agreed that each shall ensure, to the minorities throughout its territories, complete equality of citizenship, irrespective of religion; a full sense of security in respect of life, culture, property and personal honor. It also guaranteed fundamental human rights of the minorities, such as freedom of movement, speech, occupation and worship. The pact also provided for the minorities to participate in the public life of their country, to hold political or other offices and to serve in their country's civil and armed forces. The Liaquat-Nehru Pact provided for the mechanism to deal with oppressive elements with an iron hand. Both the governments decided to set up minority commissions in their countries with the aim of observing and reporting on the implementation of the pact, to ensure that no one breaches the pact and to make recommendations to guarantee its enforcement. Both Minority Commissions were to be headed by a provincial minister and were to have Hindu and Muslim members among its ranks. India and Pakistan also agreed to include representatives of the minority community in the cabinet of the two Bengals, and decided to depute two central ministers, one from each government, to remain in the affected areas for such period as might be necessary. Both the leaders emphasized that the loyalty of the minorities should be reserved for the state in which they were living and for the solution of their problems they should look forward to the government of the country they were living in. This pact was broadly acknowledged as an optimistic beginning to improve relations between India and Pakistan.

Khawaja Nazimuddin becomes Prime Minister [1951-1953]

Under Quaid-i-Azam's constitutional framework, executive powers lay with the Prime Minister. When Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated on October 16, 1951, Khawaja Nazimuddin, who was the Governor General at that time, took over as the second Prime Minister of Pakistan. Ghulam Muhammad, who had been Finance Minister since the inception of Pakistan, was elevated to the post of Governor General. It was under Prime Minister Khawaja Nazimuddin that the second draft of the Basic Principles Committee was presented to the Constituent Assembly on December 22, 1952. He remained in power till April 1953 when Ghulam Muhammad removed him from the office. Khawaja Nazimuddin's downfall was not only due to his meekness of character, but also due to the power struggle amongst the various leaders. The movement for Tahaffuz-i-Khatam-i-Nabuwat and the worsening food condition in Punjab caused a lot of trouble for Khawaja Nazimuddin. The anti-Ahmadiya movement was started in Punjab by the Ahrar and had the support of Mian Mumtaz

Daultana, the Chief Minister of Punjab. This movement soon spread to other parts of the country. There were widespread disturbances and the situation in the country soon worsened to the brink of anarchy and civil war. Imposition of Martial Law became imminent. Khawaja Nazimuddin was summoned by the Governor General along with his Cabinet and ordered to resign. Khawaja Nazimuddin declined but was dismissed by Malik Ghulam Muhammad on April 17, 1953. After the dismissal of Khawaja Nazimuddin, the Governor General appointed Muhammad Ali Bogra, an unknown person from East Pakistan, as the Prime Minister. Most historians agree that the removal of Khawaja Nazimuddin was improper, undemocratic and objectionable because the Prime Minister still enjoyed the confidence of the Parliament. This act set an unhealthy tradition and precedent for the future Presidents who were fond of removing elected governments, thus creating continued instability in the country.

Ghulam Muhammad becomes Governor General [1951]

When Khawaja Nazimuddin took over as Prime Minister in 1951, Ghulam Muhammad was appointed as the Governor General. After coming to power, Ghulam Muhammad wanted to change the status quo of executive powers. To this end, in an undemocratic move, he dismissed the Prime Minister, Khawaja Nazimuddin in April 1953. After dismissing Khawaja Nazimuddin, the Governor General appointed a rather unknown leader from East Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Bogra, as the Prime Minister. Ghulam Muhammad had also dissolved the Constituent Assembly although the Assembly had accomplished the task of framing the Constitution, and all obstacles in the way of its promulgation had been removed. After coming to power, Bogra declared that the making of the Constitution was one of his primary targets. He worked hard towards accomplishing this task and within six months of assuming power, came out with a constitutional formula known as the Bogra Formula. The Bogra Formula was presented before the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on October 7, 1953. A committee was set up to draft the constitution according to the approval of the Constituent Assembly. However, before the constitution could be finalized, Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Assembly. The Prime Minster, Muhammad Ali Bogra was allowed to continue in office with a new cabinet. This move was apparently to counter a bill passed in the Assembly curtailing the powers of the Governor General. Muhammad Ali Bogra was sworn in again as the Prime Minister and it was promised that fresh elections would be held later on. Malik Ghulam Muhammad was forced to retire from the post of Governor General due to his failing health and Major General Iskander Mirza, the Minister of Interior, took over the office. Although the expulsion of Ghulam Muhammad from power seemed necessary, yet his successor, Iskander Mirza proved to be a greater menace for the country.

Muhammad Ali Bogra becomes Prime Minister [1953]

Khawaja Nazimuddin was dismissed by the Governor General, Malik Ghulam Muhammad, on April 17, 1953, and replaced by Muhammad Ali Bogra. Bogra was then the Pakistani Ambassador to the United States. After coming to power, he set a new precedent of inviting the Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army to become the Defense Minister. Governor General Ghulam Muhammad had dissolved the Constituent Assembly although the Assembly had accomplished the task of framing the Constitution and all obstacles in the way of its promulgation were removed. After coming to power, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra declared that the making of the Constitution was one of his primary targets. He worked hard towards accomplishing this task and within six months of assuming power, he came out with a constitutional formula. His constitutional proposal is know as

the Bogra Formula and was presented before the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on October 7, 1953. Unlike the two reports of the Basic Principle Committee, the Bogra Formula was appreciated by different sections of the society. There was great enthusiasm amongst the masses as they considered it a plan that could bridge the gulf between the two wings of Pakistan and would act as a source of unity for the country. The proposal was discussed in the Constituent Assembly for 13 days. On November 14, 1953, a committee was set up to draft the constitution according to the approval of the Constituent Assembly. However, before the constitution could be finalized, Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Assembly. The Prime Minster, Muhammad Ali Bogra, was allowed to continue in office with a new cabinet. This move was apparently to counter a bill curtailing the power of the Governor General. Muhammad Ali Bogra was sworn in again as the Prime Minster on October 26, 1954. The new government promised fresh elections. Muhammad Ali Bogra as Prime Minister of Pakistan worked hard for the settlement of the Kashmir issue. He urged Nehru to settle the Kashmir dispute in order to promote friendly relations between the two countries. Due to his strenuous efforts, the Prime Ministers of both the countries met numerous times in London and Karachi. Letters and telegrams were also exchanged between the leaders of the two countries. As a result of his efforts, Pandit Nehru agreed to hold a free and fair plebiscite in Kashmir. However, in May 1954, the news of American military aid to Pakistan gave Pandit Nehru an excuse to go back on his commitments to hold referendum in Kashmir. Thus Bogra was unable to solve the Kashmir problem. It was during the tenure of Muhammad Ali Bogra that Pakistan joined C. E. N. T. O. and S. E. A. T. O. In August 1955, the Governor General was forced to resign due to ill health and Major General Iskander Mirza was made the acting Governor General. The acting Governor General also dismissed Muhammad Ali Bogra on August 8, 1955.

Bogra - Nehru Negotiations

Muhammad Ali Bogra became the Prime Minister of Pakistan in April 1953. He made an impassioned appeal to Pandit Nehru to settle all outstanding disputes between the two countries. Addressing the parliament he said, "I consider that the maintenance of peace and establishment of friendly relations between India and Pakistan are essential to the peace and stability of Asia". He stressed the need for the settlement of Kashmir issue without which permanent peace or friendship in the Sub-continent was not possible. Due to his efforts, the two Prime Ministers met informally in London in June 1953, on the occasion of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference, and again the following month in Karachi. Muhammad Ali urged Nehru to realize the desirability of settling the Kashmir dispute, thus promoting friendly relations between the two countries. Nehru was ready to talk on everything, including philosophy and ethics, but not on Kashmir. Bogra seemed impressed by Nehru's charm and started calling him "elder brother", but as far as the Kashmir dispute was concerned, the progress was not nearer to any solution. The Indian government had to face an uprising in Kashmir in 1953, which they crushed by force. This caused widespread anger and concern in Pakistan. Bogra dashed to New Delhi to confer with Nehru, who at first did not like the idea of meeting him, as "the affairs in Kashmir were no concern of Pakistan". However, they finally met in August 1953. This resulted in a statement that stressed the following points: 1. It was their opinion that this dispute would be settled in accordance with the wishes of Kashmiris by a fair and impartial plebiscite. 2. The plebiscite administrator should be appointed by the end of April 1954. 3. The preliminary issues that had so far held up progress towards a plebiscite should be decided and actions in implementation thereof should be taken, and with this object in view, committees of military and other experts should be appointed to advise the two Prime Ministers. 4. Progress could only be made in this direction if there was an atmosphere of peace and cooperation between the two countries.

The Delhi meeting was followed by an exchange of letters between the two Prime Ministers. It is said that 27 letters and telegrams were exchanged between August 10, 1953, and September 21, 1954. However, in May 1954, the news of American military aid to Pakistan was published, which gave Pandit Nehru an excuse to go back on his commitments to hold a free vote in Kashmir. Muhammad Ali pointed out the strength of India, and the fact that India was spending three times as much as Pakistan on its armed forces. He warned that a war might engulf the entire Sub-continent. But Nehru's objections to military aid to Pakistan dominated the correspondence and ultimately wrecked the direct talks with Bogra, which had started with great hope. Muhammad Ali Bogra soon became convinced that all his efforts for a peaceful settlement of the Kashmir dispute were in vain. In his letter on September 21, 1954, he wrote, "It is with profound regret that I have been led to the conclusion that our talks regarding Kashmir have failed." However he concluded his letter with the words, "I hope and pray that the conscience and wisdom of men may yet perceive the great injustice and dangers inherent in the continuance of this disastrous dispute."

Bogra Formula

While taking charge as Prime Minister, Muhammad Ali Bogra declared that formulation of the Constitution was his primary target. He worked hard on this project and within six months of assuming power, came out with a constitutional formula. His constitutional proposal, known as the Bogra Formula, was presented before the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on October 7, 1953. The plan proposed for a Bicameral Legislature with equal representation for all the five provinces of the country in the Upper House. A total of 50 seats were reserved for the Upper House. The 300 seats for the Lower House were to be allocated to the provinces on the basis of proportionate representation. One hundred and sixty five seats were reserved for East Pakistan, 75 for Punjab, 19 for Sindh and Khairpur, 24 for N. W. F. P., tribal areas and the states located in N. W. F. P., and 17 for Baluchistan, Baluchistan States Union, Bhawalpur and Karachi. In this way East Pakistan was given more seats in the Lower House than the combined number of seats reserved for the federal capital, the four provinces and the princely states of the Western Wing. So in all, both the wings were to have 175 seats each in the two houses of the Legislative Assembly. Both the houses were given equal power, and in case of a conflict between the two houses, the issue was to be presented before a joint session. In order to prevent permanent domination by any wing, a provision was made that if the head of the state was from West Pakistan, the Prime Minister was to be from East Pakistan, and vice versa. The two houses of the Legislative Assembly formed the Electoral College for the presidential elections and the President was to be elected for a term of 5 years. In place of the Board of Ulema, the Supreme Court was given the power to decide if a law was in accordance with the basic teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah or not. Unlike the two reports of the Basic Principles Committee, the Bogra Formula was appreciated by different sections of the society. There was great enthusiasm amongst the masses as they considered it as a plan that could bridge the gulf between the two wings of Pakistan and would act as a source of unity for the country. The proposal was discussed in the Constituent Assembly for 13 days, and a committee was set to draft the constitution on November 14, 1953. However, before the constitution could be finalized, the Assembly was dissolved by Ghulam Muhammad, the then Governor General of Pakistan

Chaudhry Muhammad Ali Becomes Prime Minister [1955]

On October 24, 1954, Malik Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Constituent Assembly of Muhammad Ali Bogra on the grounds that it had "lost the confidence of the people", and declared a state of emergency in the country. Muhammad Ali Bogra, however, remained as the Prime Minister, since he was again invited to form a cabinet known as the Ministry of Talents. On August 8, 1955, he was dismissed by the acting Governor General, Major

General Iskander Mirza in the absence of Malik Ghulam Muhammad, who had gone on a temporary leave and was also subsequently forced to resign due to his ill health. Chaudhry Muhammad Ali was appointed as the new Prime Minister on August 11, 1955. Chaudhry Muhammad Ali's greatest achievement was framing the Constitution of 1956 and its approval by the Constituent Assembly. The entire country with great joy and enthusiasm celebrated the promulgation of this Constitution on March 23, 1956. The 1956 Constitution was Islamic and democratic in character, acceptable to people of all parts of the country, and had the blessings of almost all schools of thought. Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, however, could not come up to the bargaining and the deals necessary to reconcile the various interest groups into accepting the One Unit and the adoption of the Constitution. He proved to be a poor politician who failed to control his own party. This ultimately led to his downfall. His greatest blunder was the selection of Dr. Khan Sahib as Chief Minister of the Unified Province of West Pakistan, despite the opposition of the Muslim League. Dr. Khan Sahib was an old Congressman who had opposed the creation of Pakistan, therefore the Muslim League opposed his appointment. Dr. Khan Sahib, however, enjoyed the support of the President Iskander Mirza. He dropped Muslim League members from his cabinet, and by bringing the dissident Muslim Leaguers and other supporters, formed his own party, the Republican Party. In the Central Government, the Muslim League shared power as a major component of the coalition without being in office in any province. The Republican Party kept growing in number and claimed to be the single largest party in the National Assembly. Prime Minister Chaudhry Muhammad Ali was urged by the Muslim League to act against the West Pakistan Ministry. Chaudhry Muhammad Ali believed that as a Prime Minister, his actions should be governed by the good of the country and not by the resolution of any party. He believed that he was responsible only to the Cabinet and the Parliament. Thus, he refused the demands of the Muslim League. Disgusted with the scenario, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali resigned as a Prime Minister on September 8, 1956, also resigning from his membership of the Muslim League at the same time. His decision to resign of his own accord is considered as a unique example of political decorum in the history of Pakistan.

Iskander Mirza Becomes Governor General [1955]

In August 1955, Major General Iskander Mirza took over as Governor General when Ghulam Muhammad became too ill to continue. He was confirmed as the fourth Governor General of Pakistan on October 4, 1955. Iskander Mirza was a civil servant and it is widely believed that he lacked the parliamentary spirit. He was of the view that democratic institutions could not flourish in Pakistan due to lack of training in the field of democracy and low literacy rate of the masses. He wanted a controlled democracy for Pakistan with more powers for the civil bureaucracy. He thought that politicians should be given the power to make policy but not allowed to interfere in administration. Iskander Mirza was also a great advocate of the One Unit scheme and it was under his rule that all the four provinces and the states of West Pakistan were merged into one unit in October 1955. It was during his tenure that Chaudhry Muhammad Ali presented the 1956 Constitution and Iskander Mirza was elected the first President of Pakistan.

West Pakistan Established as One Unit [1955]

Even after eight years of existence, Pakistan was without a constitution. The main reason was believed to be the fact that there were two unequal wings of Pakistan separated from each other by more than a thousand miles. To diminish the differences between the two regions, the Government of Pakistan decided that all the four provinces and states of West Pakistan should be merged into one unit. To this end, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali made the first official announcement on November 22, 1954,

enumerating the benefits of having one unit or province. On September 30, 1955, the Assembly passed the bill merging 310,000 square miles into a single province, with Lahore as its provincial capital. West Pakistan had formerly comprised three Governor's provinces, one Chief Commissioner's province, a number of states that had acceded to Pakistan, and the tribal areas. Geographically, they formed a homogenous block with easy communication, but with marked linguistic and ethnic distinctions. The result of the new bill was to unify these various units into one province to be known as West Pakistan. The Bill was hailed as a measure of administrative rationalization as it was likely to reduce the administrative expenditure. It was claimed that one unit of West Pakistan would eliminate the curse of provincial prejudices. The problem of representation of various units in the proposed Federal Legislature had been a big hurdle in the way of making a Constitution and it was said that with the removal of this hurdle, the formation of the Constitution would now speed up. Dr. Khan Sahib was appointed as the first Chief Minister of the One Unit, while Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani was appointed as the first Governor of West Pakistan. Dr. Khan Sahib's Ministry, however, came to an end when the President himself took over the administration. Subsequently, Sardar Abdur Rashid and Muzzaffar Ali Qazilbash were appointed Chief Ministers of that province in succession. While the One Unit scheme in West Pakistan could be supported on various grounds, the method of its establishment was not free from criticism. The government wanted to introduce the One Unit Scheme by an executive decree, which it could not do. So the Central Government dismissed the Ministry in Punjab, Sindh and N. W. F. P. One Unit continued until General Yahya Khan dissolved it on July 1, 1970.

The Constitution of 1956

After assuming charge as Prime Minister, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali along with his team worked day and night to formulate a constitution for Pakistan. His efforts led to the first constitution that was enforced in the country on March 23, 1956. Pakistan's status as a dominion ended and the country was declared an Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Thereupon the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan became the interim National Assembly and Governor General Iskander Mirza was sworn in as the first President of Pakistan. The Constitution of 1956 consisted of 234 articles, which were divided into 13 parts and 6 schedules. One of the main features of the Constitution was its Islamic character. The Islamic provisions were contained in the directive principles of the state policy. Along with other Islamic provisions in the Constitution, the president, who was required to be a Muslim of at least 40 years of age, was to set up an organization for Islamic research with the aim of establishing a true Islamic society. The Objectives Resolution was, however, only made the preamble of the Constitution and not included in its main text. The Constitution vested the executive authority of the President in the Federation. The President had the discretionary powers to make the appointment of the Chairman and members of the Election Commission, Delimitation Commission and Public Service Commission. He also had the power to appoint the Prime Minister from amongst the members of the National Assembly. However, his appointee had to take a vote of confidence from the Assembly within two months of his appointment. The President also had the power to remove the Prime Minister if he felt that the Prime Minister had lost the confidence of the majority of the National Assembly members. The Constitution of 1956 provided for parliamentary form of government with a unicameral legislature. The only house of parliament, the National Assembly, was to consist of 300 members. The Constitution recognized the concept of One Unit, and the seats were divided equally between the two wings of the country. Thus the principle of parity was introduced. For the first ten years, five additional seats were reserved for women for each wing. National Assembly was to meet at least twice a year with at least one session at Dhaka. The Constitution offered direct elections under adult franchise. Every citizen of Pakistan with minimum age of 21

was allowed to vote in the elections. The Constitution provided for federal form of government in the country. The provincial structure was similar to the one in the center. The pattern for the center-province relations was the same as it was in the Government of India Act, 1935. There were federal, provincial and concurrent lists of subjects. There were 30 items in the federal list, 94 items in the provincial list and 19 items in the concurrent list. The federal legislation was to get precedence over provincial legislation regarding the concurrent list. Residuary powers were vested in the provinces. In case of a conflict between center and provinces or between the two provinces, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was to act as the mediator. The Constitution of 1956 was a written and flexible constitution. It advocated the fundamental rights of the individual. However, the President had the power to suspend these rights in case of an emergency. Judiciary was to remain independent. Urdu and Bengali were both accepted as state languages, while English was to remain the official language for the first 25 years. After ten years' passage of the Constitution, the President was to appoint a commission with the task to make recommendation for the replacement of English as the official language. The Constitution of 1956 proved to be short lived as on October 7, 1958, Marital Law was promulgated and the constitution was abrogated.

H. S. Suhrawardy Becomes Prime Minister [1956]

Soon after the adoption of the 1956 Constitution, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy replaced Chaudhry Muhammad Ali as Prime Minister on September 12, 1956. Suhrawardy had managed to secure the office for himself by forging an alliance with the Republican Party. The controversy over One Unit and the appropriate electoral system for Pakistan, whether joint or separate, revived as soon as Suhrawardy became Prime Minster. In West Pakistan, there was strong opposition to the joint electorate by the Muslim League and the religious parties. Suhrawardy and his party in East Pakistan supported the joint electorate. These differences over One Unit and the appropriate electorate caused problems for his government. Not a man to let setbacks destroy his morale, Suhrawardy thought his political fortunes might change if he scored some success on the economic front during his tenure. Suhrawardy tried to remove the economic disparity between the Eastern and Western wings of the country but to no avail. He also tried unsuccessfully to alleviate the food shortage in the country. By early 1957, the movement for the dismemberment of the One Unit had started. Suhrawardy was at the mercy of central bureaucracy fighting to save the One Unit. Big business groups in Karachi were lobbying against Suhrawardy's decision to distribute the better part of the $10 million I. C. A. aid to East Pakistan and to set up a national shipping corporation. Supported by these lobbyists, President Mirza demanded the Prime Minister's resignation. Suhrawardy requested to seek a vote of confidence in the National Assembly, but this request was turned down. Suhrawardy resigned under threat of dismissal on October 10, 1957.

Iskander Mirza Becomes President [1956]

Governor General Ghulam Muhammad's despotic and dictatorial policy led Iskander Mirza and his collaborators to force him out of power. Although his removal was necessary, yet another despot, Iskander Mirza, who was the fourth Governor General and then the first President of Pakistan, succeeded him. He was sworn-in as the first President under the 1956 Constitution. During his regime not only was the first Constitution of Pakistan finalized, but also all the provinces and princely states of West Pakistan were knitted together to form One Unit of the West Pakistan Province.

During his tenure from 1956 to 1958, President Iskander Mirza brought about various cabinet changes and advocated a controlled democracy for Pakistan. Muhammad Ali Bogra was the first Prime Minster under Iskander Mirza. Bogra could not stay at this position for long, he resigned and went back to the U. S. A. where he was reinstated as the Ambassador of Pakistan. After Bogra, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali became the next Prime Minster. It was under his premiership that the establishment of One Unit was given practical shape and the Constitution of 1956 was introduced. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, I. I. Chundrigar and Malik Feroz Khan Noon succeeded him as Prime Ministers under Iskander Mirza's despotic rule. In collusion with the Commander-in-Chief, Muhammad Ayub Khan, Iskander Mirza abrogated the Constitution on October 7, 1958 and declared Martial Law. Iskander Mirza and Ayub Khan began the new era with apparent unanimity. Although the two were responsible for bringing about the change, they had different views on dealing with the new situation. Share of power soon led to a struggle between the two, which ended with Iskander Mirza being arrested and exiled to Britain where he later died.

I. I. Chundrigar Becomes Prime Minister [1957]

After merely a year, Suhrawardy resigned from his Premiership in October 1957. His resignation came as a result of the President's refusal to convene a meeting of the Parliament to seek a vote of confidence. President Iskander Mirza appointed I. I. Chundrigar as the interim Prime Minister. Being a nominated Prime Minister, Chundrigar held a weak position from the very beginning. He headed a coalition government including the Krishak Sramik Party, Nizam-i-Islam Party, the Muslim League and the Republican Party. The Muslim League had agreed to form a coalition government with the Republican Party on the condition that by amending the Electoral Act, the principle of separate electorate would be implemented in the country. After the formation of the Cabinet, Ministers from East Pakistan and the Republican Party started opposing the proposed amendments. The Republican Party opposed the amendment as it wanted to gain advantage over its political opponent, the Muslim League. Iskander Mirza exploited the differences between the parties and thus made Chundrigar an easy victim as he remained Prime Minister for only two months and therefore could not give any practical shape to his program.

Malik Feroz Khan Noon Becomes Prime Minister [1957]

On December 16, 1957, Malik Feroz Khan Noon took over the office of Prime Minister from Chundrigar. Malik Feroz Khan Noon was the last in the line of Prime Ministers under the President-ship of Iskander Mirza. Being the leader of the Republican group in the National Assembly, Noon came to power by forging an alliance with five different political groups, Awami League, National Awami Party, Krishak Sramik Party, National Congress and the Scheduled Caste Federation. Though the coalition was dependent on the support of such a large number of political parties, it was able to form a stable government. The Noon Cabinet was fortunate to have the support of the Bengali and Punjabi group of politicians, reaching an accord between them for the first time. H. S. Suhrawardy's Awami League Party assured full cooperation to the cabinet of Feroz Khan Noon. President Iskander Mirza was distressed by the alliance of Suhrawardy and Noon. He not only felt a serious threat to his office but also perceived that he had lost his grip over the politicians. He tried to counter by bring other politicians to his side and making alliances with other political parties. On the other side, in West Pakistan, Muslim League had become quite popular under the leadership of Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan. As events were going against Iskander Mirza, he displayed his willingness to dissolve West Pakistan's One Unit for his own interests. President Iskander Mirza also tried to seek the help of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in June 1958, and also started

negotiations with the Governor of East Pakistan in order to break the strength of the Awami League there. The tussle for power reached a critical point. The Awami League, being the party in power, affronted the Speaker of the Assembly. The Krishak Sramik Party also criticized the government for its actions. With all these events in progress, an attack on the Deputy Speaker occurred from which he could not survive. Under these tumultuous circumstances of political instability, President Iskander Mirza turned towards General Ayub Khan, the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of Pakistan. At midnight between October 7 and 8, 1958, the President of Pakistan abrogated the Constitution and imposed Martial Law in the country. This brought an end to the term of Malik Feroz Khan Noon, which lasted for less than a year. The Parliamentary Government came to an end in Pakistan, thus setting the stage for the recurrence of Martial Law again and again in the future.

Ouster of President Iskander Mirza – 1958

On October 7, 1958, President Iskander Mirza abrogated the Constitution and declared Martial Law in the country. General Muhammad Ayub Khan, the then Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, became the Chief Martial Law Administrator. Iskander Mirza and Ayub Khan had begun the new era with apparent unanimity, jointly describing it as a two-man regime. However, although the two were responsible for bringing about the change, they had different views on dealing with the new situation. Iskander Mirza had not envisaged any change in his previous powers; he wanted to retain the ability to maneuver things according to his own whim. Things however had changed. C. M. L. A. Ayub Khan knew that the real power rested with the army and he was determined to assert himself. Within a week of the proclamation of Martial Law, Iskander Mirza realized the delicate position he had gotten himself into. He regretted his decision and said, "I did not mean to do it" while offering assurances that the Martial Law would be for the shortest possible duration. The sharing of power soon led to the intensification of the power struggle between the two men. President Mirza tried to balance the power structure by appointing Ayub Khan as Prime Minister on October 24, 1958. The Cabinet he set up consisted entirely of non-political members. This did not satisfy Ayub Khan who had more powers as the Chief Martial Law Administrator. In order to secure himself, Iskander Mirza tried to get the support of Ayub Khan's rivals within the army and air force. He was however unsuccessful in this attempt. With the consensus of his military generals, Ayub Khan arrested Iskander Mirza on October 27, 1958. He was exiled to Britain where he later died. After the ouster of Iskander Mirza, General Ayub Khan became the sole power in Pakistan.

Martial Law Under Field Marshal Ayub Khan [1958-62]

On October 7, 1958, President Iskander Mirza abrogated the Constitution and declared Martial Law in the country. This was the first of many military regimes to mar Pakistan's history. With this step, the Constitution of 1956 was abrogated, ministers were dismissed, Central and Provincial Assemblies were dissolved and all political activities were banned. General Muhammad Ayub Khan, the then Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, became the Chief Martial Law Administrator. The parliamentary system in Pakistan came to end. Within three weeks of assuming charge on October 27, 1958, Iskander Mirza was ousted by General Ayub Khan, who then declared himself President. General Ayub Khan gave himself the rank of Field Marshal. Corruption had become so widespread within the national and civic systems of administration that Ayub Khan was welcomed as a national hero by the people.

Soon after coming to power, the new military government promised that they would carry out reforms in the

entire government structure and would cleanse the administration of the rampant corruption. A thorough screening process of all government servants was conducted and service records were closely scrutinized. Public servants were tried for misconduct by tribunals consisting of retired judges of the Supreme Court or High Court. If charges were proven, disciplinary action such as dismissal or compulsory retirement of the public servant could take place. A public servant could also be disqualified from holding any public office for 15 years. About 3,000 officials were dismissed and many others were reduced in rank as a result of these measures. The rest of the government servants were provided with an incentive to working hard. Similarly, a law called the Elective Bodies Disqualification Order, popularly known as E. B. D. O., was promulgated for the disqualification of politicians. Under this law, a person could be disqualified from being a member of any elective body till December 31, 1966. Under this harsh law, several politicians like Suhrawardy and Qayyum Khan were disqualified. The E. B. D. O., particularly its application, was severely criticized in the legal and political circles throughout Pakistan. After taking over, Ayub Khan focused on the long-standing question of land reforms in West Pakistan. The land reforms included the reduction of land ceiling to 1,000 acres for non-irrigated land and 500 acres for irrigated land and with ownership rights granted to the tenants. The land in excess of these limits was taken over by the government to be distributed amongst the deserving persons. Ayub Khan also introduced a comprehensive scheme of local government, popularly known as Basic Democracies. This scheme was enforced through the Basic Democracies Order on October 27, 1959. Basic Democracies was a pyramidal plan enabling the people to directly elect to Local Council men they knew, who would in turn elect the upper tier of the administration. Altogether there were 80,000 Basic Democrats elected. To lend legitimacy to his rule, Ayub Khan used the Basic Democrats as an electoral college, holding a referendum to seek a mandate to continue in office as President and to have the authority to frame the future Constitution of Pakistan. The referendum held on February 14, 1960, asked the voters "if they had confidence in President Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan, Hilal-i-Jurat?" With the results of the referendum, Ayub Khan was elected not only as President of Pakistan for five years, but also got the mandate to give Pakistan a Constitution of his choice. Ayub Khan set up a Constitution Commission which was not only given the responsibility to make recommendations on the future Constitution, but was also to examine the causes of failure of parliamentary government in Pakistan. The report of the Constitution Commission was presented to Ayub Khan on May 6, 1961. Ayub Khan was not satisfied by the findings. The 1962 Constitution was very different from the recommendation of the Constitution Commission, as Ayub Khan favored a presidential form of government. The 1962 Constitution was promulgated on March 1. This ended the three-and-a-half-year Martial Law regime of Ayub Khan. A civilian constitutional government under Ayub Khan replaced his previous military regime.

Indus Water Treaty [1960]

Pakistan is an agricultural country. Eighty percent of its agricultural output comes from the Indus Basin. Pakistan has one of the world's largest canal systems built much before Independence by the British. After Independence, problems between the two countries arose over the distribution of water. Rivers flow into Pakistan territory from across India. In 1947, when Punjab was divided between the two countries, many of the canal head-works remained with India. The division of Punjab thus created major problems for irrigation in Pakistan. On April 1, 1948, India stopped the supply of water to Pakistan from every canal flowing from India to Pakistan. Pakistan protested and India finally agreed on an interim agreement on May 4, 1948. This agreement was not a permanent solution; therefore, Pakistan approached the World Bank in 1952 to help settle the problem

permanently. Negotiations were carried out between the two countries through the offices of the World Bank. It was finally in Ayub Khan's regime that an agreement was signed between India and Pakistan in September 1960. This agreement is known as the Indus Water Treaty. This treaty divided the use of rivers and canals between the two countries. Pakistan obtained exclusive rights for the three western rivers, namely Indus, Jehlum and Chenab. And India retained rights to the three eastern rivers, namely Ravi, Beas and Sutluj. The treaty also guaranteed ten years of uninterrupted water supply. During this period Pakistan was to build huge dams, financed partly by long-term World Bank loans and compensation money from India. Three multipurpose dams, Warsak, Mangla and Tarbela were built. A system of eight link canals was also built, and the remodeling of existing canals was carried out. Five barrages and a gated siphon were also constructed under this treaty.

The Constitution of 1962

With the aim of investigating the reasons of failure of the parliamentary system in Pakistan, and to make recommendations for a new constitution, Ayub Khan appointed a Constitution Commission under the supervision of Justice Shahab-ud-din. After a number of considerations, the Commission submitted its report on May 6, 1961. Ayub Khan was not satisfied with the report and had it processed through various committees. As a result the Constitution, which was promulgated on March 1, and enforced on June 8, 1962, was entirely different from the one recommended by the Shahab-ud-din Commission. The Constitution of 1962 consisted of 250 Articles, which were divided into 12 Parts and three Schedules. It advocated presidential form of government with absolute powers vested in the President. The President was to be a Muslim not less than 35 years of age. The term of the President was for five years and nobody could hold the post for more than two consecutive terms. The President was the head of the state as well as the head of the Government. The President had the power to appoint Provincial Governors, Federal Ministers, Advocate General, Auditor General and Chairmen and Members of various administrative commissions. As the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of Pakistan, the appointment of the chiefs of the forces was also his duty. The Constitution of 1962 provided for a unicameral legislature. The National Assembly was to consist of 156 members, including six women. The Eighth Amendment later increased this number to 218. Principle of parity was retained and seats were distributed equally between the two wings of the country. Principle of Basic Democracy was introduced for the first time in the country and the system of indirect elections was presented. Only 80,000 Basic Democrats were given the right to vote in the presidential elections. The Eighth Amendment later increased this number to 120,000. Half of them were to be from the Eastern Wing, the rest from the Western Wing of the country. According to the Constitution of 1962, the Executive was not separated from the Legislature. The President exercised veto power in the legislative affairs and could even veto a bill passed by the National Assembly with a two-third majority. He had the power to issue ordinances when the Assembly was not in session. The ordinance needed the approval of the National Assembly within 48 days of its first meeting or 108 days after its promulgation. However, if the President enforced emergency in the country, which according to the constitution was within his jurisdictions, then the ordinances needed no approval from the legislative body. The President had the power to dissolve the National Assembly. Federal form of government was introduced in the country with most of the powers reserved for the Central Government. There was a federal list of subjects over which the provinces had no jurisdiction. Principle of One Unit for West Pakistan was maintained and the number of seats for Punjab was curtailed to 40 percent in the Western Wing for the initial five years. Provincial Governors were to enjoy the same position in the provinces, which the President was to enjoy in the center. Islamic clauses were included in the Constitution. These could not be challenged in any court of law. The state was named the Republic of Pakistan, but the first amendment added the word "Islamic" to the name. The word

"Islam" and not "Quran and Sunnah" was used in the Islamic clauses to give a liberal touch to the Constitution. The Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology was introduced whose job was to recommend to the government ways and means to enable Muslims to live their lives according to the teachings of Islam. The Constitution of 1962 was a written Constitution upholding the fundamental rights of the citizens. Under the Constitution, the Judiciary had little independence and the appointment of the Chief Justices and Judges of the Supreme and High Courts was in the hands of the President. The President also had the power to remove a judge after an inquiry on misconduct or on the basis of mental or physical illness. Both Urdu and Bengali were made the national languages of Pakistan and English was declared as the official language of the country for the first ten years. The Constitution was flexible in nature and could be amended by a two-third majority in the National Assembly and with the approval of the President. In its short life of seven years, eight amendments were made in the Constitution. When Ayub Khan handed over power to Yahya Khan, Martial Law was enforced in the country and the Constitution was terminated on March 25, 1969.

Field Marshal Ayub Khan Becomes President [1962-1969]

In March 1962, Ayub Khan suspended the Martial Law and proclaimed the Constitution of 1962. Presidential elections were held in January 1965, and Ayub Khan defeated Miss Fatima Jinnah, Jinnah's sister, to once again become the President of Pakistan. During his term, the "Great Decade" was celebrated, which highlighted the development plans executed during ten years of Ayub's rule. The 1965 War was fought during Ayub's term and Ayub Khan represented Pakistan in the subsequent Tashkent Talks. Ayub Khan moved the capital of Pakistan from Karachi to Islamabad in 1965, but could not complete his term due to public pressure. He handed over power to General Muhammad Yahya Khan on March 25, 1969.

Presidential Election (1965)

Miss Fatima Jinnah, popularly acclaimed as the Madar-i-Millat, or "Mother of the Nation" for her role in the Freedom Movement, contested the 1965 elections at the age of 71. Except for her brief tour to East Pakistan in 1954, she had not participated in politics since Independence. After the imposition of Martial Law by Ayub Khan, she once wished the regime well. But after the Martial Law was lifted, she sympathized with the opposition as she was strongly in favor of democratic ideals. Being the Quaid's sister, she was held in high esteem, and came to symbolize the democratic aspirations of the people. The electoral landscape changed when Miss Fatima Jinnah decided to contest the elections for the President's office in 1965. She was challenging the incumbent President Ayub Khan in the indirect election, which Ayub Khan had himself instituted. Presidential candidates for the elections of 1965 were announced before commencement of the Basic Democracy elections, which was to constitute the Electoral College for the Presidential and Assembly elections. There were two major parties contesting the election. The Convention Muslim League and the Combined Opposition Parties. The Combined Opposition Parties consisted of five major opposition parties. It had a nine-point program, which included restoration of direct elections, adult franchise and democratization of the 1962 Constitution. The opposition parties of Combined Opposition Parties were not united and did not possess any unity of thought and action. They were unable to select presidential candidates from amongst themselves; therefore they selected Miss Fatima Jinnah as their candidate.Elections were held on January 2, 1965. There were four candidates; Ayub Khan, Miss Fatima Jinnah and two obscure persons with no party affiliation. There was a short campaigning period of one month, which was

further restricted to nine projection meetings that were organized by the Election Commission and were attended only by the members of the Electoral College and members of the press. The public was barred from attending the projection meetings, which would have enhanced Miss Fatima Jinnah's image. Ayub Khan had a great advantage over the rest of the candidates. The Second Amendment of the Constitution confirmed him as President till the election of his successor. Armed with the wide-ranging constitutional powers of a President, he exercised complete control over all governmental machinery during elections. He utilized the state facilities as head of state, not as the President of the Convention Muslim League or a presidential candidate, and didn't even hesitate to legislate on electoral maters. Bureaucracy and business, the two beneficiaries of the Ayub Khan regime, helped him in his election campaign. Being a political opportunist, he brought all the discontented elements together to support him; students were assured the revision of the University Ordinance and journalists the scrutiny of the Press Laws. Ayub Khan also gathered the support of the ulema who were of the view that Islam does not permit a woman to be the head of an Islamic state. Miss Jinnah's greatest advantage was that she was the sister of the Founder of Pakistan. She had detached herself from the political conflicts that had plagued Pakistan after the Founder's death. The sight of this dynamic lady moving in the streets of big cities, and even in the rural areas of a Muslim country, was both moving and unique. She proclaimed Ayub Khan to be a dictator. Miss Jinnah's line of attack was that by coming to terms with India on the Indus Water dispute, Ayub had surrendered control of the rivers over to India. Her campaign generated tremendous public enthusiasm. She drew enormous crowds in all cities of East and West Pakistan. The campaign however suffered from a number of drawbacks. An unfair and unequal election campaign, poor finances, and indirect elections through the Basic Democracy System were some of the basic problems she faced. Miss Fatima Jinnah lost the election of 1965 and Ayub Khan was elected as the President of Pakistan. It is believed that had the elections been held via direct ballot, Fatima Jinnah would have won. The Electoral College consisted of only 80,000 Basic Democrats, who were easily manipulated. The importance of this election, lay in the fact that a woman was contesting the highest political office of the country. The orthodox religious political parties, including the Jamaat-i-Islami led by Maulana Maududi, which had repeatedly declared that a woman could not hold the highest office of a Muslim country, modified their stance and supported the candidature of Miss Fatima Jinnah. The election showed that the people had no prejudice against women holding high offices, and they could be key players in politics of the country.

Indo-Pak War [September, 1965]

The long-standing border disputes, communal tensions, and conflict over the question of Kashmir flared up in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan in September 1965.

The War of Rann of Kutch

Skirmishes at the Rann of Kutch flared up almost accidentally in the Spring of 1965, and India and Pakistan found themselves drawn into the first of their two undeclared wars. The dispute goes back to the days of the British rule in India. The Rann was the bone of contention between the princely state Kutch, and the British Indian province of Sindh. When British India was partitioned, Kutch acceded to India and Sindh to Pakistan. The issue was inherited by these two states along some 3,500 sq. miles of territory. From January 1965 onwards, border incidents became frequent. By all accounts the Indian forces were badly defeated in the Kutch area by the Pakistan army. At the Commonwealth Conference in Britain, the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both India and Pakistan to sign an agreement on June 30 to resolve the dispute. Failing to do so bilaterally, a

tribunal was set up to resolve this dispute. This tribunal announced its verdict on February 19, 1965. It gave 350 sq. miles in the northern part to Pakistan and the rest of the Rann area to India.

The War in Kashmir

Events in Kashmir were also moving towards a climax. The Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri added more fuel to the fire by taking steps to absorb Kashmir further into the political body of India and stated that the Kashmir problem occupied a secondary place in successful relations between India and Pakistan. The application of articles 356 and 357 of the Indian Constitution to the Kashmir State which enabled the President of India to establish Presidential Rule in Kashmir and legislate, there was an effort to amalgamate Kashmir completely into the Indian Union. Sheikh Abdullah, the Kashmiri leader took extensive foreign tours to enlist international support for the Kashmir cause. But he was arrested and the Kashmir Legislative Assembly adopted the Constitutional Amendments Bill on March 30, providing: 1. The Sardar-i-Riyasat would henceforth be known as Governor and would be appointed by the President of India instead of being elected by the local assembly. 2. The Prime Minister would be styled as a Chief Minister, as in the states of the Indian Union. The Kashmiri people called for an all out war against Indian imperialism and established a National Government of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. In a spillover effect, Azad Kashmir became increasingly restive. The Indian army made a series of new moves across the ceasefire line with her regular armed forces.

The Lahore Offensive

At 30 AM on September 6, 1965, without a formal declaration of war, Indians crossed the international border of West Pakistan and launched a three-pronged offensive against Lahore, Sialkot and Rajasthan. There was a fierce tank battle on the plains of Punjab. The domestic Indo-Pak conflict transformed into an international conflict and raised Super Power concerns. The U. S. suspended military supplies to both sides during the Indo-Pak War. Both the Soviet Union and the United States took a united stand to curtail the conflict within the boundaries of the Sub-continent from escalating into a global conflict. China threatened to intervene and offered military support to Pakistan. It was to keep China away from this conflict that both the Soviet Union and the United States pressured the U. N. to arrange for an immediate ceasefire. The main diplomatic effort to stop the fighting was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations and a ceasefire came into effect on September 23, 1965. The Soviet Union, which had remained neutral while India and Pakistan were at war, played broker at Tashkent afterwards. A Soviet Government communique formally announced on December 8 that the Indian Prime Minister Shastri and the Pakistani President Ayub would meet at Tashkent on January 4, 1966. The Tashkent Conference lasted from January 4 to January 10. The Soviet Premier Kosygin earned praise as a peacemaker. The main achievement of the Conference was to withdraw, no later than February 25, 1966, all armed personnel to the position held before August 5, 1964.

The Tashkent Declaration [1966]

In September 1965, the long-standing border dispute, communal tensions, and conflict over the question of Kashmir flared up in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan. Fearing that this regional conflict within the boundaries of Indo-Pakistan would escalate into a conflict of global dimensions, the Soviet Union and the

United States pressurized the U. N. to arrange an immediate ceasefire. The diplomatic efforts of the United Nations resulted in a ceasefire that came into effect on September 23, 1965. The Soviet Union, which had remained neutral when India and Pakistan went to war in September 1965, played the broker afterwards at Tashkent. A Soviet Government communiquŽ formally announced on December 8 that the Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and the Pakistani President Muhammad Ayub Khan would meet at Tashkent on January 4, 1966. The Tashkent Conference lasted from January 4 to January 10. Largely as due to the efforts of Soviet Premier Kosygin, India and Pakistan signed a declaration that is known as the Tashkent Declaration. The significant clauses of this agreement were: 1. The Prime Minister of India and the President of Pakistan agree to make all efforts to establish good relations between India and Pakistan in accordance with the United Nations Charter. They affirm to renounce the use of force in the settlement of their disputes. 2. The President of Pakistan and the Indian Prime Minister agree to withdraw, no later than February 25, 1966, all armed personnel to the position held before August 5, 1964. 3. Both India and Pakistan agree to follow the principle of non-interference in their affairs and will discourage the use of any propaganda against each other. 4. Both the countries also agree to reopen normal diplomatic functioning and to return of the High Commissioners of both the countries to their posts. 5. Measures towards the restoration of economic and trade relations, communications, as well as cultural exchanges between the two countries were to be taken. Measures were to be taken to implement the existing agreements between Pakistan and India. 6. Prisoners of war would be repatriated. 7. Discussions would continue relating to the problem of refugees and eviction of illegal immigrants. Both sides will create conditions that will prevent the exodus of the people. The President of Pakistan and the Indian Prime Minister agreed that both sides would continue to meet at the highest and other levels on matters of direct concern to both the countries. Both the sides recognized the need to set up joint Indo-Pakistan bodies, which would report to their governments in order to decide what further steps need to be taken. In accordance to the Tashkent Declaration, talks at the ministerial level were held on March 1 and 2, 1966. Despite the fact that these talks were unsuccessful, diplomatic exchange continued throughout the spring and summer. No result was achieved out of these talks, as there was a difference of opinion over the Kashmir issue. Euphoria had built up during the 1965 war, which had led to the development of a public perception that Pakistan was going to win the war. News of the Tashkent Declaration shocked the people who were expecting something quite different. Things further worsened as Ayub Khan refused to comment and went into seclusion instead of taking the people into confidence over the reasons for signing the agreement. Demonstrations and rioting erupted at various places throughout the country. In order to dispel the anger and misgiving of the people, Ayub Khan decided to lay the matter before the people by addressing the nation on January 14. It was the difference over Tashkent Declaration, which eventually led to the removal of Z. A. Bhutto from Ayub's government, who later on launched his own party, called the Pakistan People's Party. Despite the fact that Ayub Khan was able to satisfy the misgiving of the people, there is no doubt that the Tashkent Declaration greatly damaged the image of Ayub Khan, and became one of the many factors that led to his downfall.

Awami League's Six-Point Program

In the 1970 National Assembly elections, the mandate of Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman's Awami League Party was

based on a Six-Point Program of regional autonomy in a federal Pakistan. Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman had presented the Six-Point Program as the constitutional solution of East Pakistan's problems, in relation to West Pakistan. First enunciated on February 12, 1966, the six points are as below: 1. The Constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in the true sense on the basis of the Lahore Resolution and for a parliamentary form of government based on the supremacy of a directly elected legislature on the basis of universal adult franchise. 2. The Federal Government shall deal with only two subjects; Defense and Foreign Affairs. All residuary subjects will be vested in the federating states. 3. There should be either two separate, freely convertible currencies for the two Wings, or one currency with two separate reserve banks to prevent inter-Wing flight of capital. 4. The power of taxation and revenue collection shall be vested in the federating units. The Federal Government will receive a share to meet its financial obligations. 5. Economic disparities between the two Wings shall disappear through a series of economic, fiscal, and legal reforms. 6. A militia or paramilitary force must be created in East Pakistan, which at present has no defense of it own. After the elections of 1970, differences arose between the Government and Awami League on the transfer of power on the basis of this Six-Point Program. There ensued a political deadlock with talks ending in failure and postponement of the first session of the National Assembly. The postponement of the National Assembly session triggered a chain of events that eventually led to the separation of East Pakistan.

Martial Law under General Yahya Khan [1969-71]

The Tashkent Declaration signed by the Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and the Pakistani President Muhammad Ayub Khan was not at all approved by the general public, and was regarded as submission to India and humiliation for the nation. Politicians were already unhappy with Ayub Khan whose Government was celebrating the decade of various reforms. But he fell victim to the then Foreign Minister, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, who exploited the whole situation. He resigned from office and after forming a party of his own, Pakistan Peoples Party, announced to "defeat the great dictator with the power of the people". As a result, he and others were arrested. Ayub Khan tried his best to handle the situation by releasing a number of political prisoners, including the most popular leader of East Pakistan, Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman. He held a Round Table Conference in Rawalpindi with all the well-known political leaders in March 1969, but it proved to be a stalemate, with the result that Ayub Khan was forced to hand over power to General Muhammad Yahya Khan, on March 25, 1969. Pakistan was now under the grip of another Martial Law. Being deeply aware of the explosive political situation in the country, General Yahya Khan set in motion moves to transfer power to the elected representatives of the people and announced that the general elections would be held on October 5, 1970.

Legal Framework Order [1970]

After the abrogation of the Constitution of 1962, Yahya Khan needed a legal framework to hold elections. In April and July 1969, he held discussions with prominent political party leaders to learn their point of view. Most of them asked for the revival of the Constitution of 1956 on the ground that its abrogation had been unlawful, and the country should return to the constitutional position prevailing on the eve of the 1958 coup. Yahya Khan

initially agreed with this opinion, but had to change his stance due to opposition from the Awami League. Not being well versed in constitutional affairs, he appointed a team to draft a new constitutional formula. He voiced his ideas about the constitutional issues in his broadcast address to the nation on November 28, 1969. The formula was officially issued on March 30, 1970, and is known as the Legal Framework Order of 1970. According to this order, One Unit was dissolved in West Pakistan and direct ballot replaced the principle of parity. The National Assembly was to consist of 313 seats, including 13 seats reserved for women. Women were also allowed to contest the elections from general seats. The distribution of seats was to be as follows: East Pakistan: 162 general and 7 reserved seats Punjab: 82 general and 3 reserved seats Sindh: 27 general and 1 reserved seat N. W. F. P.: 18 general and 1 reserved seat Baluchistan: 4 general and 1 reserved seat Centrally Administered Tribal Areas: 7 general seats The L. F. O. also defined the qualifications of people who would be allowed to contest in the elections. The Constituent Assembly was to stand dissolved if it was unable to frame the Constitution within 120 days. Actually, the Legal Framework Order was to act as an interim Constitution. The primary function of the L. F. O. was to provide a setup on which elections could be conducted. It was then the duty of the elected Constituent Assembly to draft the Constitution of Pakistan. However, the L. F. O. defined the directive principles of State policy and made it clear that the future Constitution should not violate these basic principles. The directive principles demanded an Islamic way of life, observation of Islamic moral standards, and teaching of the Quran and Sunnah to the Muslims. The Legal Framework Order also urged the Constituent Assembly to frame a Constitution in which Pakistan was to be a Federal Republic and should be named Islamic Republic of Pakistan. It also called for the preservation of Islamic Ideology and democratic values. The Constituent Assembly was also supposed to frame a Constitution in which all citizens of Pakistan were to enjoy fundamental human rights. Judiciary should remain independent from the Executive and provincial autonomy is protected. The President was given the power to reject any Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly if the document did not fulfill the above-mentioned requirements. The President also had the power to interpret and amend the Constitution, and his decision could not be challenged in a court of law.

General Elections 1970

The political history of Pakistan from 1947 to 1970 witnessed no general elections. Thus, when Yahya's Regime decided to hold the first general elections on the basis of adult franchise at national level, they were not only required to make a new mechanism but were also required to set up a permanent election machinery. A three-member Election Commission was set up and Justice Abdus Sattar was appointed as the first Chief Election Commissioner of Pakistan. The first task before the Election Commission was to enroll as voters all citizens of Pakistan who were at least 21-years old on October 1, 1969. The electoral rolls were put before the masses for corrections on January 16, 1970, and after necessary amendments, the final list was published on March 17. The total registered voters in the country were 56,941,500 out of which 31,211,220 were from the Eastern Wing, while 25,730,280 from the Western Wing. The Election Commission also marked the constituencies, in accordance with the seats allocated for the National and Provincial Assemblies under Legal Framework Order, 1970. One hundred and ninety nine Returning Officers were appointed for the National Assembly and 285 Returning Officers were appointed for the Provincial Assemblies.

Twenty four political parties participated in the elections. They were allowed to begin their election campaigns from January 1, 1970. The public meetings of Awami League in Bengal and Pakistan Peoples Party in the Punjab and Sindh attracted huge crowds. Awami League mobilized support on the basis of its Six-Points Program, which was the main attraction in the party's manifesto. While Z. A. Bhutto's personality, his socialistic ideas and his slogan of "Rotti, Kapra aur Makan", meaning food, clothing and shelter, were the factors that contributed to the popularity of Pakistan Peoples Party. The rightist parties raised the religious slogans, while the leftists raised slogans based on regional and communistic ideas. A total 1,957 candidates filed their nomination papers for 300 National Assembly seats. While after scrutiny and withdrawals, 1,579 contested the elections eventually. None of the political parties filed nominations of their candidates on all the seats. Awami League nominated 170 candidates out of which 162 were for the constituencies in East Pakistan. The party that filed second highest number of candidates was Jamaat-i-Islami. It filed 151 candidates. There were only 120 candidates contesting the elections on the ticket of Pakistan Peoples Party, out of which 103 were from the constituencies in the Punjab and Sindh. Pakistan Peoples Party didn't nominate a single candidate from East Pakistan. Convention Muslim League nominated 124 candidates, Council Muslim League 119 and Qayyum Muslim League 133. According to the original schedule, polling for the National Assembly was to be held on October 5 and for the Provincial Assemblies on October 19. However, due to the floods in the East Pakistan, the dates were changed to December 7 and 17, respectively. Elections on nine National Assembly and 18 Provincial Assembly seats, however, could not be held on these dates because of the cyclone that hit a large part of East Pakistan. Elections for these seats were held on January 17, 1971. According to the results of the elections, Awami League emerged as the single largest party in the National Assembly by winning 160 seats. It was also able to win 288 out of 300 seats in the East Pakistan Assembly. However, the party failed to win even a single seat in the four Provincial Assemblies of West Pakistan. Pakistan Peoples Party managed to win 81 out of 138 seats reserved for West Pakistan in the National Assembly. The party also performed well in the Provincial Assembly polls of the Punjab and Sindh Assemblies. The election results showed that the rightist parties were completely routed. The biggest reason for this was the division of votes among several candidates on almost every seat. Qayyum Muslim League, Council Muslim League, Convention Muslim League, Jamiyat-i-Ulema-i-Islam, Jamiyat-i-Ulema-i-Pakistan and Jamaat-i-Islami as a whole could only secure 37 National Assembly seats. National Awami Party and Jamiyat-i-Ulema-i-Islam emerged as the prominent parties in the N. W. F. P and Baluchistan Assemblies.

The Separation of East Pakistan [1971]

The separation of East Pakistan was a great setback to Pakistan. By 1970, sentiments for national unity had weakened in East Pakistan to the extent that constant conflict between the two Wings dramatically erupted into mass civil disorder. This tragically resulted in the brutal and violent amputation of Pakistan's Eastern Wing. The physical separation of a thousand miles between the two wings without a common border, and being surrounded by Indian territory and influences, led to constant political, economic and social conflicts between the two wings; embittering relations bringing the country on the verge of collapse. As a result of the separation of its Eastern Wing, Pakistan's international credit was depleted and the military, being its most powerful institution, suffered a lot. To some, the very concept of Pakistan as the homeland for the Muslims in Southeast Asia no longer appeared valid. Trouble started right at the inception of Pakistan in 1947. Almost immediately, East Pakistan claimed that as their population (55 percent as compared to 45 percent in the West) was greater, they were in a majority. Democratically, the Federal Capital, therefore, should have been in Dhaka and not in Karachi. Since Karachi was the seat of the National Government; ministers, government officials and industrialists

exerted immense influence on national and regional affairs, which brought them many benefits. But the East Pakistanis were unable to extract the same kind of advantages, as they were a thousand miles away from the Capital. Moreover, the Capital initially attracted wealthy industrialists, businessmen, administrators, doctors and other professionals who had fled from India. The location of the Capital, it was said, created great economic imbalance, uneven distribution of national wealth and privileges, and better jobs for the people of West Pakistan, because they were able to sway decisions in their own favor. Secondly, Bengalis resented the vast sums of foreign exchange earned from the sale of jute from East, which were being spent on defense. They questioned how the expenditure for the Kashmir cause would be justified, when it could otherwise have been productively used to build dams and barriers to control floods, eradicate poverty and illiteracy, and supply food and shelter for the ever-growing population in East Pakistan. Thirdly, the people of the East believed that it was sheer regional prejudice that all white-collar jobs were taken by West Pakistanis. Many mistakes were made early in the short history of Pakistan. There lived in East Pakistan about 15 million Hindus who, with the help of their fellow West Bengali Indians from across the border, were able to exploit East-West differences that emerged as a result of these mistakes. Grievances were exaggerated to foster anti-West Pakistani feelings that eventually created Bengali Nationalism and separatist tendencies. Bengali political leaders went around depicting the Central Government and West Pakistan as hostile exploiters. However, no effective efforts were made by the Government to check these anti-national trends. Awami League, formed in 1951, was headed by Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman. He had always been an ardent Bengali nationalist. He began to attract popular support from Bengalis in East Pakistan. He put forward his Six Points that demanded more autonomy for the Provinces in general, and East Pakistan in particular. He was arrested in April 1966, and soon released, only to be rearrested and imprisoned in June the same year. He languished in prison until February 1969. Being deeply aware of the explosive political situation in the country, the then Chief Martial Law Administrator, Yahya Khan, set in motion moves to transfer power to the elected representatives of the people, and announced that the general elections would be held on October 5, 1970. In all his election speeches, Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman reiterated his demand for implementation of his Six Points and provincial autonomy plans. The 1970 elections were postponed from October to December due to heavy floods that caused immense destruction and havoc in East Pakistan. The sheer enormity of the disaster attracted worldwide attention. This gave Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman a golden opportunity to have an international audience for his anti-West Pakistan feelings, which he accused of brutal callousness. The Awami League gained much sympathy and benefit out of this suffering, and Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman and his people were portrayed on the international scene as victims of West Pakistan's indifference. In the general elections held in December 1970, the Awami League achieved an overwhelming victory. They captured 167 seats, the highest number in East Pakistan and overall. In the West, the Pakistan Peoples Party had won 85 seats. The way was now open to draw up a new Constitution. The Awami League, now overwhelmingly victors, stood firm on its Six Points plan and refused to compromise on that issue. The Peoples Party in the West maintained that the Six Points Program did not really permit a genuine federation. It was in fact a unique constitutional proposal that proposed a federation that had power only over defense and foreign policy. Efforts were made to start a constitutional dialogue and narrow the differences between the two Wings, but all in vain. Mujib-ur-Rahman's adamant stand in support of his Six Points, and his proposal that East Pakistan should have a sovereign status independent of Pakistan, further aggravated the situation. Mujib-ur-Rahman launched a non-cooperation movement. The civil administration was totally paralyzed. All

government and educational institutions were closed. People were asked not to pay any taxes. The transport system came to a standstill. Factories and shops were shut. All government activities between both the Wings ceased. The Awami League setup a parallel government. Gangs of local Awami League freedom fighters, known as Mukti Bahini, led violent demonstrations and howled racial and anti-West Pakistan slogans, inciting the people to more violence. Amidst these disturbances, Genaral Yahya decided to convene the National Assembly in March 1971. But Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman unexpectedly put forward other demands such as the immediate lifting of Martial Law and power transfer to the elected representatives of the people, prior to the National Assembly session. Unfortunately, on March 23, the Republic Day of Pakistan, the Awami League declared "Resistance Day" and Bangladesh flags flew all over the Province. There was a great massacre. East Pakistan had reached a point of no return. To quash the armed rebellion of Awami League militants, the Pakistan Army struck its first blow on March 27, 1971. Yahya Khan chose to use force to bring law and order in the country. In the meantime, India exploited Pakistan's dilemma to the full. It sought to wring full propaganda and strategic value for itself out of the Bengali suffering and misery. India launched an attack on East Pakistan on November 22, 1971. The use of modern Soviet missiles, geographical separation by a thousand miles lying across the hostile Indian territory, and the collusion of Mukti Bahini and the Indian Army, made Pakistan's military defeat in the East almost certain. On December 10, 1971, the first feeler for surrender in East Pakistan was conveyed to the United Nations. On December 17, 1971, a formal surrender was submitted and accepted. Forty five thousand troops and an almost equal number of civilians of West Pakistan were taken as prisoners of war. The text of the Instrument of Surrender document was as follows: "INSTRUMENT OF SURRENDER" The PAKISTAN Eastern Command agree to surrender all PAKISTAN Armed Forces in BANGLA DESH to Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and BANGLA DESH forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all PAKISTAN land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA. The PAKISTAN Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA as soon as this instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms and will be dealt with in accordance with the accepted laws and usages of war. The decision of Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA will be final, should any doubt arise as to the meaning or interpretation of the surrender terms. Lieutenant- General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA gives a solemn assurance that personnel who surrender will be treated with dignity and respect that soldiers are entitled to in accordance with the provisions of the GENEVA Convention and guarantees the safety and well-being of all PAKISTAN military and para-military forces who surrender. Protection will be provided to foreign nationals, ethnic minorities and personnel of WEST PAKISTAN origin by the forces under the command of Lieutenant- General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA. Signed: (JAGJIT SINGH AURORA) Lieutenant-General General Officer Commanding in Chief Indian and BANGLA DESH Forces in the Eastern Theatre (AMIR ABDULLAH KHAN NIAZI) Lieutenant-General Martial Law Administrator Zone B and Commander Eastern Command (PAKISTAN) 16 December 1971" The surrender led to the disintegration of East and West Pakistan and the establishment of Bangladesh. After 25 years, the East Pakistanis declared themselves independent and renamed their Province as Bangladesh. Pakistan

finally recognized Bangladesh at the Islamic Conference in Lahore on February 22, 1974.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto becomes President [1971]

After the disastrous war with India that ingloriously concluded in December 1971, Pakistan had to face its greatest crisis since Independence. The dismembered Pakistan was left only with the four Provinces of West Pakistan; Punjab, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and Baluchistan. East Pakistan was now independent. Pakistan had lost a whole province of 70 million, 56 percent of the total population, and over 54,501 sq. miles of territory. There were 93,000 prisoners of war in India and Bangladesh. Pakistan's international credit was depleted. President Yahya tried to act in a militaristic manner to impose law and order but the people's patience had been exhausted by this time. Military leadership had been discredited. Disillusionment, uncertainty and pessimism prevailed. People were no longer prepared to tolerate misgovernment. The public severely criticized and accused President Yahya and his Government for ineptness and inability that culminated with the 1971 national debacle. Faced with these difficulties, President Yahya ceded power to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party that had won the majority votes in the 1970 elections in West Pakistan. On the request of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, on December 6, 1971, Yahya Khan installed a civilian setup at the Centre and Nurul Amin, a prominent Bengali politician who was against Mujib-ur-Rahman, was made the Prime Minister. Z. A. Bhutto was made Deputy Prime Minister on the same day. Nurul Amin remained Prime Minister till December 20, 1971, the day when Bhutto took over as the civilian Chief Marshal Law Administrator. A Pakistan International Airline flight was sent to fetch Bhutto from New York, who at that time was pleading Pakistan's case before the United Nations Security Council on the East Pakistan Crises. Bhutto returned home on December 18, 1971. On December 20, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one as President and the other as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Thus he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan. The new President inherited a disturbed and desperate nation sobbing and suffering from an intangible loss of confidence. In this dismal hour, he addressed the nation and promised to fight back. He vowed to build a new Pakistan. Bhutto's intentions to restore national confidence were in several shapes. He spoke about democracy, a new Constitution, and a modified federal and parliamentary system. He took steps to stabilize the situation by successfully negotiating the return of the 93,000 prisoners of war and a peaceful settlement with India. He took steps to ameliorate poverty and to revitalize the economy, industry and agriculture. He gave the third Constitution to the country and established civilian authority over the armed forces in the political setup. In early 1972, Bhutto nationalized ten categories of major industries and withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth of Nations and S. E. A. T. O. On March 1, he introduced extensive land reforms. On July 2, 1972, he signed the Simla Agreement with India for exchange of the occupied territories and release of Prisoners of War. After the 1973 Constitution was promulgated, Bhutto was elected by the House as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. He was sworn-in on August 14, 1973.

The Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission Report [1971]

In December 1971, within a week of replacing General Yahya as the President, Bhutto formed a commission headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Justice Hamood-ur-Rahman. The Commission's responsibility was to ascertain the facts of the 1971 debacle. The commission interviewed 213 persons including General Yahya, Z. A. Bhutto, Chief of Air Force, Chief of Navy, senior commanders, and various political

leaders. It submitted its first report in July 1972. Originally there were 12 copies of the Report. These were all destroyed; expect the one that was handed over to Z. A. Bhutto. Neither Bhutto, nor the Army which took over in 1977, made the Report public. Though the Report remained classified, its contents were presumably learned from various writings and memoirs of the military officers narrating their side of the story of what the Hamood-ur-Rahman Inquiry Commission had to say. The report recommended public trials of the concerned officers responsible for the 1971 debacle. The inquiry was reopened in 1974. The Commission again interviewed 73 bureaucrats and top military officers and submitted its supplementary report in November 1974. It was this supplementary report that was presumably published by an Indian magazine in August 2000, and afterwards allowed to be published in the Pakistani press. Publicizing of the Report by the Indian media was not a surprise since it had come out at a time when there was international pressure mounting on India to resolve the Kashmir dispute. Immense human rights violations were being reported by international organizations such as Amnesty International and Asia Watch with reference to the role of Indian Security Forces in the Indian-held Kashmir. The publication of the Report was seen in Pakistan as an attempt by India to divert the world attention from its inhumane and unjustified actions in Kashmir. Volume I of the main report dealt with political background, international relations, and military aspects of the events of 1971. Volume I of the supplementary report discussed political events of 1971, military aspect, surrender in East Pakistan and the moral aspect. A large number of West Pakistanis and Biharis who were able to escape from East Pakistan told the Commission awful tales of the atrocities at the hands of the Awami League militants. It was revealed that many families of West Pakistani Officers and other ranks serving with East Bengal Units were subjected to inhuman treatment. Their erstwhile Bengali colleagues had butchered a large number of West Pakistani Officers. As the tales of slaughter reached West Pakistani soldiers of other Units, they reacted violently, and in the process of restoring the authority of the Central Government, committed severe excesses on the local Bengali population. The Report's findings accuse the Army of carrying out senseless and wanton arson, killings in the countryside, killing of intellectuals and professionals and burying them in mass graves, killing of Bengali Officers and soldiers on the pretence of quelling their rebellion, killing East Pakistani civilian officers, businessmen and industrialists, raping a large number of East Pakistani women as a deliberate act of revenge, retaliation and torture, and deliberate killing of members of the Hindu minority. Having dealt with the claim of General Niazi that he had no legal option but to surrender, the Commission proceeded to consider whether it was necessary for General Niazi to surrender, and whether he was justified in surrendering at that particular juncture, for most of the messages that emanated from the General Head Quarters were studiously ambiguous and designed. Secondly, General Farman Ali had suggested to him that instead of ordering surrender en masse, he should leave it to each Divisional Commander to surrender or not, according to his own circumstances. It was pointed out in the Report, that despite the assurances given by the Chief of Staff of the Indian Army and the terms of surrender, the killing of loyal East Pakistani population, West Pakistani civilians, and civil armed forces by the Mukti Bahini started in full swing soon after Army's surrender. It was maintained in the Report that the defeat suffered by the armed forces was not a result of military factors alone, but had been brought about as the cumulative result of political, international, moral and military factors. The political developments that took place between 1947 and 1971, including the effects of the two Martial Law periods, hastened the process of political and emotional isolation of East Pakistan from West Pakistan. The dismemberment of Pakistan was also accelerated by the role played by the two major political parties, Awami League and the Pakistan Peoples Party, in bringing about a situation that resulted in postponement of the National Assembly session, scheduled to be held at Dhaka on the March 3, 1971. The events occurring between March 1 and 25, 1971, when the Awami League had seized power from the Government, resulting in the military action of March 25, 1971, were deplorable. The Commission also touched upon the negotiations,

which General Yahya Khan was pretending to hold during this period with Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman on the one hand, and political leaders from West Pakistan on the other. Although he never formally declared these negotiations to have failed, yet he secretly left Dhaka on the evening of March 25, 1971, leaving instructions behind for military action to be initiated as soon his plane landed at Karachi. The Commission declared that military action could not have been substitute for a political settlement, which was feasible once law and order had been restored within a matter of few weeks after the military action. No serious effort was made to start a political dialogue with the elected representatives of the people of East Pakistan. Instead fraudulent and useless measures were adopted. The use of excessive force during the military action had only served to alienate the sympathies of the people of East Pakistan. The arbitrary methods adopted by the Martial Law Administration in dealing with respectable citizens of East Pakistan and their sudden disappearances made the situation worse. The attitude of the Army authorities towards the Hindu minority also resulted in a large-scale exodus to India. Although General Yahya Khan was not totally unaware of the avowed intention of India to dismember Pakistan, he didn't realize the need for early political settlement with the political leaders of East Pakistan. There was wastage of considerable time during which the Indians mounted their training program for the Mukti Bahini and freely started guerillas raids into the Pakistan territory. Pakistan Army was almost unable to prevent infiltration of Mukti Bahini and Indian agents all along the borders of East Pakistan. In the presence of these two factors, the Pakistan Army was obviously fighting a losing battle from the very start. There had been a large exodus of people from East Pakistan to India, as a result of the military action. The results of Indian efforts to propagate this refugee problem on an international level cannot be undermined. The Indian propaganda was so forceful that all endeavors made by the military regime in Pakistan to defuse the situation proved to be futile and left the world unimpressed. The mutual assistance treaty signed between India and the U. S. S. R. in August 1971 further aggravated the situation. No rational explanation was available as to why General Yahya did not take the dispute to the Security Council immediately after the Indian invasion of East Pakistan on November 21, 1971. Nor was it possible to explain his refusal to accept the first Russian resolution, if indeed the situation in East Pakistan had become so critical that surrender was inevitable. The Army High Command did not carry out any in-depth study of the effect of these new factors, nor did it pay any attention to the growing disparity in war preparedness and capability between the armed forces of Pakistan and India as a result of the Indo-Soviet Treaty of August 1971. The traditional concept of defense adopted by the Pakistan Army that the defense of East Pakistan lays in West Pakistan was never implemented in a determined and effective manner. The concept remained valid, and if ever there was need to invoke this concept, it was on November 21, 1971, when Indian troops crossed the East Pakistan borders in naked aggression. Unfortunately, the delay in opening the Western front and the half-hearted and hesitant manner in which it was ultimately opened only helped in precipitating the catastrophe in East Pakistan. Besides, the detailed narrative of events, as given in the supplementary report, clearly shows that the planning was hopelessly defective. There was neither any plan at all for the defense of Dhaka, nor any concerted effort to stem the enemy onslaught with a Division or a Brigade battle at any stage. It was only when the General found himself gradually being surrounded by the enemy which had successfully reached Faridpur, Khulna, Daudkandi and Chandpur (the shortest route to Dhaka), that he began to make frantic efforts to get the troops back for the defense of Dhaka. The Report maintained that there was no actual order to surrender. In view of the desperate picture painted by the Commander Eastern Command, higher authorities gave him permission to surrender if he, in his judgment, thought it necessary. General Niazi could have opted not to surrender if he thought that he had the capability of defending Dhaka. On his own estimate, he had 26,400 men to hold out for another two weeks. The enemy would have taken a week to build up its forces and another week to reduce the fortress of Dhaka. But evidence showed that he had already lost the will to fight after December 7, 1971, when his major fortresses at Jessore

and Brahmanbari had fallen. Detailed accounts of witnesses given to the Commission indicate that Lt-General Niazi had suffered a complete moral collapse during the closing phases of the war. It had been concluded that apart from the political, international and military factors, an important cause for defeat of the Pakistan Army was the lack of moral character and courage in the senior Army Commanders. The process of moral degeneration among the senior ranks of the armed forces was set in motion by their involvement in Martial Law duties in 1958. These tendencies were intensified when General Yahya Khan imposed Martial Law in the country once again in March 1969. A large number of senior army officers had not only indulged in large-scale acquisition of lands and houses and other commercial activities, but had also adopted highly immoral and lewd ways of life, which seriously affected their professional capabilities and their qualities of leadership. It appears that they had lost the will to fight and the ability to take vital and critical decisions required for the successful prosecution of the war. These remarks particularly applied to General Yahya Khan, his close associates, General Abdul Hamid Khan, Major General Khuda Dad Khan and Lt-General A. A. K. Niazi, apart from certain other officers. The Commission recommended that these grave allegations be dealt with seriously. The surrender in East Pakistan had been a tragic blow to the nation and had caused, not only dismemberment of Pakistan, but also shattered the image of Pakistan Army as an efficient and excellent fighting force. In the end it was hoped in the Report that the Nation would learn the necessary lessons from these tragic events, and that effective and early action will be taken in the light of the conclusions reached. The Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission Report is a valuable document. It was prepared with the explicit purpose of not repeating the various mistakes committed by the Army, General Yahya Khan and Z. A. Bhutto, which resulted in the separation of East Pakistan. Writings and memoirs disclose that apart from its inquiry into the 1971 crisis, it also makes thoughtful recommendations about the defense of the country as a whole.

The Simla Agreement [1972]

After the 1971 war, India held prisoner around 93,000 Pakistani troops and civilians. In Pakistan there was a growing demand to get these prisoners released with the result that a Summit Conference between Pakistani President, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and the Indian leader, Mrs. Gandhi, was held at Simla from June 28 to July 2, 1972. The two countries reached an agreement on July 2. The agreement contained the elements of an earlier Indian draft, but the wording was considerably modified. In particular the clause referring to the ceasefire line in Kashmir was rephrased as to make it acceptable to Pakistan.

The broad features of this pact included that the principle and purpose of the charter of United Nations would govern the relations between the two countries. The two countries resolved to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations. The foremost conditions for understanding, good neighborly relations, and stable and lasting peace were laid that no country would interfere with the other country's internal matters on the basis of mutual respect for peace, security, territorial sovereignty, mutual friendship and equality.

It was reiterated again in the agreement that efforts would be made to put an end, as far as possible, to all such disputes and differences that have been the cause of dissension between the two countries for the last 25 years. Both governments also agreed to take all steps within their power to prevent hostile propaganda directed against each other.

In order to progressively restore and normalize relations between the two countries, it was agreed that steps would be taken to resume communications, postal service, and promote and facilitate travel by sea, land and air. Trade and cooperation in economic and other agreed fields would also be resumed.

In order to initiate the process of durable peace, both the governments agreed that Indian and Pakistani forces would be withdrawn to their sides of the international border. The control line between Jammu and Kashmir would be the same as was on December 17, 1971. Both the countries would respect the international border and the withdrawal of the armies would be completed within 30 days of the implementation of the agreement.

Leaders of both the countries agreed at Simla to meet again at a mutually agreed time so that representatives of both the countries could discuss more arrangements for durable peace, including matters relating to prisoners of war, local prisoners, final settlement of Jammu and Kashmir dispute and diplomatic relations. As a consequence of the clauses pertaining to the withdrawal of forces, Indian troops withdrew from the 5,139 sq. miles of Pakistani territory in Punjab and Sindh it had occupied during the war. Similarly, Pakistani troops withdrew from 69 sq. miles of territory in Punjab and Rajasthan. In Kashmir, India retained 480 sq. miles and Pakistan 52 sq. miles.

Pakistan ratified the Simla Agreement on July 15 and India on August 3, after which the agreement came into effect on August 4, 1972.

The Constitution of 1973

The Bhutto Government's first achievement was the preparation of a Constitution for the country. The most prominent characteristic of this Constitution was that it accommodated proposals from the opposition parties and hence almost all the major political parties of the country accepted it. The National Assembly approved the 1973 Constitution on April 10, 1973, and it came into effect on August 14. Bhutto took over as the Prime Minister of Pakistan from this date and Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was appointed as the President of Pakistan. The Constitution of 1973 opens with a Preamble. This is the preliminary part of the Constitution in which broad features of the Constitution have been explained. The first Article of the Constitution declares Pakistan as a Federal Republic to be known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Islam was declared as the State religion of Pakistan. Pakistan was to be a Federation of four federating Units, Punjab, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and Baluchistan. The Constitution was parliamentary in nature. Article 41 of the Constitution lay down that the President was to be the Head of the State. The President was to be a Muslim above 45 years of age and was to be elected by a joint sitting of members of the Parliament for 5 years. He could be re-elected but could not hold office for more than two terms. The President was to act on the advice of the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The President could be removed on the grounds of physical or mental incapacity or impeached on charges of violating the Constitution or gross misconduct. The President was authorized to appoint the Attorney General, Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts, and the Chief Election Commissioners. In the Provincial Government, each province was to have a Governor appointed by the President. The appointment of Federal Ministers and Ministers of the State from amongst the members of the Parliament was at the Prime Minister's disposal. The 1973 Constitution set up a bicameral legislature at the Center consisting of two Houses, the National Assembly and the Senate. The National Assembly consisted of 200 seats elected directly for duration of five years. The President on the advice of the Prime Minister could dissolve the National Assembly. The Senate was to consist of 63 members; each province was to elect 14 members. In the Provincial Government, each province will have a Governor appointed by the President. The Provincial Assembly for each province consisted of 240 seats for the Punjab, 100 seats for Sindh, 80 seats for N. W. F. P., and 40 seats for Baluchistan. The 1973 Constitution provided a free and independent Judiciary. The Constitution guaranteed a right to the citizens; to be protected by law, and imposed two duties on them, loyalty to the Republic and obedience to the law. Any person who was found to abrogate or attempt or conspire to abrogate or subvert the Constitution was

to be treated guilty of high treason. The Constitution conferred several kinds of fundamental rights to the people such as the right to life, liberty, equality and freedom of speech, trade and association. The Constitution also declared the laws inconsistent with or in derogatory to fundamental rights as null and void. In light of the previous experience, the Constitution of 1973 was more Islamic in character than the previous ones. Emphasis was made to establish a real Islamic system in all aspects of social life. Keeping this objective in mind, more Islamic provisions were laid down in the Constitution of 1973. The Constitution recognized Islam as the religion of the country and enjoined upon the State to serve the cause of Islam and to bring all existing laws in conformity with Islam. The Islamic Advisory Council was set up to recommend ways and means to bring existing laws of the country in conformity with the Islamic principles. The Constitution of 1973 remained in force for nearly four years. It was, however, suspended by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed Martial Law in the country on July 5, 1979. However, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq who ran the country with Martial Law passed the Eighth Amendment in the Constitution in 1985. This Amendment empowered the President to dissolve the National Assembly under Article 58(2) b. This Article was later repealed by the Parliament during Nawaz Sharif's era through Thirteenth Amendment introduced on April 1, 1997. The Thirteenth Amendment was in turn repealed by the Legal Framework Order of 2002, which effectively restored the discretionary powers of the President enacted by the Eighth Amendment.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto becomes Prime Minister [1973]

After the promulgation of the 1973 Constitution, the elections for the President, Prime Minister, Chairman of Senate, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly were to be undertaken. The 1973 Constitution had adopted a federal parliamentary system for the country in which the President was only a figurehead and the real power lay with the Prime Minister. Z. A. Bhutto was sworn in as the Prime Minister of the country on August 14, 1973, after he had secured 108 votes in a house of 146 members. Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was elected as the President under the new Constitution.

During his period, six amendments were carried out in the 1973 Constitution. The First Amendment led to Pakistan's recognition of Bangladesh. The Second Amendment in the constitution declared the Ahmadis as non-Muslims. The rights of the detained were limited under the Third Amendment while the powers and jurisdiction of the courts for providing relief to political opponents were curtailed under the Fourth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment passed on September 15, 1976, focused on curtailing the power and jurisdiction of the Judiciary. This amendment was highly criticized by lawyers and political leaders. The main provision of the Sixth Amendment extended the term of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and the High Courts beyond the age of retirement. This Amendment was made in the Constitution to favor the then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who was supposed to be a friend of Bhutto.

The Bhutto Government carried out a number of reforms in the industrial sector. His reforms were twofold; nationalization, and the improvement of workers' rights. In the first phase, basic industries like steel, chemical and cement were nationalized. This was done in 1972. The next major step in nationalization took place on January 1, 1974, when Bhutto nationalized all banks. The last step in the series was the most shocking; it was the nationalization of all flour, rice and cotton mills throughout the country. This nationalization process was not as successful as Bhutto expected. Most of the nationalized units were small businesses that could not be described as industrial units, hence making no sense for the step that was taken. Consequently, a considerable number of small businessmen and traders were ruined, displaced or rendered unemployed.

In the concluding analysis, nationalization caused colossal loss not only to the national treasury but also to the people of Pakistan. During his period as the Prime Minister, a number of land reforms were also introduced. The important land reforms included the reduction of land ceilings and introducing the security of tenancy to tenant farmers. The land ceiling was fixed to 150 acres of irrigated land and 300 acres of non-irrigated land. Another step that Bhutto took was to democratize Pakistan's Civil Service.

Fazal Ilahi becomes President [1973]

After the promulgation of the 1973 Constitution, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was sworn in as the Prime Minister of the country, and Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry became the President of Pakistan, on August 14, 1973, for a term of five years. Fazal Ilahi was a mere figurehead since all power and authority rested with the Prime Minister. He was allowed to continue as the President of Pakistan till 1978, although the army took over the reigns of power in July, 1977. He was relinquished from the office at his own request on September 16, 1978. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was sworn in as the next President of Pakistan, in addition to being the Chief Martial Law Administrator and the Chief of Army Staff.

General Elections 1977

According to the original schedule, the second general elections in the history of Pakistan, and the first after the dismemberment of the country, were to be held in the second half of 1977. However, on January 7, 1977, Bhutto announced that the elections would be held earlier. On January 10, Justice Sajjad Ahmad Jan, Chief Election Commissioner, announced the election schedule and declared January 19 and 22 as the last date for receipt of nominations for National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies, respectively. To many, the idea was not to give sufficient time to the opposition in order to make decisions and arrangements for the forthcoming elections. Election symbols were allocated to all the political parties. The total registered voters in the country were 30,899,052. Two hundred and fifty five Returning Officers were appointed for the National Assembly elections by the Election Commission. Immediately after the announcement, Bhutto started his election campaign. The first step he took was the allocation of tickets to his party men. Unlike the 1970 elections, when Pakistan Peoples Party mainly banked on socialistic slogans, this time Bhutto also relied on political heavyweights. A number of feudal lords and other influential persons were allocated party tickets. Bhutto himself held public meetings all over the country, and to get further support from the common man, he announced labor reforms on January 4, and a second set of land reforms on January 5. The attendance in the public meetings was amazing in all parts of the country, especially in interior Sindh and Punjab. The opposition blamed Bhutto for using Government machinery in running his election campaign. The biggest problem for Bhutto and his Pakistan Peoples Party was that nine important parties of the opposition had joined hands and formed an alliance, named as Pakistan National Alliance. P. N. A. decided to contest the elections under one election symbol "plough" and a green flag with nine stars as its ensign. Throughout their election campaign, instead of giving their own agenda, P. N. A. leadership mainly concentrated on echoing the alleged misdeeds of Bhutto's Government, corruption, mismanagement of national wealth, heavy expenditures on administration and disastrous economic policies evidenced by inflation. The P. N. A. leaders also exploited the deteriorating law and order situation and misuse of law enforcing agencies against the political opponents. They claimed that the fundamental rights had been curtailed during Bhutto's era. P. N. A. managed to exploit anti-Bhutto sentiments among a huge section of masses and thus their election campaign received an unexpectedly positive response. Their claim, that their manifesto was Quran, also helped them in winning over a sizable number of voters from all over Pakistan. The attendance in P. N. A. public

meetings and rallies was at times unexpected, even for the Alliance leadership itself. Finally the elections were held on March 7 in which Pakistan Peoples Party managed to win 155 out of 200 seats in the National Assembly. The results of the elections astonished political pundits both inside and outside Pakistan. Pakistan National Alliance was only able to win 36 National Assembly seats. To add insult to injury, the Alliance could only win 8 out of 116 seats of the National Assembly from Punjab, and failed to win even a single seat from Lahore and Rawalpindi, cities in which they had organized big public gatherings and processions. Pakistan National Alliance leaders protested that there had been a systematic rigging of election results to defeat them. At many places, particularly where the P. N. A. candidates were strong, the polling was alleged to have been blocked for hours. There were also reports that P. P. P. armed personnel in police uniform removed ballot boxes. Marked ballot papers were also found on the streets in Karachi and Lahore. Rumors quickly circulated that the results in key constituencies were issued directly from the Prime Minister's office. P. N. A. boycotted the provincial elections. P. P. P. resorted to bogus voting merely to prove that voters had come to cast their ballot. Overall P. P. P. gained 99 percent seats. The voting figures showing the success of the P. P. P. candidates often surpassed the actual number that turned up for voting. At last Martial Law was imposed by Zia-ul-Haq who appointed a committee to inquire into the alleged rigging of the National Assembly polls. This committee was reported to have found a blueprint of the plan of rigging from the Prime Minister House. The inquiry committee alleged that Bhutto had prepared this plan as early as April 1976, under the title of "A Model Election Plan", later known as the "Larkana Plan". In an interview to Associated Press of Pakistan, Sajjad Ahmad Jan, the Chief Election Commissioner admitted that the failure of the electoral process was by and large due to the candidates of the ruling party, who exploited their position and party machinery and thus destroyed the sanctity of the ballot box.

Ouster of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto

Ever since Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took over the responsibilities of governance, there was a strong group in the country that was not ready to accept him. They considered him as one of the players who were involved in the dismemberment of Pakistan. This hatred was further enhanced by the authoritarian style of his governance. His policy of suppressing the opposition and interference in the affairs of the Provinces proved to be the major factor for the unity of the rightist and the leftist political parties against him. As early as March 1973, opposition parties in the National Assembly set a common platform, called United Democratic Front, to counter the anti-opposition steps of Bhutto's Government. However, the opposition emerged as a significant force against Bhutto at the macro level for the first time when elections were announced in January 1977. The opposition decided to join hands against Bhutto and contest the election from a common platform, the Pakistan National Alliance. Formation of P. N. A. proved to be the beginning of the decline of Bhutto. During the elections, the Establishment showed its biased attitude towards P. N. A. which made the Alliance even more popular among the masses. Most of the public meetings of P. N. A., especially in the big cities like Karachi, Lahore and Rawalpindi, were immensely successful. Yet the result of March 7 elections astonished everyone as P. P. P. swept the polls and P. N. A. was only able to win 36 seats in the National Assembly. P. N. A. leadership did not accept the results and accused the Government of systematic rigging. P. N. A. Executive Council decided to boycott the Provincial Assemblies' polls and demanded for immediate resignation of Bhutto, replacement of the Chief Election Commissioner, and fresh election of National Assembly seats under the supervision of Judiciary and the Army. When Bhutto refused to accept the demands of P. N. A., leadership of the Alliance decided to bring the people onto the streets, to break law deliberately, and to confront the police and the security forces. P. N. A. leaders

called upon the people to stage countrywide strikes and organize protest marches. The followers fully responded to the call and a full-fledged political movement started. The business community wholeheartedly joined Alliance. P. N. A. used mosques to stimulate the masses and tried to create an impression that they were only working for the enforcement of Nizam-i-Mustafa. They criticized the socialistic attitude of Bhutto and alleged that he had lost his faith in Islam. The ulema whipped up emotions for a Jihad to save Islam, which they thought was in danger from an evil regime. The bar associations across the country also began to register their strong protest against the electoral fraud and denounced the post-election policy of repression. Initially Bhutto put a deaf ear to the demands of P. N. A. and debunked opposition's charges that his landslide victory was a result of rigging. He used police and F. S. F. against Alliance's activities and its top leadership was arrested and put behind the bars. Martial Law was enforced in three main cities of Karachi, Lahore and Hyderabad. Curfew was imposed in the rest of the big cities of the country and Army was called to maintain law and order. However, the intensity of the situation made Bhutto realize that it was not possible to suppress the movement by force. In the beginning of May, Bhutto changed his policy and started to explore the option of a dialog. Some P. N. A. leaders were released and brought to Sihala for negotiations in the first week of June. Bhutto showed his willingness to hold elections in November 1977, and offered five ministries to the P. N. A. candidates during the interim period. But P. N. A. team insisted on 50 percent representation in the Cabinet and demanded elections before August 14. Bhutto eventually accepted almost all the demands of P. N. A. and the stage was set for a compromise. Signing of the agreement was held in abeyance as he went abroad for a tour of Saudi Arabia, Libya, U. A. E., Kuwait and Iran. His tour was termed as dilatory tactics and again there seemed to be a deadlock. It was in these conditions that Chief of the Army Staff, General Zia-ul-Haq, imposed Martial Law in the country on July 5, 1977, and sent Bhutto behind the bars. General Zia said, "Had an agreement reached between the opposition and the Government, I would certainly never have done what I did".

Martial Law under General Zia-ul-Haq [1977-1985]

Elections were held on March 7, 1977. The Pakistan Peoples Party won these elections, but was accused by their opponents, Pakistan National Alliance, of rigging the elections. On March 14, 1977, the Alliance started a series of nationwide protests. Talks between the Alliance and Bhutto government were held in June 1977 and an agreement was reached, but it could not be implemented. Fresh elections were announced for October 15, 1977. But on July 5, 1977, the Chief of Army Staff, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, imposed Martial Law and the elections were postponed. General Zia-ul-Haq announced holding of elections within 90 days. A conference of political leaders was held in February 1978, but a year later, in 1979, General Zia-ul-Haq declared political parties to be defunct and certain political leaders were disqualified. Under General Zia's Martial Law, there was steady economic growth favoring the private sector, and efforts were made to Islamize the political, legal and economic structures. Pakistan gained the status of Most Favored Nation from the United States following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. Vast amounts of military equipment and aid were donated to Pakistan to help the four million Afghan refugees who crossed into Baluchistan and North West Frontier Province. On February 6, 1981, Movement for Restoration of Democracy was established to return democracy to Pakistan. A provisional Constitution was enforced on March 23, 1981, as the Constitution of 1973 had been suspended with the imposition of Martial Law. Finally, after the nomination of Muhammad Khan Junejo as Prime Minister of Pakistan on March 20, 1985, Junejo fulfilled his promise of lifting the Martial Law and the restoration of the fundamental rights, but at the

price of enforcement of the Eighth Amendment and the validation of the Revival of the Constitutional Order.

Referendum 1984

General Zia wanted to establish a pseudo-democracy in Pakistan, with a continuation of him as President under a civilian setup. Zia took a number of steps in this direction; the first was the establishment of the Majlis-i-Shoora. The Majlis-i-Shoora was to take the place of the National Assembly, but was to be without any legislative powers. General Zia's second step was to ask the public to endorse his rule. This appeal was in the form of a referendum, which was so worded that a "Yes" meant that Zia himself would be further endorsed, even though the referendum did not refer to this directly. The Referendum Order 1984 put forward a complex question to the citizens, but in essence, seeking endorsement of the process of Islamization initiated by General Zia.

The question read as follows: "Whether the people of Pakistan endorse the process initiated by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the President of Pakistan, for bringing the laws of Pakistan in conformity with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and for the preservation of the Islamic ideology of Pakistan, for the continuation and consolidation of that process, and for the smooth and orderly transfer of power to the elected representatives of the people." The question was, by all standards, a very complicated and complex one, particularly for the uneducated rural class. It was a loaded question that simply asked, "Do you wish Pakistan to be an Islamic state?" An affirmative vote in the referendum was to result in a five-year term for Zia as President of Pakistan.

The referendum was held on December 19, 1984. The Movement for the Restoration of Democracy boycotted the elections. The results of this referendum showed the people voted in favor of Zia, though the M. R. D. claimed that a very small percentage of people actually showed up to vote. Zia rejected this claim and declared that he had been given public support to continue as President of Pakistan for the next five years

As a result of the referendum, the Chief Martial Law Administrator General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq became the President of Pakistan. After the referendum, General Zia announced that the elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies would be held in February 1985, on a non-party basis.

General Elections, February 1985

After the 1984 referendum, General Zia announced elections of the National and Provincial Assemblies in February 1985. The elections were to be held on a non-party basis, which was legalized through an amendment to the 1973 Constitution. Each candidate had to be supported by at least 50 people to be able to contest in the elections. In a nationwide speech on January 12, 1985, General Zia also announced various other conditions for the elections. Amendments were made in the Political Parties Act of 1962. These amendments affected all political parties. The opposition parties, M. R. D., boycotted the elections, as their demands for party-based elections and restoration of the 1973 Constitution were not met. The elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies were held in 1985 on February 25 and 28, respectively. The successful boycott of the 1984 referendum caused the M. R. D. to miscalculate their next step. Being confident of public opinion, they boycotted these elections as well. Contrary to expectations, the voters turned to the polls in large numbers. Surprisingly, many political leaders, including former Members of National and Provincial Assemblies, and Advisors, who had seemed popular in their appeals, could not win

from their constituencies. The people elected many new faces. The M. R. D. soon realized that it had miscalculated badly, that it should have fought the elections on Zia's terms. An alternative leadership was in place with many of the old political leaders routed out. The general elections to the National and Provincial Assemblies were held peacefully and with a large participation of the people. Total voter turnout for the National Assembly was 53.69 percent. In the Provincial Assemblies elections, where the constituencies were smaller and the contest harder, the turnout of the voters was even better. It was 57.37 percent nationwide. The newly elected National Assembly was to replace the Majlis-i-Shoora and was to have legislative powers as well. Muhammad Khan Junejo was appointed as the Prime Minister and he formed the government. It was this newly elected Assembly that set the tone for later years by incorporating the controversial Eighth Amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan.

Islamization Under General Zia-ul-Haq

When General Zia-ul-Haq took over as the Chief Martial Law Administrator on July 5, 1977, Islamization was given a new boost. General Zia-ul-Haq was a practicing Muslim who raised the slogan of Islam. The Islamic sentiment has always been fully alive in Pakistan. Various governments have used this to their benefit. There are people who doubt Zia's reasons for raising the Islamic slogan; whether it was for political purposes to counter balance Bhutto's appeal or was it to enforce Islam in its true sense. In his first address to the nation, he declared that Islamic laws would be enforced and that earnest attention would be devoted towards establishing the Islamic society for which Pakistan had been created. General Zia wanted to bring the legal, social, economic and political institutions of the country in conformity with the Islamic principles, values and traditions in the light of Quran and Sunnah, to enable the people of Pakistan to lead their lives in accordance to Islam. The Government of Zia-ul-Haq took a number of steps to eradicate non-Islamic practices from the country. He introduced the Zakat, Ushr, Islamic Hadood and Penal Code in the country. The Government invited eminent scholars to compile laws about Islamic financing. The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance to Islamize the economic system was promulgated on June 20, 1980. It covered only Islamic organizations, associations and institutions. Zakat was to be deducted from bank accounts of Muslims at the rate of 2.5 percent annually above the balance of Rupees 3,000. Ushr was levied on the yield of agricultural land in cash or kind at the rate of 10 percent of the agricultural yield, annually. The Government appointed Central, Provincial, District and Tehsil Zakat Committees to distribute Zakat funds to the needy, poor, orphans and widows. Shias were exempted from Zakat deduction from their accounts due to their own religious beliefs. The Zakat was to be deducted by banks on the first day of Ramazan. A Federal Shariah Court was established to decide cases according to the teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Appeals against the Lower and High Courts were to be presented before the Shariah Court for hearing. Blasphemy of the Holy Prophet (S. A. W.) would now be punishable by death instead of life imprisonment. Zia-ul-Haq selected his Majlis-i-Shoora in 1980. It was to be the Islamic Parliament and act as the Parliament of Pakistan in place of the National Assembly. Most of the members of the Shoora were intellectuals, scholars, ulema, journalists, economists and professionals belonging to different fields of life. The Shoora was to act as a board of advisors for the President. A number of other Islamization programs were carried out including the teaching of Islamic Studies and Arabic, which were made compulsory. Pakistan Studies and Islamic Studies were made compulsorily for B. A., B. Sc., Engineering, M. B. B. S., Commerce, Law and Nursing students. For professional studies, extra marks were given to people who were Hafiz-e-Quran. The first Ombudsman was appointed to rectify the misadministration of the Federal Government, officials and agencies. A Shariah Council consisting of ulema was established to look into the constitutional and legal matters of the

State in order to bring them in line with Islamic thought. Since Islam does not allow interest, On January 1, 1980, Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq introduced a "Profit and Loss Sharing System" according to which an account holder was to share the loss and profit of the bank. The media was also targeted. Television especially was brought under the Islamization campaign, news in Arabic were to be read on both television and radio, female anchor persons were required to cover their heads, the Azan was relayed regularly on radio and television to announce time for prayers. In the armed forces, the status of the religious teachers was raised to that of a Commissioned Officer. This was done to attract highly qualified individuals from the universities and religious institution to serve on such assignments. As the government grew further in its Islamic leanings, the numbers of mosques were increased. Ordinance for the sanctity of Ramazan was introduced to pay reverence to the holy month of Ramazan. The Ordinance forbade public drinking and eating during the holy month of Ramazan. A three months imprisonment and a fine of Rupees 500 were imposed for violating the Ordinance. A program to ensure the regularity of prayers called the Nizam-i-Salaat was launched by General Zia himself. Zia's Government introduced the Hadood Ordinance for the first time in Pakistan, which meant the punishments ordained by the Holy Quran or Sunnah on the use of liquor, theft, adultery and qazf. Under this Ordinance, a culprit could be sentenced to lashing, life imprisonment and in some cases, death by stoning. The Islamic laws of Zia also included laws for women. Zia put forward the theory of "Chadar Aur Chaar Devari" and this was to be applied to women. Thus, for the first time, a woman could be flogged for adultery. If a rape was reported, four witnesses were to be provided otherwise, legally, the rape could be termed adultery. Another law, The Law of Evidence, under the Shariah laws proposed that the testimony of a woman was not equal to that of a man. In legal matters, two women would have to stand witness against the testimony of one man. The status of women was thus arbitrarily cut in half by Zia. There was little consensus amongst Muslim authorities over this law. The lack of consensus among the re1igious authorities combined with countrywide protests forced Zia to hold back on making the Shariah law the law of the country. General Zia-ul-Haq wanted to make Pakistan the citadel of Islam so that it could play an honorable and prominent role for the Islamic world. The steps taken by General Zia were in this direction and had a long-term impact; the Zakat tax introduced by General Zia still holds and so does many of his the other laws.

The Afghan War Settlement

In 1979, Russian forces invaded Afghanistan. Communism came to the threshold of Pakistan when forces led by Babrak Karmel overthrew the Government of Afghanistan. Some 120,000 Russian troops entered Afghanistan .The Afghan people organized a resistance force against this blatant aggression. The Soviet forces suffered greatly in terms of manpower and material, and the Afghan War proved expensive even for a world power like the Soviet Union. It has always been said about Afghanistan that it can be invaded and occupied easily but it is very difficult to hold and control it. Afghans have a history of resisting foreign invaders. The British imperial power failed in all three attempts to occupy and control Afghanistan. The Soviets were to learn the same lesson. In the beginning, the Soviet army was successful in occupying and controlling Afghanistan. General Zia stood against the spread of communism. He reiterated his solution to the Afghanistan crisis in 1983 in New Delhi. He said that Pakistan has given political asylum to millions of Afghans. He demanded the expulsion of Russian forces from Afghanistan. America responded to the call of Pakistan and flooded Pakistan with monetary help to finance the anti-communist regime in Afghanistan and to equip the freedom fighters. The freedom fighters, the mujahideen, put forward a strong resistance to the Russian invasion. Although the Afghans suffered enormous causalities in the beginning of the war but the turning point in the war came when

the U. S. supplied them with surface-to-air Stinger missiles. General Zia's gamble in resisting the Russian invasion in Afghanistan paid him huge dividends. On the domestic front his policy of Islamization became more relevant as it was seen that in the neighboring Afghanistan, Islam was in danger. As Pakistan was a frontline state, huge amounts of money, military equipment and aid arrived in Pakistan. The huge amounts of aid that poured in propped up Zia's government. With the Afghan problem, a new phase of modernization of the military began. The arms provided to Afghanistan freedom fighters were also provided to the Pakistan Army. As a result the Pakistan Army became better equipped. Other than the problems faced due to the Afghan War efforts, the Soviet Empire was breaking apart at the seams. This led the Soviets to seek peace in Afghanistan. Negotiations on Afghanistan were carried out under Zia's Government, and the Geneva Accord was signed on April 14, 1988, under which the Soviet Union agreed to withdraw its forces in two installments .The Soviet Government lived up to its commitment of withdrawal of forces according to the agreed timetable. The victory in Afghanistan was achieved at a great cost to Pakistan. It had to look after and feed more than three million Afghan refugees that had crossed over to Pakistan. The refugees were a great economic burden on Pakistan. Not only this but, they also caused the problem of drugs and gunrunning in the country. Long after the Soviet forces had left Afghanistan, fighting continued between the various factions of the mujahideen. With the emergence of the Taliban, Pakistan found itself an ally in Afghanistan that enforced peace and virtually eliminated the drug cultivation. After the September 11 tragedy of 2001, world attention again focused on Afghanistan as they considered it as training grounds of terrorists responsible for the tragedy. The Talibans were removed by power and a U. S. led coalition installed an interim government in Afghanistan, which till today keeps a fragile peace in the country. Meanwhile Pakistan continues to suffer numerous problems from the legacy of the Afghan War such as refugees, drugs, guns, crime, and terrorism.

Muhammad Khan Junejo Becomes Prime Minister [1985-88]

After the Presidential referendum of December 1984, elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies were held in February 1985 on a non-party basis. President Zia-ul-Haq nominated Muhammad Khan Junejo as the Prime Minister of Pakistan on March 20, 1985. On being nominated, Muhammad Khan Junejo promised the nation that he would lift the Martial Law and restore a civilian government as soon as possible. Junejo's position was weak and vulnerable under the constitutional amendments made by Zia, which made the position of the President paramount and that of the Prime Minister subordinate. Despite his weak position, Junejo, after being sworn in as the Prime Minister, carried out his promise of lifting the Martial Law and the restoration of fundamental rights, but at the price of the Eight Amendment and validating the Revival of the Constitutional Order. Muhammad Khan Junejo introduced a five-point program in December 1985. The program was multidimensional in nature. The main objectives were to induct a new and progressive civilian order, establish institutions of social justice, introduce an egalitarian economy, increase employment opportunities, strike hard at corruption and other social evils, liberate at least 50 percent of the people from illiteracy, and to start socio-economic development of the country. After the lifting of Martial Law, Junejo tried to take a course independent of Zia. He annoyed military generals by withdrawing big staff cars from them and replacing them with small cars. He tried to conduct an independent foreign policy, particularly on Afghanistan, by taking into confidence and consulting leaders of political parties, including Benazir Bhutto, the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party. His government even tried to probe into the military fiasco at the Ojheri Camp near Islamabad on April 10, 1988, which resulted in the death and serious injuries to a large number of civilians. This probe perhaps became the immediate cause for the dismissal of his

government. Junejo's regime met its sudden and unexpected end while he was returning from a visit to South Korea on May 29, 1988. General Zia dismissed Junejo's Government using the controversial rule under Article 58(2) b of the Constitution. According to General Zia, Junejo's Government had been dismissed because the law and order situation had broken down to an alarming extent and the government could not be run in accordance with the Constitution. Not only were the Junejo Government dismissed, but also were the Federal and Provincial Assemblies and the Provincial Cabinets and their Chief Ministers. General Zia installed a new caretaker government in the Center and Provinces. Fresh elections were promised after 90 days but were eventually held on November 16, 1988, three months after Zia's death in a plane crash. Although Junejo had no claim to power on his own, as Zia had appointed him Prime Minister, but his performance was commendable. With limited options, he did what was possible for him. He restored the fundamental rights of citizens under the Constitution that had been denied to them for a very long time. He tried to put the country on the course of development and some progress was made, particularly in the area of construction of roads in rural areas and the electrification of villages. He was honest, polite and had a low-key political personality, traits which are not easy to find in political leaders of today.

Historic 8th Amendment is passed [1985]

The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan envisaged a Parliamentary System of government, with the balance of power tilted towards the Prime Minister. The President could not exercise his powers without the concurrence of the Prime Minister. The Eight Constitutional Amendment, however, altered the form of the Constitution drastically. Passed by the Senate on November 14, 1985, the Eight Amendment affected almost 19 clauses of the Constitution and brought the office of the President of Pakistan almost at par with that of the Prime Minister. The President was given the right to nominate the Prime Minister, Governors of the provinces, and Judges of the High Court and Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. Democratically elected Prime Minister thus became subservient to the President. Though the President was to act on the advice of the Prime Minister, he had the power to be informed about the decisions relating to the administrative affairs of the federation and proposals of legislation. The President could ask the Prime Minister to get a vote of confidence from the Assembly, issue ordinances, set dates for the elections for the National Assembly and appoint caretaker government. The President had the power of appointing service chiefs and other important federal officers. He could also call a referendum on an issue of great national importance. However, the most controversial power awarded to the office of the President was under the Article 58(2) b, which was the power of dissolution of the National Assembly at his own discretion. According to the proponents of this clause, post-constitutional deadlocks in the country had shown the necessity to vest authority in the President so that in case of a political crisis, the Assembly could be dissolved and new elections could be held and Martial Law could be avoided. The Article 58(2) b changed the entire complexion of the Constitution. The Constitution was transformed from a Parliamentary System into a Presidential one. This Amendment was like the proverbial Sword of Damocles for the successive governments. After the passing of Article 58(2) b, the National Assemblies were dissolved on four occasions using its powers. The dissolution of the Assembly by President Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan in 1990 and in 1993, and President Farooq Leghari in 1996 are subject to a lot of speculation. Other clauses amended by the Eight Amendment dealt with the office of the Prime Minister, Senate, and Governors. Article 51 increased the number of the National Assembly seats from 200 to 207. The number of the Senate seats was increased from 63 to 87 under Article 59. The Eight Amendment also indemnified the entire President's Orders, Ordinances, Martial Law Regulations and Martial Law Orders, including the Referendum

Orders made between July 5, 1977, and September 13, 1985. The Eighth Amendment is considered as a landmark in the constitutional history of Pakistan. It not only altered the very form of the Constitution from purely Parliamentary to semi-Presidential, but also changed the constitutional and political history of the country.

Death of General Zia-ul-Haq [1988]

General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq was killed in an air crash on August 17, 1988. He had gone to Bhawalpur to see a demonstration of tanks where he was accompanied by a number of Generals, including the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, Chief of General Staff, high-ranking Military Attaches, as well as the U. S. Ambassador to Pakistan. On his return journey, his military transport aircraft, a C-130, exploded in mid-air a few minutes after takeoff from Bhawalpur airport, killing all passengers aboard including the President.

This tragic air disaster was the worst in Pakistan's history and was unprecedented in the history of military aircraft. The cause of the crash was not known and the enquiry report was never made public.

General Zia's remains were buried on the grounds of Faisal Mosque in Islamabad. With the death of General Zia, the 11-year military rule came to an end. The country now was set forth on the road to democracy. This transition from dictatorship to democracy took place constitutionally.

After the crash, a high level meeting was held in Islamabad to decide the question of succession. Some of the participants in the meeting were in favor of imposition of Martial Law. However the military Chief present did not support the idea. Under the Constitution, whenever the office of President becomes vacant by reason of death or resignation, or removal of the President, the Chairman of Senate acts as the President until a new President is elected. As a result Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Chairman of the Senate, became the next acting President of Pakistan.

Benazir Bhutto Becomes Prime Minister [1988]

In the 1988 elections, Pakistan Peoples Party won 94 seats in the National Assembly without forming any alliance. With the cooperation of 8 M. Q. M. members and 13 members of the Federally Administered tribal Area, the P. P. P. showed a clear majority. Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, was sworn in as the Prime Minister, the first woman to govern an Islamic State.

Soon after taking oath, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto announced that the ban on Student Unions and Trade Unions would be lifted. The P. P. P. Government hosted the fourth S. A. A. R. C. Summit Conference in December 1988. As a result of the Conference, Pakistan and India finalized three peace agreements. But soon, Benazir's Government started facing problems on the political front. A. N. P. deserted the Pakistan People Party and on November 1, 1989, a no-confidence motion was moved against the Prime Minister by the opposition. Benazir was barely able to pull through with 12 votes to her advantage. M. Q. M., which had formed an alliance with the P. P. P. also broke away and started creating trouble in Sindh. Serious conceptual differences arose between the P. P. P. Government and the Establishment. Less than two years later, on August 6, 1990, her Government was accused of corruption and dismissed by the President, Ghulam Ishaq Khan, who exercised his power through the controversial Eighth Amendment of the Constitution.

Ghulam Ishaq Khan becomes President [1988-93]

In 1988, President Zia-ul-Haq dissolved the Junejo Government and announced that fresh elections would be held in November 1988. But on August 17, 1988, he was killed in a C-130 plane crash in Bhawalpur, along with five senior Generals and the American Ambassador. The cause of the crash has never been ascertained and still remains a riddle. After the death of General Zia, Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Chairman of the Senate, took over as acting President. Elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies were held on November 16 and 19, 1988, respectively. The Revival of the Constitutional Order had amended the Constitution, which empowered the President to appoint, at his discretion, any member of the National Assembly as Prime Minister. Ghulam Ishaq Khan appointed Benazir Bhutto as Prime Minister of Pakistan on the condition that she would offer full support to him in the forthcoming presidential elections. According to the deal between Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan Peoples Party voted for Ghulam Ishaq Khan. Ghulam Ishaq Khan was also the consensus candidate of Islami Jamuhri Ittehad. Four candidates took part in the elections, with Ghulam Ishaq Khan winning and securing the highest 608 votes. Constitutional Amendments made by the R. C. O. and the Eighth Amendment, that had given the President a great deal of power, inevitably led the President and the Prime Minister into conflict. The conflict between the President and the Prime Minister arose in two areas; the appointment of the Military Chiefs and the Superior Court Judges. The conflict between the President and the Prime Minister had its drop scene on August 6, 1990, when the President dissolved the National Assembly and Benazir Bhutto was dismissed from power. The dissolution of the National Assembly was soon followed by the dissolution of the Provincial Assemblies. Fresh elections were scheduled on October 24, 1990. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan appointed Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi as the caretaker Prime Minister. Elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies were held on October 24 and 27, 1990, respectively. Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif was elected as Prime Minister on November 1, 1990. Nawaz Sharif's Government remained in power till April 19, 1993. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan again dissolved the National Assembly, exercising his power once again through the Eighth Amendment, and appointed Mir Balakh Sher Khan Mazari as the caretaker Prime Minister. General Elections were scheduled to be held on July 14, 1993, but were canceled when the Supreme Court quashed the Presidential Order and reinstated Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister. Differences between Nawaz Sharif and Ghulam Ishaq Khan arose once again. This time they deepened to such an extent that they led to the resignation of both President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on July 18, 1993. The National and Provincial Assemblies were also dissolved. Moin Qureshi was appointed as the caretaker Prime Minister, and Ghulam Ishaq Khan was appointed the caretaker President. Fresh elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies were held. Benazir Bhutto returned to power for the second time and Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari was elected as the new President of Pakistan. This brought to an end the presidency of Ghulam Ishaq Khan, which brought about the dismissal of two elected governments. It followed the unhealthy tradition of removing elected governments through the use of the controversial Eighth Amendment. The next President followed the same tradition and created continuous instability in the country.

Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi becomes caretaker Prime Minister [1990]

As a result of the changes made in the Constitution by the R. C. O. and the Eighth Amendment, the President had the power to appoint a caretaker Prime Minister and a caretaker Cabinet at the Federal as well at Provincial level. Using these powers, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved the National and Provincial Assemblies on

August 6, 1990, and declared a state of emergency in the country. Elections were scheduled to be held on October 24, 1990. Ghulam Ishaq Khan did not appoint a neutral or non-partisan caretaker Cabinet or Prime Minister. He chose the leader of the opposition in the former National Assembly, Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, as the new caretaker Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Nawaz Sharif Becomes Prime Minister [1990]

After the ouster of Benazir's Government, elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies were held on October 24 and 27, 1990. Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, the ex-Chief Minister of Punjab, was elected as the Prime Minister on November 1, 1990.

During his tenure as the Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif made efforts to strengthen the industrial sector with the help of the private sector. Projects like Ghazi Brotha and the Gawadar miniport were initiated. Land was distributed among landless peasants in Sindh. A massive uplift of Murree and Kahuta was done during his term as Chief Minister of Punjab. Relations with the Central Asian Muslim republics were strengthened and E. C. O. was given a boost.

In an attempt to end the Afghan crisis, the "Islamabad Accord" was reached between various Afghan factions. His most important contribution was economic progress despite U. S. sanctions on Pakistan through the Pressler Amendment on sanctions. The stupendous Motorway project was initiated that was completed during his second tenure. Nawaz Sharif's Government remained in power till April 18 1993, when President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved the National Assembly, once again exercising his power through the Eighth Amendment.

Balakh Sher Mazari Becomes Caretaker Prime Minister [1993]

President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved the National and Provincial Assemblies on April 19, 1993, and appointed Mir Balakh Sher Khan Mazari as the Caretaker Prime Minister. General Elections were scheduled to be held on July 14, 1993. Balakh Sher Mazari's tenure as Caretaker Prime Minister ended on May 26, 1993, when the Supreme Court revoked the Presidential Order and reinstated Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister.

Moin Qureshi Becomes Caretaker Prime Minister [1993]

On May 26, 1993, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared the Presidential Order of the Assemblies' dissolution as unconstitutional and ruled for restoring the Nawaz Government and the National Assembly. However, because of the serious differences between the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and the Prime Minister Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, both resigned from their offices on July 18, 1993, along with the dissolution of the Central and Provincial Assemblies. Moin Qureshi, a top World Bank official, was appointed as the Caretaker Prime Minister and Ghulam Ishaq Khan was appointed as the caretaker President. At the time of his appointment, Moin Qureshi was totally unknown in Pakistan; it was, however, felt that as he was a political outsider, he would remain neutral. Despite the fact the Moin Qureshi was new to the economic and political environment of Pakistan, he made his presence felt during his short tenure of 90 days. During this time he undertook numerous steps, which were appreciated by the general public. One of the steps included his effort to expose the misdeeds of the previous

governments by publishing the lists of defaulters of bank loans and taxpayers. These lists exposed a number of affluent persons who were involved in abusing the banking system and dodging the tax collectors. Moin Qureshi made the State Bank of Pakistan an autonomous body with an effort to keep out political interference in the working of the bank. He took numerous other steps including the imposition of a nominal tax on agriculture, making Pakistan Television and Radio Pakistan autonomous, downsizing of the administrative machinery and abolishing the discretionary power of the Prime Minster and the Chief Ministers of allotting residential plots to their favorites. It goes to his credit that he undertook various endeavors in a short period of time and made a serious effort to recover Government dues. The only blot on Moin Qureshi's tenure as Prime Minister was that, in his last days, he made a large number of promotions and other administrative decisions in favor of his relatives.

Benazir Bhutto becomes Prime Minister [1993]

Benazir Bhutto returned to power for the second time in 1993 after the resignation of both President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on July 18, 1993. The resignation led to the announcement of fresh elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies. The elections were held on October 6 and 9, 1993, respectively. The elections were boycotted by the M. Q. M. No party emerged with an absolute majority in the elections. As a result the P. P. P. formed the new government with the help of alliances. Benazir Bhutto took oath as Prime Minister on October 19, 1993. The Presidential election was held on November 13. Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari, the P. P. P. candidate, won by 274 to 168 votes against the then acting President Wasim Sajjad. During her second tenure, Benazir again faced trouble from the opposition. In the autumn of 1994, Nawaz Sharif led a "train march" from Karachi to Peshawar. This was followed by general strike on September 20. Two weeks later Nawaz Sharif called a "wheel jam" strike on October 11.The second tenure of Benazir Bhutto was, however, highlighted by the visit of the U. S. first Lady Hillary Clinton and her daughter Chelsea in 1995. Hillary's visit considerably changed the world's perceptions about Pakistan and highlighted Pakistan as a liberal, modern and forward-looking country. In April 1994, Benazir visited the U. S., and projected Pakistan's stance on the F-16 fighter planes withheld by the U. S. despite payments. Her visit resulted in the passing of the Brown Amendment by the U. S. Senate on September 21, 1995, easing restrictions on Pakistan. It also helped in attracting foreign investors. On the domestic front she continued facing problems with M. Q. M. In spite of all her political endeavors, a smooth relationship could not be established between the Government and M. Q. M. Benazir Bhutto's brother, Mir Murtaza Bhutto, was assassinated under mysterious circumstances in a police ambush on September 20, 1996. The high-profile killing of her brother in her tenure damaged her political career. Things were not going well between the President and Benazir's Government. Differences soon appeared and the Government felt that there was interference in the political matters of the Government by the President. President Farooq Leghari dismissed Benazir Bhutto's Government on charges of corruption and mismanagement on November 5, 1996, under the Article 58(2) b of the Eighth Amendment.

Sardar Farooq Legahri Becomes President [1993]

As a result of the general elections in 1993, P. P. P. came to power by forming an alliance with P. M. L. (J), some independent members and some small parties. After the formation of the Governments at the Center and in the provinces, the next step was the election of the President. Initially, a number of candidates filed their nomination papers. However, as election day approached, there were only two candidates left in the field. These

were the acting President Wasim Sajjad, a nominee of the P. M. L. (N), and Sardar Farooq Leghari, a nominee of the P. P. P. As a result of voting, Leghari got 274 votes in his favor against 168 votes for Wasim Sajjad. On November 13, 1993, Sardar Farooq Leghari was appointed as the President of Pakistan for a term of five years. Leghari began his term with a clean reputation, but this was soon to change with the Mehran Bank scandal and inappropriate appointments in the judiciary. In his first speech, Leghari had said that the Eighth Amendment would be removed but during the term of Benazir, no bill was ever presented to do away with this Article of the Constitution.Differences emerged between Benazir and Leghari, which eventually resulted in the President using the Eighth Amendment for the dissolution of the National Assembly, and the dismissal of Benazir. When Mian Nawaz Sharif was re-elected as the Prime Minister, differences arose between them. He supported the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Sajjad Ali Shah, who had also developed serious differences with the Nawaz Sharif Government. But Leghari could not overcome the heavy mandate that was bestowed upon Mian Nawaz Sharif by the public, with the result that he had to resign on December 2, 1997. Farooq Leghari's resignation brought to an end the tragic drama of conflict and conspiracy between the Judiciary, the Executive, and the Legislature. His resignation cut short his term as the President for five years by nearly one year.

Malik Meraj Khalid Becomes Caretaker Prime Minister [1996]

President Sardar Farooq Leghari, exercising his powers through the Eighth Amendment, dismissed Benazir Bhutto's Government in November 1996, on charges of corruption and extra-judicial killings. After Benazir, Malik Meraj Khalid, Rector of the International Islamic University, was appointed as caretaker Prime Minister. The next elections were scheduled to be held on February 3, 1997. Malik Meraj Khalid held the office of Prime Minister from November 5, 1996, to February 17, 1997.

Nawaz Sharif becomes Prime Minister [1997]

As scheduled, elections were held on February 3, 1997. Pakistan Muslim League won with an overwhelming majority with absolutely light and slight opposition. The Muslim League was able to obtain a two-third majority in the National Assembly and Mian Nawaz Sharif was re-elected as Prime Minister. He obtained a vote of confidence from the National Assembly on February 18, 1997. A number of very important Constitutional Amendments were introduced during Nawaz Sharif's second term. These include the termination of the Eighth Amendment, passing of the Thirteenth Amendment and the Ehtesab Act, 1997. Nawaz Sharif faced a serious confrontation with the Judiciary and the Executive, which eventually led to the resignation of President Leghari on December 2, 1997. It was during this term that Pakistan carried out its nuclear tests on May 28, 1998, in response to the Indian detonation of its five nuclear devices. The Nawaz Government had found it imperative for Pakistan to carry out these nuclear tests, in order to provide an effective defense, and to deter Indian adventurism. The Nawaz Government proclaimed an emergency on May 28, 1998; the day these nuclear tests were conducted. All fundamental rights were suspended and all the foreign currency accounts in Pakistani banks were frozen. On August 28, 1998, Nawaz regime introduced the Fifteenth Amendment. The Bill generated heated debate throughout the country but was passed on October 9, 1998, by the members of the National Assembly. The Bill, however, was not put before the Senate within 90 days as was required by the Constitution. The Bill was held back, as Nawaz Sharif did not had the required two-third majority in the Senate. The Fifteenth Amendment was presumed to be an effort by Nawaz Sharif to acquire additional powers for himself. Soon a serious conflict and confrontation emerged on the scene between him and the Military Generals. This confrontation led to the resignation of General Jehangir Karamat on October 7, 1998. General Karamat

was replaced by General Pervez Musharraf. The Kargil Operation in its aftermath again led to tense relations between Nawaz Sharif and the armed forces. This tension culminated into the removal of Nawaz Government by General Pervez Musharraf on October 12, 1999, thus bringing to an end the second term of Nawaz Sharif's Government.

Thirteenth Amendment is Passed [1997]

The National Assembly unanimously adopted the Constitution Bill, the Thirteenth Amendment, in April 1997 by a two-third majority. The Thirteenth Amendment was put before the National Assembly on April 1, empowering the Prime Minister to repeal 58(2) b, and advise the President on the appointments of three forces' chiefs, the J. C. S. C. Chairman and the Governors. Thus the discretionary power to appoint the chiefs of the armed forces was taken away from the President. In the proposed Amendment Bill, clauses to restore the women parliamentarian seats and to convert the Ordinance into an act of the Parliament were also incorporated. The power of the Governor to dissolve the Provincial Assemblies under Article 112(2) b was also done away with. Through the Thirteenth Amendment the controversial Eighth Amendment was repealed and thereby the President was divested of many discretionary power in order to restore the supremacy of the Parliament. The infamous Eight Amendment had been inserted in the Constitution in 1985, by the non-party based Parliament, when General Zia-ul-Haq was the Chief Martial Law Administrator and President of Pakistan. Its most notorious and troublesome provision, 58(2) b, had empowered the President to sack the Prime Minister and his Cabinet and dissolve the National Assembly. The provision had since been used by three successive Presidents since 1985, and four Prime Ministers, along with their Cabinets and the National Assemblies, had been dismissed. Having announced the Thirteenth Amendment, Nawaz Sharif said that it had been introduced to revive the democratic concept, as envisaged by the Quaid-i-Azam and Allama Iqbal. Although it seemed that a complicated and sensitive constitutional issue was solved in an amicable way through consensus, and it was anticipated that through the Thirteenth Amendment a new era of democratic freedom and political stability would start, all the hopes dashed to the ground when once again the democratic process was demolished all of a sudden. A military coup not only sacked Nawaz Sharif and his Cabinet, but also dissolved the National Assembly and the Provincial Assemblies.

Fourteenth Amendment is passed [1997]

Throughout Pakistan's political history, horse-trading and defection within various parties had created problems for various governments. On coming to power, Nawaz Sharif's Government took steps to do away with this ever-flourishing problem. It was under the Nawaz Government that the National Assembly unanimously adopted the Constitution Bill, the Fourteenth Amendment, on July 1, 1997. The Anti-Defection Bill, earlier passed by the Senate and later by the National Assembly with a large majority, was a structural reform to end the practice of switching party loyalties and blackmailing party leadership for ministerial slots, bank loans and other concessions.

Muhammad Rafiq Tarar elected as President [1998]

Muhammad Rafiq Tarar, a former Judge of the Supreme Court and a Senator, was elected as the ninth President of Pakistan. He took oath to his office on January 1, 1998. The office of the President had become vacant after the resignation of President Leghari on December 2, 1997.

The Pakistan Muslim League had a two-third majority in the Parliament and some Provincial Assemblies and therefore was in a position to have its candidate elected as the head of State. The Nawaz Government nominated Muhammad Rafiq Tarar, a 68-year old former Judge of the Supreme Court and a Senator, as their presidential candidate. The nomination of Muhammad Rafiq Tarar was, however, criticized by the opposition parties and newspapers because the nominated President was from Lahore, which was also the hometown of the Prime Minister. Many that felt that, since the Prime Minister was from Punjab, the President should be from a smaller province to prevent the possibility of a sense of deprivation among the smaller federating units, and to avoid the concentration of the main Government offices in one province. The election of the President was held on December 31, 1997. The President was to be indirectly elected by the two houses of Parliament, the National Assembly and the Senate, and the four Provincial Assemblies. As the ruling party, Pakistan Muslim League dominated most of the six voting groups; Muhammad Rafiq Tarar was comfortably elected President by securing 374 out of 457 votes of the Electoral College. His rivals, Pakistan Peoples Party's Aftab Shahban Mirani and Jamiyat-i-Ulema-i-Islam's Maulana Muhammad Khan Shirani, ended up only with 31 and 22 votes, respectively. Never before had a President received such overwhelming support from the elected representatives of the people of Pakistan. Rafiq Tarar seemed to be an unassuming and ceremonial President with a low profile, who kept away from the press. Immediately after taking over, he declared that from then onwards, the Presidency would not work in conspiring against the elected Government. He said that he would confine himself to powers available to him under the Constitution and would not aspire for anything more. He honored his word, and unlike the precedent set by his predecessors, he didn't criticize any Government policy. After overthrowing the Nawaz Government, the military authorities did not retain Rafiq Tarar as the President till his full term of five years. He was removed by the Chief Executive General Pervez Musharraf on June 20, 2001, who himself took over the office of the President of Pakistan. Being associated with the Judiciary, Muhammad Rafiq Tarar was not a politician of any standing but he was, however, noted for his honesty, loyalty, devotion to justice and a firm, religious faith in Islam.

Pakistan: A Nuclear Power [May 28, 1998]

On May 28, 1998, Pakistan became a nuclear power when it successfully carried out five nuclear tests at Chaghi, in the province of Baluchistan. This was in direct response to five nuclear explosions by India, just two weeks earlier. Widely criticized by the international community, Pakistan maintains that its nuclear program is for self-defense, as deterrence against nuclear India. A former Prime Minister of Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, offered justification for Pakistan's nuclear program when he said that if India were to produce a bomb, Pakistan would do anything it could to get one of its own. It has always been maintained by Pakistan that a nuclear threat posed to its security can neither be met with conventional means of defense, nor by external security guarantees. India had already posed a nuclear threat against Pakistan ever since it tested a nuclear device in May 1974. At that time Pakistan had no nuclear weapons. India maintained that its nuclear program was based on their requirement to have a minimum nuclear deterrence, and that it was not against any specific country. After the tit-for-tat nuclear explosions, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed a resolution urging India and Pakistan to halt their nuclear weapons programs. The United States and other Western states imposed economic sanctions against both the countries. The U. N. Secretary General, Kofi Annan, urged both the countries to sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, which Pakistan agreed to sign if India did the same. After the tests, both sides declared that they had completed their series of nuclear testing and both announced a moratorium on future testing. Pakistan announced the moratorium on June 11, 1998, and offered to join in new

peace talks with India. Even long before these tests, Pakistan has time and again proposed for a nuclear weapon-free zone in South East Asia.

The Lahore Declaration [1999]

In order to normalize relations between India and Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif undertook a major initiative in February 1999. This initiative culminated in a visit by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee to Lahore via bus, across the Wagah border, in 1999. Nawaz Sharif met him at the Wagah border and a joint communique, known as the "Lahore Declaration", was signed between the two leaders.

This declaration spelled out various steps to be taken by the two countries towards normalization of relations between them. Except for the Jamaat-i-Islami, the visit was not opposed by any political or social element in Pakistan. The Pakistani people welcomed this move by the Nawaz Government to normalize relations with India.

The Kargil Offensive [1999]

One dispute that remains unresolved in United Nations forum is the over 50-year-old Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan. This disputed State of Jammu and Kashmir has been a continuous flash point and the cause of two wars (1948 and 1965) between the two countries. In the last few years, and particularly during the 1990s, the issue of Kashmir has been brought to the forefront of the world agenda by the struggle of the Kashmiri freedom fighters fighting in Indian occupied Kashmir. This freedom struggle against the brute Indian force, now in excess of 700,000 troops, demands the fulfillment of U. N. Resolutions and of Indian commitments to give them the opportunity to decide their political future through a fair and free plebiscite. This plebiscite to be held under U. N. auspices was mandated by the U. N. Security Council Resolutions of August 13, 1948, and January 05, 1949. The freedom struggle gained further momentum in 1999 when the freedom fighters, in probably the most brilliant and courageous maneuver in modern military history, made high-altitude conquests in their territory. They captured high ground of a 140 kilometers long stretch of 4,500 meters high mountain ridges, near the strategic Indian-held garrison towns of Kargil and Drass. These towns lie on the only usable road between Srinagar, capital of Indian-occupied Kashmir, and the East. This threatened India's main supply route to its forces on the Chinese border. The occupation by the Kashmiri freedom fighters came as a "Spring Surprise" to the Indian patrols. During the winter freeze, the area is abandoned by Indian patrols and isolated from the rest of Indian occupied Kashmir. In the beginning of May 1999, when the Indian forces returned to the mountains, they were surprised to find around 600 Kashmiri freedom fighters, occupying a territory 5 kilometers inside Indian occupied Kashmir. India alleged that these "militants" were sponsored by Pakistan, and that these militants crossed the provisional borderline, the "Line of Control", in an attempt to alter the de facto border by force. The Government of Pakistan stated that it was not involved in any way and clarified that it is only the moral, diplomatic and political support that the Government of Pakistan continues to extend to Kashmiri freedom fighters for their cause of self-determination. It further clarified that the heights near Kargil were occupied by indigenous Kashmiri freedom fighters. On May 26, 1999, India resorted to air strikes to drive out the freedom fighters. During this episode, two Indian aircraft entered the territory of Pakistan, one of which was shot down. The situation across the Line of Control became tense and several innocent civilians became the targets of indiscriminate Indian shelling. The conflict posed a threat to the region of South Asia.

The international community was concerned about the escalation of the conflict between the two newly declared nuclear powers, India and Pakistan. Talks, however, resumed between India and Pakistan in the summer of 1999 and efforts were made to resolve the crises. International intervention, most notably from the President of United States, Bill Clinton, persuaded Pakistan to use its influence on the freedom fighters to avert a full-scale war with India. The freedom fighters vacated the captured territory by August, 1999.

Military Comes to Power Again [Oct 12, 1999]

On October 12, 1999, the Pakistan Army once again ousted the Civilian Government. At that time Prime Minister Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif headed the Government. The coup immediately followed the premier’s attempt to replace the Army Chief while he was on a tour to Sri Lanka. After two days of chilling uncertainty, Chief of Army Staff General Pervez Musharraf assumed the title of Chief Executive. Although the use of the term "Martial Law" was avoided, Pakistan once again came under military rule. It was claimed that the Army was forced to take this step to save the country from "turmoil and uncertainty". The Supreme Court, in a ruling on May 12, 2000, accepted that a constitutional deviation had taken place in pursuit of rather noble objectives, such as economic reforms and bringing to book the corrupt politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen. The 12 judges based their ruling on the principle of "salus po puli ex supreme lex", meaning that the welfare of the people is the supreme law of any land. The court took the view that there was no other way to remove a corrupt Government except through the intervention of the armed forces. The Supreme Court also directed General Musharraf to hold general elections within three years.

After the military takeover, the former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, Shahbaz Sharif (his brother and former Chief Minister of Punjab) and five other officials were booked on charges of hijacking, kidnapping and attempted murder in the "Plane Conspiracy" case. The prosecution's case was based on a police report filed by an Army Colonel. Nawaz Sharif, in his capacity as Prime Minster, was accused of giving orders to the Civil Aviation Authority to prevent a Colombo-Karachi Pakistan International Airlines commercial flight, with Musharraf on board, from landing at Karachi or anywhere else in Pakistan. He was to face a charge of attempted murder endangering the lives of General Pervez Musharraf and 200 other passengers on board by disallowing the plane to land when its fuel was at a low level. The case was tried by an anti-terrorism court in Karachi, ironically established by Nawaz Sharif himself, which sentenced him to life imprisonment. In their appeal to the High Court, Mr. Sharif's lawyers maintained that no charge of corruption was proved against the former Prime Minister, and that it was the Prime Minster's constitutional right to remove the Army Chief. Later on, Mr. Nawaz Sharif was, however, pardoned and exiled by the military government to Saudi Arabia on conditions that he would forfeit Rupees 500 million (equivalent to roughly US$ 8 million) in property and stay out of politics for the next 21 years.

Pervez Musharraf Becomes President [June, 2001]

General Pervez Musharraf while he was also Chief Executive took over the office of the President of Pakistan on June 20, 2001, under the Provincial Constitutional Order (PCO) by removing Rafiq Tarar before he was allowed to complete his five-years tenure. With immediate effect he dissolved the suspended Senate, National and Provincial Assemblies and dismissed the Chairman of the Senate and the Speaker of the National Assembly. After assuming the new office as President, General Pervez Musharraf announced, "The change will augur well for the future of Pakistan"; and said, "I think I have a role to play; I have a job to do here; I cannot and will not let this nation down". He gave three reasons for taking over as the President of Pakistan:

constitutional, political, and economic. The critical moment in General Musharraf's presidency was 9/11, when Washington suddenly and direly needed his support the international antiterrorism campaign and to crush the Taliban in Afghanistan. Thus he became a pivotal player on the world stage and a close ally welcomed in Washington and London alike as a statesman of international standing. General Musharraf did his best to highlight the core issue of Kashmir at every international forum. In July 2001, he held his first summit meeting with Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee at Agra but couldn’t make much headway in solving the Kashmir problem. Due to his consecutive efforts, however, a lot of tension between the two neighboring countries with nuclear-armed rivalry has been eased as they have restored diplomatic relations and started to build up warming ties mutually by means of confidence building measures. General Musharraf has given a new formula for solving the protracted dispute of Kashmir. After the Taliban were ousted, he offered all possible help to the new government. President General Musharraf kept his word to restore democracy and hold elections in October 2002 as mandated by the Supreme Court. He gratified the nation when after general elections, Pakistan's National Assembly and Senate in November 2002 met for the first time since the coup three years earlier. He also relinquished the post of Chief Executive when Zafaullah Khan Jamali became Prime Minister of Pakistan in November 2002. President Musharraf, however, continues to hold the offices of Chief of Army Staff, and Chief of the Staff Committee. The opposition parties refused to accept Framework Order (LFO) 2002 as it empowered the President to sack the prime minister, dissolve parliament and also recognize him as both head of the army and head of the state. According to the opposition the provisions of the LFO were unconstitutional and illegal, and against the sovereignty of the Parliament. As a result, the business of parliament remained in deadlock for a year. In December, 2003 as part of a deal with MMA (Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal) to end the stand-off, General Musharraf agreed that he would step down as military head of the country on December 31, 2004 and also give up some of the powers he assumed after the coup while on January 1,2004. After getting vote of confidence from parliament and the four provincial assemblies, President Pervez Musharraf would now serve full five-year term as President till 2007 under the constitutional provisions after the seventeenth amendment was passed by a two-third majority of the Parliament. He secured 658 votes (56.23 per cent) with simple majority from a total of 1,170 members of parliament and the four assemblies amid MMA abstention and opposition boycott. President Musharraf presents to the world vision of a modern, tolerant, democratic, Islamic Pakistan and favors economic reforms and free trade with the West. He has also played a vital role in negotiating an economic package to assist Pakistan out of its problems.

Agra Summit

A historic summit meeting was held between Pakistan's President Pervez Musharraf and the Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee in Agra, from July 14 to 16, 2001. The summit started amid high hopes of resolving various disputes between the two countries including the five decades’ old Kashmir issue. Both sides started the summit with hopefulness and in a spirit of good will; especially President Musharraf used the phrases "cautious optimism", "flexibility" and "open mind" to describe his buoyant views for the summit. The Indian President also promised to take "bold and innovative" measures and to discuss the "core issue" between the two countries.

Various rounds of one-to-one talks were held between President Musharraf and Prime Minster Vajpayee. On the first day, a 90-minute one-on-one session was held between the two leaders. The Kashmir issue, cross-border terrorism, nuclear risk reduction, release of prisoners of war, and commercial ties were discussed. The talks went in the right direction and were declared by both the leaders as "positive, frank and constructive". There were hopes that both the leaders would arrive at an agreement and a joint statement or declaration would be

made at the end of the summit as the two leaders plunged into serious talks. Despite reservations from the Indian Government, President Musharraf also held face-to-face meetings with the top Kashmiri leadership represented by the All Parties Hurriyat Conference. The two-day Agra summit between President Pervez Musharraf and Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee, however, collapsed and no formal agreement could be attained. The two sides remained inflexible on the core issue of Kashmir, despite five long and arduous one-to-one rounds between the two leaders and hours of discussion between the two delegations. Despite the failure of the talks, General Pervez Musharraf joined Vajpayee to call on the two countries to bury their past. He also invited the Indian Prime Minister to visit Pakistan as he felt that the issues between Pakistan and India were much more complicated and could not be resolved in a short time.

Local Government System [2001]

In order to establish democracy at grassroots level, the regime of General Pervez Musharaf, introduced the Local Government System. This was not a new experiment in Pakistan. Ayub Khan had undertaken a similar effort in this direction by introducing the Basic Democracy System. This new system of Local Government was installed on August 14, 2001, after holding of elections. Direct elections on non-party basis were held in five phases for members of Union Councils, Union Nazims, and Naib Union Nazims during 2000 thru to 2001. On the basis of these direct elections, indirect elections were held in July-August 2001 for Zila Nazims and Naib Zila Nazims and also for Tehsil-Town Nazims and Naib Nazims. In order to attract people towards electoral politics, the minimum age for local government elections was lowered from 21 to 18 years. One-third seats were reserved for women. The main purpose of introducing the Local Government System was to empower the people at the grassroots level and to transfer power from the elite to the masses. This system of grassroots democracy envisaged yielding new political leaders. It was also anticipated to solve people's problems at local level, allow public participation in decision-making and ensure the provision of speedy justice. The essence of this system was that the Local Governments would be accountable to the citizens for all their decisions. It would enable the proactive elements of society to participate in community work, development related activities and would remove rural-urban divide. The new Local Government plan was an effort on the part of the Military Government to lay the foundations of an authentic and enduring democracy. The new System provided a three-tier Local Government structure: 1. The District Government 2. The Tehsil Government 3. The Union Administration The District Government The District Government consisted of the Zila Nazim and District Administration. The District Administration consisted of district offices including sub-offices at Tehsil level, who were to be responsible to the District Nazim assisted by the District Coordination Officer. The District Coordination Officer was appointed by the Provincial Government and was the coordinating head of the District Administration. The Zila Nazim was accountable to the people through the elected members of the Zila Council. A Zila Council consisted of all Union Nazims in the District, which consisted of members elected on the reserved seats. These seats were reserved for women, peasants, workers, and minority community. The Zila Council had its Secretariat under the Naib Zila Nazim and had a separate budget allocation. Adequate checks and balances were introduced in the System. The new System also efficiently addressed the specific needs and problems of large cities. The District Government was responsible to the people and the Provincial Government for improvement of governance and

delivery of services. Tehsil Administration The middle tier, the Tehsil, had Tehsil Municipal Administration headed by the Tehsil Nazim. Tehsil Municipal Administration consisted of a Tehsil Nazim, Tehsil Municipal Officer, Tehsil Officers, Chief Officers and other officials of the Local Council Service and officials of the offices entrusted to the Tehsil Municipal Administration. The Tehsil Municipal Administration was entrusted with the functions of administration, finances, and management of the offices of Local Government and Rural Development, and numerous other subjects at the regional, Divisional, District, Tehsil and lower levels. Union Administration The lowest tier, the Union Administration was a corporate body covering the rural as well as urban areas across the whole District. It consisted of Union Nazim, Naib Union Nazim and three Union Secretaries and other auxiliary staff. The Union Nazim was the head of the Union Administration and the Naib Union Nazim acted as deputy to the Union Nazim during his temporary absence. The Union Secretaries coordinated and facilitated in community development, functioning of the Union Committees and delivery of municipal services under the supervision of Union Nazim. The Government allocated Rupees 32 billion to the Local Government in 2002. The funds were deposited in the account of the District Government. The District Government further distributed these funds to Tehsil and Unions. In addition to the fiscal transfers from the Province, the Local Governments were authorized to generate money from their own sources by levying certain taxes, fees, user charges, etc. It is, however, pertinent to make a special mention that it is only in the absence of elected assemblies that local governments are the popularly elected bodies and play important political and developmental roles. After the election of Senators and members of the provincial and national assemblies, its role has been again substantially marginalized. The elected representatives of National and Provincial Assemblies usually take over some functions, which local governments used to perform and as such in many ways they are prone to intervene in the evolution of proper and improved Local government. Local governments suffer from the fact that their existence is not constitutionally ordained and they are a mere extension of the provincial government. In the Constitution, the allocations of the functions of the federal and provincial governments are clearly specified whereas the existence of local government is not formally embodied in the Constitution. Moreover, financial, technical, and bureaucratic constraints plus limited revenue (merely 5 per cent of revenue generated by the government) cause the poor and almost non-existent local government for most of the time.

September Eleven 9/11 and Its Aftermath [2001]

On September 11, 2001, with the collapse of the World Trade Center started what the U.S. called "the war against terrorism". U.S. President George Bush termed it an act of terrorism and threatened strong action against the people who had carried out the attack. It was the Taliban and the Saudi millionaire-turned-militant Osama bin Laden who were eventually held responsible for it. President Bush said that the U.S. would do "whatever it takes" to hunt down "terrorists" and that if Osama bin Laden thought he could hide, "he was mistaken". Pakistan became the center of world attention after the September 11 attacks. It was placed in a difficult situation as the U.S. threatened to carry out military strikes on the Taliban. Faced not only with international pressure to take part in curbing the war on terrorism, but also a strong domestic pressure not to side with the United States against an Islamic country, Pakistan sought to assume a delicate balance between the U. S. demands and an expected backlash from internal militant and religious organizations.General Musharraf made efforts to persuade the country's political and religious leadership to support an alliance with the United States but was partially successful in his efforts. Liberal-minded politicians agreed to

fully back the government while leaders of some hard-line Islamic parties were not happy. Several groups threatened to start a countrywide uprising in protest against any U.S. attack on the Taliban. All the religious parties and various political parties like the Jamiyat-i-Ulema-i-Islam, Jamaat-i-Islami, Pakistan Tehrik-i-Insaaf, shared the same opinion on the possible US military action against the Taliban regime and use of Pakistani soil. They were not only against attacking Afghanistan from Pakistan soil, but were also against offending Pakistan's closest brotherly neighbor, whom Pakistan had supported against the Soviet Union at the cost of burdening itself with a large number of refugees. Pakistan was faced with a tough choice and irresistible pressure from the United States, an old ally and sole super power, to support a military strike against Osama bin Laden. That pressure, however, was combined with extreme reluctance to abandon Afghanistan's ruling Taliban, an old friend and neighbor. Pakistan in this difficult situation was left with actually little choice except to comply with U.S. demands. The Government, despite the protest of the religious parties, decided to cooperate with the U.S. However, it made it very clear that Pakistan would extend full cooperation to the international community in its fight against terrorism without involving its forces in any action beyond its geographical boundaries. The U.S. was given permission to make use of Pakistani airspace for U.S. missile or aerial strikes against targets in Afghanistan. Pakistan also agreed to the exchange of intelligence and logistic facilities and to the closing of Pakistan's border with Afghanistan. US attack against the ruling Taliban started almost a month after the September 11 attacks as the Afghan Government refused to meet American demands of closing alleged terrorist training camps, handing over the leaders of the Al-Qaeda network, and return of all foreign nationals, including American citizens detained in Afghanistan. As U.S. bombing on Afghanistan started, it was however forecasted on the bases of the Afghan resistance to the Soviets and all previous invaders since Alexander, that the Taliban would never give up their arms. The Americans would have to engage in a long, bloody, guerrilla warfare that would take months, if not years, to yield results. Snow would come and make fighting impossible. Further, sympathetic Muslim sentiment would topple the Musharraf regime and threaten others. It didn't happen that way; history did not repeat itself. The Americans and their coalition partners carried out extensive aerial bombardment of Afghanistan that led to the killing of large number of innocent civilians and to the takeover of the Taliban strongholds one after another. The Taliban regime was toppled and a transitional government of Taliban opposition was installed in its place. Pakistan was once again faced with the refugee problem in the wake of U.S. military action in Afghanistan. Thousands of Afghans fleeing their country rushed to the Pak-Afghan border. The Government of Pakistan, already bearing the burden of millions of Afghan refugees, deployed additional forces to prevent the entry of displaced people into Pakistan. In spite of the fact that the borders remained closed, some 10,000 people or more crossed at various border points from Afghanistan into Pakistan, further increasing the number of refugees. After the aerial offense, the ground offensive eventually started to oust the number of Taliban left in Afghanistan. The U.S. continues to focus on tracking down the remaining Al-Qaeda and Taliban leaders in Afghanistan. This means that the U.S. will maintain a significant military force and continue to play a role in the region in the future. Pakistan once again supported its old ally, the United States, in its military action against Osama bin Laden at the cost of forsaking its old friend and neighbor, the Taliban. But the question whether the American government abandons or continues to support Pakistan after it achieves its objectives still remains to be answered.

Referendum 2002

After General Pervez Musharraf sacked the civilian Government headed by Prime Minister Mian Muhammad

Nawaz Sharif on October 12, 1999, he had assumed the title of Chief Executive. It was claimed that the Army was forced to take this step to save the country from "turmoil and uncertainty". The General later on also ousted President Rafiq Tarar and himself became the President of Pakistan. After becoming the President, he reiterated his stance of holding elections as prescheduled by his Government in October 2002. But before the general elections, a referendum was held on April 30, 2002 for General Pervez Musharraf to be elected as the President of Pakistan for another five years. The basic reason for holding the referendum was that the General wanted to abide by democratic principles and establish legitimacy for his rule though in the Constitution there was no provision to become President through referendum. According to the General, he wanted to stay as President in order to continue the economic recovery, ensure social stability, to counter unnamed destabilizing influences, and to eventually return to "true democracy". The Opposition parties opposed the referendum. A 15-party Alliance for the Restoration of Democracy was set up, including Pakistan's two main political parties, the Pakistan Peoples Party and the Pakistan Muslim League. The alliance considered President Musharraf's decision as unconstitutional and announced peaceful rallies to oppose it. They called for a boycott of the voting. The referendum took place on April 30, 2002, with no competition and no option but to vote for General Musharraf. The referendum question put forward to the people was: "For the survival of the local government system, establishment of democracy, continuity of reforms, end to sectarianism and extremism, and to fulfill the vision of Quaid-i-Azam, would you like to elect President General Pervez Musharraf as President of Pakistan for five years?" According to the Government there were 78 million eligible voters. Eighty seven thousand polling stations were set up, including booths set up at prisons, hospitals, petrol stations, workplaces, and markets. However, there were no voter lists or constituencies, and anyone who could prove his identity and age could vote at any polling station. According to the Government estimate, around 98 percent of the counted votes backed General Musharraf continuing in office and the turnout of the referendum was said to be around 70 percent. The referendum result was quite a big question mark. Politicians and political analysts considered the referendum to be unconstitutional, as under the Constitution, the President could be chosen not via direct vote, but by the elected members of the National Assembly, Provincial Assemblies and the Senate. The Opposition claimed that not more than 5 percent of the electorate bothered to vote, implying that President Musharraf did not have popular support. Pakistan's Human Rights Commission also gave reports of some flagrant abuses, with few instances of multiple voting, and pressure on state employees to cast their votes. However, the referendum certified the continuation of President General Pervez Musharraf's rule for another five years, with him claim to have the popular mandate to govern and to carry on with his economic and political reforms.

Legal Framework Order 2002

On August 24, 2002, Chief Executive General Musharraf issued the Legal Framework Order 2002, announcing general elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies to be held in October 2002. Constitutional Provisions were amended for smooth and orderly transition of power from the Chief Executive to the newly elected Prime Minister after the elections. The main text of the L. F. O. 2002 stated as follows: It has been specified that it will come into force henceforth and in the first meetings of National Assembly, Senate and Provincial Assemblies and that if any necessity arises for any further amendment of the Constitution or there is any difficulty in giving effect to any of the provisions of this Order, the Chief Executive will have the discretionary power to make provisions and pass orders for amending the Constitution or for removing any difficulty. It has been further asserted that the validity of any provision made, or orders passed, under clauses

(1) and (2) shall not be called in question in any court on any ground whatsoever. The main points of L. F. O. 2002 may be summed up as below: i) Every political party shall, subject to law, hold intra-party elections to elect its office-bearers and party leaders. ii) Having received the democratic mandate to serve the nation as President of Pakistan for a period of five years, the Chief Executive on relinquishing the office of the C. E., shall assume the office of President of Pakistan forthwith and hold office for a term of five years under the Constitution, and Article 44 and other provisions of the Constitution shall apply accordingly. iii) There shall be 342 seats of the members in the National Assembly, including seats reserved for women and non-Muslims. iv) The seats in the National Assembly are allocated to each Province, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and the Federal Capital as under: - Balochistan: General 14, Women 3, Total 17 - N. W. F. P.: General 35, Women 8, Total 43 - Punjab: General 148, Women 35, Total 183 - Sindh: General 61, Women 14, Total 75 - F. A. T. A.: General 12, Women 0, Total 12 - Federal Capital: General 2, Women 0, Total 2 - Total: General 272, Women 60, Total 332 v) In addition to the number of seats referred to in clause (iv), there shall be, in the National Assembly, ten seats reserved for non-Muslims. vi) Members to the seats reserved for non-Muslims shall be elected in accordance with law through proportional representation system of political parties' lists of candidates on the basis of total number of general seats won by each political party in the National Assembly. A political party securing less than five per centum of the total number of seats in the National Assembly shall not be entitled to any seat reserved for women or non-Muslims. vii) If any question arises whether a member of the Parliament is disqualified from being a member, the Speaker or, as the case may be, the Chairman shall, within 30 days, refer the question to the Chief Election Commissioner who shall give his decision thereon not later than three months from its receipt by the Chief Election Commissioner. viii) If a member of a Parliamentary Party resigns from membership of his political party or joins another; or votes or abstains from voting in the House contrary to any direction issued by the Parliamentary Party to which he belongs concerning election of the Prime Minister or the Chief Minister; a vote of confidence or no-confidence; or a Money Bill, he may be declared in writing by the Head of the Parliamentary Party to have defected from the political party. The Head of the Parliamentary Party shall forward a copy of the declaration to the Presiding Officer, and a copy thereof to the member concerned. ix) A member of a House shall be deemed to be a member of a Parliamentary Party if he having been elected as a candidate or nominee of a political party constituting the Parliamentary Party in the House or, having been elected otherwise than as a candidate or nominee of a political party, has become a member of such Parliamentary Party after such election by means of a declaration in writing. x) With an addition of "a situation has arisen in which the Government of the Federation cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and an appeal to the electorate is necessary", the clause 58 is revived. xi) Where a Bill is referred to the Mediation Committee, it shall, within 90 days, formulate an agreed Bill likely to be passed by both Houses of the Parliament and place the agreed Bill separately before each House. If both the Houses pass the Bill, it shall be presented to the President for assent. xii) All decisions of the Mediation Committee shall be made by a majority of the total number of members of

each House in the Committee. xiii) The President may, in consultation with the Speaker of the National Assembly and Chairman of the Senate, make rules for conduct of business of the Mediation Committee. xiv) With an insertion of a new article 152A, there shall be a National Security Council whose chairman shall be the President in order to serve as a forum for consultation on strategic matters pertaining to the sovereignty, integrity and security of the State, and the matters relating to democracy, governance and inter-provincial harmony. Other members of N. S. C. shall be the Prime Minister, the Chairman of the Senate, the Speaker of the National Assembly, the Leader of the Opposition in the National Assembly, the Chief Ministers of the Provinces, the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, and the Chiefs of Staff of the Pakistan Army, Pakistan Navy and Pakistan Air Force. Meetings of the National Security Council may be convened by the President either in his discretion, or on the advice of the Prime Minister, or when requested by any other of its members, within the time frame indicated by him. xv) On dissolution of an Assembly under article 58-2 (b) or, on completion of its term, the President, in his discretion, or, as the case may be, the Governor, in his discretion but with the previous approval of the President, shall appoint a caretaker Cabinet. When a caretaker Cabinet is appointed, on dissolution of the National Assembly under Article 58 or a Provincial Assembly under Article 112, or on dissolution of any such Assembly on completion of its term, the Prime Minister or, as the case may be, the Chief Minister of the caretaker Cabinet shall not be eligible to contest the immediately following election of such Assembly. xvi) The Proclamation of Emergency of the 14th October, 1999, all President's Orders, Ordinances, Chief Executive's Orders, including the P. C. O. No. 1 of 1999, the Oath of Office (Judges) Order 2000, the Referendum Order 2002 (Chief Executive's Order No. 12 of 2002), and all other laws made between the October 12, 1999 and the date on which this Article comes into force, are hereby affirmed, adopted and declared notwithstanding any judgment of any court, to have been validly made by competent authority and notwithstanding anything contained in the Constitution shall not be called in question in any court on any ground whatsoever. xvii) All Proclamations, President's Orders, Ordinances, Chief Executive's Orders, laws, regulations, enactments, notifications, rules, orders or bye-laws in force immediately before the date on which this Article comes into force shall continue in force until altered, repealed or amended by competent authority. Through L. F. O. 2000, the President and Chief Executive revived the Constitution of Pakistan, except a few articles pertaining to the Provincial Governments and the Senate of Pakistan, etc., with effect from 16th November, 2002, which are to be restored later. Those parts of the Constitution which are restored include "Preamble, Article 1 to 58 (both inclusive), Article 64 to 100 (both inclusive), Annex, insertion of Article 152A and the schedule to the Constitution". Some of the immediate implications of the L. F. O. 2000 are: a) L. F. O. 2000 has been sanctified by postulating that no body can challenge it in any court of law "on any ground whatsoever." b) It is now assumed to be an integral part of the Constitution and there is no imperative left for the newly and duly elected National Assembly but to accept it willingly or unwillingly. The present Parliament is quite unable to reverse or do away with any of the Amendments, especially the one relating to the National Security Council. The Prime Minister and the whole Parliament are at the will of the President for their survival. c) Many believe that the L. F. O. 2000 has been enforced without any regard for the Constitutional and democratic norms and proprieties. By terminating the Thirteenth Amendment that was not passed by two-third majority but a unanimous vote of the Parliament, the President has again been authorized to enjoy the power of dismissing the Prime Minister along with his Cabinet and the Parliament. d) With the adoption of the Legal Framework Order 2002, Pakistan has virtually advanced from the parliamentary form of government to the presidential system. The Article 58-2 (b) clause has been revived and

the insertion of the new clause 152A has created the National Security Council. e) Though the function of National Security Council and the clause 58-2 (b) is to provide a system of checks-and-balances, there are some issues to consider. In case of a confrontation between the President and the Prime Minister, the majority of votes in the National Security Council will automatically go in favor of the President who can thus easily remove the Prime Minister, putting the Parliamentary form of government once again in jeopardy. f) With a radically altered Constitutional Framework, in whose making the people of Pakistan have had no say, the sovereignty of the Parliament has been severely crippled. g) Although the Article 58-2 (b) does not specifically mention the President as having the power to sack the Prime Minister, the dissolution of the Assembly automatically makes the Prime Minister go. As the recent past shows, this clause was misused by three Presidents to remove Prime Ministers for purely political reasons, even though the Constitution authorized the President to take such a drastic step only after it had become clear that "a situation had arisen in which the government of the federation cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution." There is no doubt that every future Prime Minister will have to work under the constraints of 58-2 (b) at all times. The only way to constitutionally amend the Constitution is through the Article 239, which lays down the following procedure: "A bill to amend the Constitution may originate in either House (National Assembly or the Senate) and, when the bill is passed by the votes of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the House, it shall be transmitted to the other House." As such, it is still considered by the Constitutional experts that General Musharraf requires two-thirds majority to have his Constitutional Amendments or L. F. O. 2000 validated. In addition, the legal position of General Musharraf is also not in accordance with the Constitution of Pakistan for it does not recognize a uniformed Army Chief as the Head of State. Under the Constitution of 1973, only a majority vote in National Assembly, Senate, and four Provincial Assemblies can elect a President.

General Elections 2002

After three years of military rule, Pakistan again headed towards democracy on October 10, 2002. More than 70 parties, big and small, contested the eighth national parliamentary election. The major parties contesting the elections were Peoples Party Parliamentarians, Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz Group, Pakistan Muslim League-Quaid-i-Azam also called the "King's Party" for its unconditional support to the government, and the Muttahida Majlis-i-Amal (MMA), alliance of six religious political parties. Other known parties contesting at the national level included the six-party National Alliance led by former caretaker Prime Minister Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, Imran Khan's Pakistan Tehrik-i-Insaaf and Tahir-ul-Qadri's Pakistan Awami Tehrik. Several regional parties, with strongholds in their own provinces included the Sindh-based Muttahida Qaumi Movement, Awami National Party, Jamhuri Watan Party, factions of Baluchistan National Movement and Pashtunkhwa Milli Awami Party. The National and Provincial elections were held on the same day. More than 72 million registered voters aged 18 and above from a population of 140 million, elected members for the 342 National Assembly seats and 728 seats of the four Provincial Assemblies. A total of 2,098 candidates contested for 272 general seats of the National Assembly. The remaining 60 seats were reserved for women and 10 for non-Muslim minorities. These seats were to be allocated on the basis of proportional representation to parties bagging at least five per cent of the total general seats. In the Provincial Assemblies out of the full 371 seat Punjab Assembly, 66 were reserved for women and eight for minorities, in the 168 seat Sindh Assembly, 29 for women and nine for minorities, in the 124 seat N. W. F. P. Assembly, 22 for women and three for minorities, and the 65 seat Baluchistan Assembly, 11 for women and three for minorities.

Voting was carried out from 8 in the morning till 5 in the evening on some 65,000 polling stations having 164,718 polling booths across the country, with segregated voting booths for women. The elections were observed and monitored by hundreds of local and 300 international observers, including observers from European Union and the Commonwealth, as well as local rights group. These elections were different from the previous ones due to the number of legislation passed by the Government. Convicted people were barred from taking part in elections under the Representation of the People's Act. Several other politicians were unable to contest the elections, as they did not have a Bachelor's Degree, which was a mandatory qualification in the elections. Pakistan's leading political personalities Benazir Bhutto of the P. P. P. and Nawaz Sharif of the Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz Group were barred from standing in the elections under the new electoral laws. And for the first time since 1977, the minority communities that included Christians, Hindus and Parsees contested and voted for all general seats in the National and Provincial Assemblies. The age limit of voting in these elections was also lowered from 21 to 18 years.

The election results issued after inexplicable delay not only led to no major party having an overall majority in the new National Assembly, but also were surprising with an unexpectedly large number of seats won by the Islamic parties. The religious alliance known as Muttahida Majlis-i-Amal (MMA) secured 51 seats, emerging as the third largest party in the National Assembly elections after P. M. L. (Q) with 76 seats and PPPP with 62 seats. A total of 121 seats were won by three major anti-Government parties, including 62 seats by PPPP, 51 by MMA and the PML (N) won 14 seats. The Islamic parties, which previously had actually won fewer seats, came in strong this time by capitalizing on opposition to Pakistan's partnership with the United States in the bombing of Afghanistan and in the war against terrorism. The MMA got a clear-cut majority in NWFP and Baluchistan provinces where it easily formed a government on its own. In the rest of the Provincial Assemblies coalition governments were formed as no party had come in with a complete majority.

The elections had a low turnout of 20 to 25 percent as compared to 35.42 percent in 1997 general election. Despite government assurances that the elections would be fair, free and transparent, different political parties alleged that the elections were engineered and the government was involved in massive rigging. It was alleged that ballot engineering was behind the sluggish pace of announcements of the election results. With no party emerging with a simple majority Pakistan faced menace of a hung parliament. A coalition government was, however, set up with Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali, the candidate of PML (Q) as the Prime Minister of Pakistan with the help of MQM, a number of independent candidates and 10 members of the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians who defected from the party to form their own Forward Block.

Zafarullah Khan Jamali Becomes Prime Minister [2002]

Zafarullah Khan Jamali was elected the 21st Prime Minister of Pakistan by the newly elected Parliament on November 21, 2002. President General Pervez Musharraf administered the oath to the new Prime Minster at the Aiwan-i-Sadr on November 23. He now heads Pakistan's first civilian government after three years of military rule of General Pervez Musharraf. The October elections resulted in a political deadlock as no party won with an overall majority. This led to the delay in the appointment of the Prime Minister. The President did not call the National Assembly session until the creation of PPP's forward bloc and the floor-crossing law was held in abeyance. Maulana Fazl-ur-Rehman of the Muttahida Majlis-i-Amal, Shah Mahmud Qureshi of the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians and Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali of Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-i-Azam) were the main contender for the seat of Prime Minister. Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali won by securing 172 votes out of 329 votes, against 89 bagged by

Maulana Fazl-ur-Rahman and 70 by Shah Mahmud Qureshi. Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali was however, able to get the desired number of votes after 10 members of the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians defected from the party to form their own Forward Block in order to support Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali. Zafarullah Khan Jamali has promised to continue President Musharraf's economic and foreign policies, particularly in supporting the ongoing international war against terrorism. He reiterated Pakistan's support for the United States led war on terrorism and said "Pakistan has become a frontline state, and will remain one". Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali in one of his first acts announced a 25-member Cabinet. The Cabinet includes four unelected advisers and several legislators who had defected from Pakistan Peoples Party. The PPPP dissidents for their critical support to Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali's pro-Musharraf Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-i-Azam) got the top slot ministries in the Government. Rao Sikandar and Makhdoom Faisal Saleh Hayat have been given the two most powerful Ministries of Defense and Interior. Out of the ten PPPP dissidents, six have been accommodated either as full or junior Ministers. Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali's Government faces tough challenges ahead. He not only faces a strong opposition in the National Assembly, but also has to keep his multi-party coalition together while sharing power with President Pervez Musharraf. The President still retains the ultimate power, with the authority to dissolve Parliament and sack the Prime Minister. On December 29, 2002, Mir Zaffarullah Khan Jamali won the vote of confidence of 188 members out of the 342-seat House. Jamali, who had plunged into politics against a dictator when he campaigned for Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah in her presidential race against Pakistan's first dictator, Ayub Khan, is now working readily and steadily to run the Parliament as well as uphold the order of the President and the army in various areas. Jamali's clash with either president or Army will certainly cost his saddle like the late ex-Prime Minister Mohammad Khan Junejo. It is a tribute to his pleasing personality that even the main Opposition, i.e., MMA while sticking to its own political agenda, has pledged publicly not to destabilize his Government so that the democratic dispensation takes firm roots. His pledge not to take any major step without consulting the opposition and that his opponents would not be dragged in false cases has at length led to the strengthening and functioning of “sustainable of democracy”. Though Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali who did bear confidence of the majority in the Parliament and tried to maintain amicable terms with the most powerful President as well as the Opposition with his traits of humility and decency, could not complete his five-year term and suddenly had to resign on June 26, 2004.

Seventeenth Amendment [2003]

Seventeenth Amendment is basically the Legal Framework Order 2002 that has been accepted as part of the Constitution with minor modifications and may be, therefore, termed as an LFO-amended Constitution. After a surprise deal between PML(Q) and MMA (Mutahida Majlis-e-Amal), the 17th Amendment has now become part of the 1973 Constitution after the formal approval of President General Pervez Musharraf. A year-old constitutional deadlock was broken only because of "flexibility" shown by President General Pervez Musharraf and top MMA leadership. The amendment allows General Pervez Musharraf to serve out his term as President, which ends in 2007, and formalize special powers he had decreed himself giving him the right to sack the prime minister and disband parliament by decree. In return, Musharraf agrees to step down as army chief, supposed to be the main source of his power, by December 31, 2004. The seventeenth amendment now allows the provision for "vote of confidence for further affirmation of the president in office by majority of the members present and voting, by division or any other method as prescribed in the rules made by the federal government under clause (9), of the electoral college consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament and the provincial assemblies". Accordingly a vote of confidence was passed in favor of the President on January 1, 2004 by members of both National Assembly and the Senate. Despite the fact the MMA abstained from giving the vote of confidence to the President, it has indirectly

accepted him as elected president by allowing vote of confidence from both houses of parliament and provincial assemblies. Under the Article 58(2)(b), "the President in case of dissolution of the National Assembly shall, within fifteen days of the dissolution, refer the matter to the Supreme Court and the Supreme Court shall decide the reference within thirty days whose decision shall be final". Likewise, under the Article 112, the governor in case of dissolution of the provisional assembly shall also refer the matter to the Supreme Court with the previous approval of the president and the Supreme Court shall decide the reference within thirty days whose decision shall be final. Another amendment is the addition of the words "in consultation with the Prime Minister" in place of "in his discretion" in Article 243 of the Constitution giving the Prime Minister a constitutional say in the appointment of services chiefs. Article 152(A) of the Constitution has been omitted that related to the establishment of a National Security Council. The National Security Council may be, however, created with the passage of a bill with simple majority. 17th Amendment has amended Article 41(1)(7)(b) of the Constitution whereby Article 63(1)(d) of the Constitution has been made inoperative till December 31, 2004. Article 63(1)(d) deals with the disqualification for membership of Parliament and under Article 41(2) only a person qualified to be elected as member of the National Assembly, can be elected as President. This means that for the duration that that Article 63(1)(d) is inoperative, the President is not barred from being elected as the President while he holds the office of COAS. But it is interesting to note that the Article 43(1) of the Constitution still remains intact that says: “The President shall not hold office of profit in the service of Pakistan carrying the right to remuneration for the rendering of services,” Since no amendment has been made in this clause, the Article 43(1) disallows a person simultaneously to be the President and the COAS of the country. The bill granted indemnity to all actions of President General Pervez Musharraf since military action of October 12, 1999 as according to the 270AA, the Parliament has "affirmed, adopted and declared to have been duly made by the competent authority … all laws made between October 12,1999 and the date on which the Article comes into force". In the Article 179, retirement age of the Supreme Court judges has now been fixed at 65 year. This was a huge concern for the lawyers of the country who have at least welcomed this move.

Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain Becomes Prime Minister [2004]

Ch. Shujaat Hussain, who heads the ruling faction of the Pakistan Muslim League, PML (QA) took the post in a caretaker position on June 30, 2004 four days after Zafarullah Jamali resigned all of a sudden. Chaudhry Shujaat was elected leader of the house after securing 190 whereas his opponent ARD’s Makhdoom Amin Fahim got 76 votes. With a 27-member Cabinet, Ch. Shujaat Hussain announced after taking oath as Prime Minister of Pakistan: "We will continue to pursue the policies of the President with regard to good governance and economic development". Prime Minister Ch. Shujaat Hussain announced formation of a special parliamentary committee to resolve Balochistan crisis by initiating political dialogue and giving representation all parliamentary parties of the upper House in the committee and offered to act as a member of the committee to resolve the problem through talks. Taking into consideration that "the success of the next government will be evaluated on its economic performance," he said this very thinking led the Pakistan Muslim League and its allied parties to select Finance Minister Shaukat Aziz as the next executive head of the country. In an interview, he said: "My nomination by Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali and nomination of Shaukat Aziz after consulting the President were in line with the set traditions. There should be no hue and cry over such technicalities". Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain expressed gratitude to Almighty Allah for being the first elected Prime Minister in the country’s history to leave the office,

after discharging his obligations (only for 45 days), with dignity and honor. A notable contribution of the 22nd Prime Minister during his short tenure is the introduction of the Defamation (Amendment) Bill that was hurriedly passed by the Parliament to protect the dignity, reputation and esteem of a person from any false and wanton accusation imposing enhanced punishments for libel. Most probably through the new Defamation Bill, he wanted to save all those from being regularly accused of getting huge bank loans which were later on written off. Ch. Shujaat Hussain also directed the Punjab Government to declare village Gah in District Chakwal — birthplace of Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh — as a model village and the Government Boys Primary School at Gah as the 'Manmohan Singh Government Boys Primary School', as a gesture of goodwill to strengthen the peace process between Pakistan and India. Dr. Singh's family migrated to the Indian side of Punjab before Partition. When he became Prime Minister in May, there were celebrations in the Pakistani village where he was born and attended the primary school. Another significant announcement made by him was that the coffin of Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, who evolved the nomenclature 'Pakistan' before partition, will be brought to Pakistan later this year for a formal burial in Pakistan. Chaudhry Rehmat Ali who is well-known for his historic pamphlet "Now or Never; Are we to live or perish forever?" had died in February 1951 and was buried in Cambridge City graveyard. Later, he coined the word 'Pakistan' for the Muslims who lived in the five northern states of India - Punjab, North West Frontier (Afghan) Province, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan.

Shaukat Aziz Becomes Prime Minister [2004]

Shaukat Aziz became the 23rd Prime Minister of Pakistan on August 23, 2004 after he won two National Assembly seats from Attock and Tharparkar on August 18 by-elections and took oath as Member of National Assembly on August 20. He retained the Attock seat, he took over the charge of premiership of Pakistan from Chaudury Shujaat Hussain who remains the President of Muslim League (QA). He was born in Karachi on March 6, 1949 and received his early education at Saint Patrick’s School, Karachi and Abbottabad Public School. He was awarded the Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree in 1969 at the Institute of Business Administration (IBA), Karachi. He joined the Citibank in 1969, Karachi and served overseas in 1975, holding higher positions in several countries including USA, UK, Malaysia, Singapore and Saudi Arabia. He was appointed Executive Vice President of Citibank in 1992 and till he joined the Government of Pakistan as Finance Minister in 1999. Well regarded by global financiers, Shaukat Aziz is, indeed, President Pervez Musharraf's choice for the top post. Shaukat Aziz who has retained the Ministry of Finance is regarded as an optimist who is determined to use Pakistan's potential and bring Pakistan at par with other Asian countries like China, Thailand, Malaysia and other regional economic giants. He looks for a bright future for Pakistan if its human capital and resources are utilized positively. After taking oath as Member of the National Assembly, Shaukat Aziz has also declared that efforts would be made for provision of good governance, improvement in legal and police systems and provision of opportunities to the people, especially the common man. Analysts say his main duties as premier will be to improve the day-to-day running of the federal government and see that policies are more effectively executed. Many people attribute Pakistan’s economic revival to his prudent policies, while others claim it was the global situation that made it possible. Some others argue that his policies did more harm than good by marginalizing the common man as the poverty level failed to decline. It is, however, hoped that Mr. Aziz who is the choice of a section of Pakistan's rulers will win friends in the international financial institutions. Although Shaukat Aziz is expected to come up with more concrete relief due to his finance management skill and stress on macroeconomics, Shaukat Aziz will have to take quick steps on the path of learning the intricacies of both the global and national politics. It is an area that is full of pitfalls and various blind alleys. No spiritual

or political academy or any book is likely to give him readymade guidelines about unpredictable turns and situations likely to come his way. He is sure to succeed if he is convinced to apply the tricks of the "trade".

Lecture - Ideology of Pakistan

Ideology is a set of beliefs, values and ideals of a group and a nation. It is deeply ingrained in the social consciousness of the people. It is a set of principles, a framework of action and guidance system that gives order and meaning to life and human action.

Ideology emphasizes on some particular principles, ideals and blueprint for the future. It is a review of the existing political, social and economic arrangements that create consciousness based on its principles. It legitimizes or delegitimizes certain actions and philosophies. Ideology gives nation a direction and worldview and its implementation is the responsibility of the concerned people.

Ideology of Pakistan

The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process. Historical experience provided the base; Allama Iqbal gave it a philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction. It was due to the realization of the Muslims of South Asia that they are different from the Hindus that they demanded separate electorates. However when they realized that their future in a ‘Democratic India’ dominated by Hindu majority was not safe, they changed their demand to a separate state.

The ideology of Pakistan stemmed from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to maintain their individuality in the Hindu society. The Muslims believed that Islam and Hinduism are not only two religions, but are two social orders that produced two distinct cultures. There is no compatibility between the two. A deep study of the history of this land proves that the differences between Hindus and Muslims are not confined to the struggle for political supremacy but are also manifested in the clash of two social orders. Despite living together for more than one thousand years, they continue to develop different cultures and traditions. Their eating habits, music, architecture and script, all are poles apart.

The basis of the Muslim nationhood was neither territorial nor racial or linguistic or ethnic rather they were a nation because they belonged to the same faith, Islam. They demanded that the areas where they were in majority should be constituted into a sovereign state, wherein they could order their lives in accordance with the teachings of Holy Quran and Sunnah of Holy Prophet (PBUH).

Evolution of ‘Two Nation Theory’

Concept of Muslims as a Nation developed before the establishment of Pakistan. Pakistan was the product of this concept of nationhood rather than Pakistan creating a concept of nationhood. Retrospectively the Muslim nationalism emerged with the advent of Islam that introduced new principles pertinent to every sphere of life. It pledged the redemption of the humankind establishing a benign society based on Qur’anic teachings. The beginning of the Muslim nationalism in the Sub-Continent may be attributed to the first Indian who accepted

Islam. The Arab traders had introduced the new religion, Islam, in the Indian coastal areas. Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader who conquered some part of India and after that, Mahmud of Ghazna launched 17 attacks and opened the gate to preach Islam. The Muslim sufi (saints) like Ali Hejveri, Miran Hussain Zanjani etc. entered Sub-Continent. They, rejecting the vices in the Indian society, presented the pure practical picture of the teachings of Islam and got huge conversions. Qutub-ud-Din Aibuk permanently established Muslim dynasty in India that followed Sultanate and Mughal dynasties. Thus a strong Muslim community had emerged in India who had its own way of life, traditions, heroes, history and culture. Islam could not be absorbed in Hinduism. Deen-e-Ilahi, Bakhti movements, etc. created reaction amongst the Muslim ulama to preserve the pure Islamic character and save it from external onslaught. Role of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and others is noteworthy. Equality and social justice inspired conversions to Islam.

The British won over the Muslim rulers due to the industrial and scientific developments and modern war strategy. The War of Independence (1857) was a shattering setback to the Indian Muslims who were held responsible for the rebellion by the British. The Muslims were put into the backwardness with the help of Hindus. This was one of the outstanding motivations that paved the way to declare the separate identity of nationalism, the Muslim nationalism. The Muslim scholars sought to reform the teaching of Islamic law and to promote its application in a Muslim society. The prominent name among them is Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) who awakened and guided his community well in time. His educational drive, the Ali-Garh movement, proved to be the best means of social mobility for the Muslim gentry under colonial rule.

In 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded to indicate the beginning of the Indian nationalist movement under the British. The Congress worked and helped the British rule. Sir Syed advised the Muslims not to join it because, he thought, the Muslims were not in position to involve into the anti-government activities. It has been argued that Sir Syed's fear of Hindu domination sowed the seeds for the "Two Nations Theory" later espoused by the All-India Muslim League, founded in 1906 and led to its demand for a separate state for the Muslims of India. Sir Syed argued that modern education and non-political activities might be the key to Muslim advancement. The Ali-Garh movement produced educated leadership who could protect the Muslims’ rights on the Western political lines.

All India Muslim League had been founded in Dhaka to promote loyalty to the British and to protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India. Thus the concept of‘separate electorates’ was put forward to dawn a new day for the Indian Muslims.

The Two-Nation Theory served as the basis of demand for Pakistan by the Muslims in British India. There are two major nations in British India. The Muslims are not a community but a nation with a distinctive history, heritage, culture, civilization, and future aspirations.

The Muslims wanted to preserve and protect their distinct identity and advance their interests in India. They wanted to order their lives in accordance with their ideals and philosophy of life without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic majority.

Initially, they demanded safeguards, constitutional guarantees and a federal system of government with powers to the provinces for protection and advancement of their heritage, identity and interests. Later, they demanded a separate state when neither the British nor the Hindu majority community was willing to offer those guarantees and safeguards.

Hindi-Urdu Controversy

Hindu revivalist movements turned more against the Muslims. Hindu nationalism was rival to the Muslim nationalism. The Indian nationalism forced Muslims to organize themselves politically to defend their interests effectively. After 1857, Hindi-Urdu Controversy was the major assault by the Hindus on Muslim heritage and legacy of the great Muslim Empire. Hindus were biased against Urdu as it was the Muslims’ language. They demanded Hindi as the official language replacing Urdu. There were demonstrations against Urdu by the Hindus in Banaras in 1867. It was the start of the Hindi-Urdu controversy. On the very issue, Sir Syed foretold about the unstable future of Hindu-Muslim unity. Hindus struggled vigorously to replace Urdu by Hindi in the offices. This enhanced the importance of the sense of Muslim separatism.

The Muslim nationalism is manifested with the sublime principles to implement like:1. Rule of Law, socio-economic justice, equity and fair play.

2. Equality of opportunity to all citizens irrespective of caste, sect, religion or region.

3. Religious and Cultural tolerance.

4. Respect for human dignity and rights.

5. Protection of the rights and interests of non-Muslims and freedom to practice their beliefs and religions.

These principles are enshrined in the constitutions. We ought to work towards realization of these goals in reality and create institutions and processes that reflect these principles and values.

LECTURE 2 IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN IN THE LIGHT OF STATEMENTS OF QUAID-I-AZAM AND ALLAMA IQBAL

Lecture 2- Ideology of Pakistan in the Light of Statements of QUAID-I-AZAM and ALLAMA

Ideology of Pakistan in the Light of Statements of QUAID-I-AZAM and ALLAMA IQBAL

The Development of Muslim Identity and Two-Nation Theory and Quaid-i-Azam and Allama Iqbal

The sense of nationhood developed among the Muslims before the establishment of Pakistan. Their goal was mostly to protect and promote their identity and interests and shape their lives in accord with their ideals and philosophy of life without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic majority. They adopted the strategy to get constitutional safeguards from the British against the cruel majority of Hindus but because of the antagonistic treatment from the rivals they set the goal of a separate state. Islam had central place to their further developments.

The role of leadership is very important to put nation on the way. A good leadership infuses the qualities of awareness, consciousness, mobilization, sense of direction, and defense against the adversaries. The Muslims

were lucky having such competent leadership.

Muhammad Ali JINNAHM. A. Jinnah was a history-making leader who changed the course of history. He possessed a visionary leadership, commitment to the cause and political mobilization capacity. He was a Charismatic Leader in the real sense of the meaning.

ROLE OF JINNAHJinnah played a decisive role in articulating the Muslim demands and pursuing these faced strong opposition from the Hindus and the British. He started his political career in 1906 by joining the Indian National Congress. He was elected to the Legislative Council in 1909 and in 1913 he also joined the All India Muslim League (AIML). Now he was member of both the political parties. Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of Swaraj (self-rule), complete freedom from the British and on using extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920.

His early efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity were materialized when THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916) was signed. The Hindus accepted the Muslim demands:

• Separate Electorate• One-third Seats in Central Legislature• protection of minority rights

In the Nehru Report, the accepted Muslim rights were ignored. Jinnah retaliated forcefully by presenting 14 Points in 1929. He defined Muslim identity and mobilized them with reference to Islam and convinced others that Muslims are different from the Hindus and the Congress. Islamic principles, concepts and symbols surfaced in his speeches and statements.

Jinnah used the term NATION for the Muslims of India in Feb 1935 (Legislative Assembly). He argued that the combination of religion, culture, race, arts, music and so forth make a minority a SEPARATE ENTITY. In March 1936 Bombay, he stated that the Muslims could arrive at a settlement with Hindus as TWO Nations. In 1937, he asserted that there is also a third party in India, the Muslims. In 1939, he roared that the Muslims and Hindus are two nations and they are going to live as a nation and playing part as a nation:We are a nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, names and nomenclature, sense of values and proportion, legal laws and moral code, custom and calendar, history and tradition, aptitudes and ambitions; in short, we have our own distinctive outlook on life and of life. By all cannons of international law, we are a nation.Speeches and statements: 1940-47Jinnah believed in the force of Islam as he said that Islam is a dynamic force that can unite the Muslims. It can help to overcome the present crisis. It’s a source of inspiration and guidance providing ethical foundation, a framework, social order and civilization.

Guidance & inspiration for constitution-making and GovernanceHe also talked of the modern notions of state, constitution, civil and political rights and democracy. He assured that constitution of Pakistan would be framed by the elected assembly.

Modern democratic and Islamic State

He gave assurance of equality of all citizens and rights and freedom to religious minorities in the new state.

ALLAMA IQBAL: POET AND PHILOSOPHER

VISION OF A SEPARATE MUSLIM STATE

Men like Allama Iqbal are born but in centuries. He was conscious of significance of Islam in lives of the Muslims. His first public appearance was in 1899 at the annual session of Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam in Lahore when he presented the poem, Nala-i-Yatim.

At initial stages Dr Iqbal was a nationalist by ideas and his poetry contained verses like Tarana-i- Hind. His poetry was a critique of the existing societal conditions. Being educated from Europe, he knew all weak aspects of the Western culture. He criticized capitalism, materialism and lack of spiritualism.

IQBAL- Focus on the conditions of the Indian MuslimsIslam can salvage the MuslimsIslam has always saved Muslim

Islam is a living and dynamic ideology that can meet modern challenges

Islam to help them to overcome their internaldiscord and enable them to meet external challenges

With spiritualism based derived from IslamIjtehad and Reinterpretation(READ: Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam)

Address to the Muslim League Session, Allahabad, December 1930I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, Balochistan amalgamated into a single state as a self government within the British empire or without. This is the final destiny of the Muslims of N.W. India.

LECTURE 3 THE ALIGARH MOVEMENT Lecture 3 - The Aligarh Movement

The Aligarh Movement

The War of Independence 1857 ended in a disaster for the Muslims. The British believed that the Muslims were responsible for the war of 1857 and therefore, they were subjected to ruthless punishment and merciless revenge. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their enemies because they had ousted them from power. With the war of 1857 this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Thus the Mughal rule came to an end and the sub- continent went directly under the British

crown.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made modern education the way to progress

After the Muslim rule, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy restricted Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English as the only medium of instruction as well as the official language in 1835. A wrong attitude of everything modern and Western, and disinclination to make use of the opportunities opening under the new regime was created among the Muslims. This tendency, had it continued long, would have proved disastrous for the Muslim community.

Such were the days of despair and despondency when Sir Syed appeared on the horizon of Muslim India to rescue them. Sir Syed had the conviction that regeneration of the Indian Muslims had not at all visualized that mankind had entered a very important phase of its existence, i.e. an era of science and learning which was the source of progress and prosperity for the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for the regeneration of the Indian Muslims, which brought a complete orientation in their lives. He tried to transform Muslim minds from medieval outlook to a modern one.

Hali and Shibli were also associated with the Aligarh Movement.

Sir Syed’s first and foremost objective was to modernize the Muslims following the Western cultural values that could create friendly atmosphere for the two communities. He motivated his community to learn the Western philosophy and English literature to get along with the ruling people.Therefore, in order to fulfill this desire he started the Aligarh movement. He had two immediate objectives in view:1) To remove the state of tension between theMuslims and the British government, and2) To induce them to get jobs and other facilities under the new government.To him, this was the only way for the Muslims to prosper.The ideas of Sir Syed may be summed up as following:1. To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the British government and the Muslims2. To motivate the Muslims to learn Western education3. To persuade Muslims to abstain from agitational politicsFortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract a number of sincere friends who shared his views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk, Nawab Viqar ul Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and Zakaullah. All these personalities advocated the cause set by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Some English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold also contributed greatly in building up the Aligarh college into a first rate institution.

Syed Ahmad launched his educational movement by setting up Gulshan School at Muradabad - 1859; Victoria School at Gazipur in 1863; Scientific Society for the translation of English works in the native language, Urdu, at Aligarh in 1864; Aligarh Institute Gazette imparting information on history -ancient and modern, science of agriculture, natural sciences, physical sciences and Advanced Mathematics in 1866; Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims - 1870; Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental School (MAO) at Aligarh in 1875 at the pattern of English public schools and later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920; Mohammedan Educational Conference (1886), which met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain

from politics; it later became a political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and the forerunner of the All India Muslim league.

Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan’s writings played important role in popularizing the ideals for which the Aligarh stood. His Risala Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind in 1858; and other writings as Loyal Mohammedans of India; Tabyin-ul-Kalam and Khutbat-i-Ahmadiya rooted out the misunderstandings about Islamic teachings and helped create a cordial relation between theBritish Government and the Indian Muslims and also helped to remove the misunderstanding about Islam and Christianity.

It was this platform from where Syed Ahmad Khan strongly forbade the Muslims to join the Hindu dominated political party, the Indian National Congress. He regretted the Urdu-Hindi controversy initiated by Hindus and predicted that both the nations could no longer live together. He stood for reserved Movement theory.

seats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, which led to the Two Nation

Syed Ahmad Khan’s Aligarh Movement played a significant role to bring about an intellectual revolution among the Indian Muslims. Thus Aligarh Movement succeeded in achieving its major objectives and boosted up the depressed Muslim community to the real status of nation.

Lecture 4 - Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and His Contributions

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and His Contributions

The great emancipator of the Indian Muslims Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born at Delhi in 1817. This is the period when the great Mughal Empire was close to a complete collapse. Sir Syed’s family had already joined the East India Company and his maternal grandfather served in Iran and Burma under the British government. Sir Syed got interest in English from his maternal family. SM Ikram writes, “For this insight into the affairs of the state and first contacts with Western learning and civilization he was indebted to his maternal grandfather…” (S. M. Ikram, Modern Muslim India, p.18). Sir Syed was very healthy by birth and his grandfather remarked: “A Jat has been born in our family.” (Ibid., p. 19) The death of Sir Syed forced him to join the British as head clerk in 1839. The death of his brother made him serious and energetic to face the neuroses of life courageously. Another event that changed him entirely was the War of Independence in 1857. In 1841, he passed examination and became sub-judge. At the eve of the War of Independence he was performing the duties as sub-judge in Bijnore. He established educational institutions and after coming at Aligarh he rejuvenated his aspirations to work for the depressed Muslims of the Subcontinent. He devoted his entire life for this purpose to bring the Muslims close to the British. He died on March 27, 1898 and was buried in Aligarh.

His ServicesHe took responsibility of the Indian Muslims when they had been thrown in backwardness, depression andn

humiliation. The British held them criminal of the War while the Hindus had won the British being anti-Muslim force. In such environment, Sir Syed guided his community to rejoin the life. To Dr Qalb-i-Abid, “Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was among a very few leaders produced by Muslim India, who like Mohammad Ali Jinnah made a tremendous contribution in guiding the destinies of the Indian Muslims.” (Dr Q. Abid, Muslim Struggle for Independence, p. 11.)

Sir Syed and PoliticsIn the political arena, Sir Syed carved numerous successes; he eradicated misunderstandings between the Muslims and the British infused due to the past particular incidents. Awakening among the Muslims about the political ups and downs and co-existence in the presence of other nations in India was another contribution of Sir Syed. He motivated the Muslims to absorb the modern education of the West because this was the very motive of the Western expansion in the world. He visualized the bright future of the Muslims if they engaged themselves in the Western learning.

Sir Syed won the British confidence and cordial relationship by saving their lives during the War of Independence. He utilized this relationship for the betterment of the Muslims. It was a subtle situation because the government had put the War crimes on the Muslim shoulders and assaulted their every aspect of life: “These events were a trauma for the Muslims; …the methods used by them shocked the civilized world. The detestation of Delhi as a centre of Muslim culture was horrendous; Bahadur Shah Zafar…was exiled to Rangoon; Lt. Hodson shot three Mughal princes and later 24 princes were tried and executed; a vast ocean of blood there was; Some Muslims were shot dead and their dead bodies were thrown into the river Jamna…” (Ibid., p. 14). All Muslims were ousted from land, property and employments that made them third class citizens of India. This created revengeful sentiments among the Muslims who detested British, their culture and civilization. Sir Syed was of the view that British were a civilized, educated, wise and disciplined nation and occupied India with the new war strategy and munitions that could not be matched by the locals and particularly by the Muslims. Therefore at the juncture the Muslims should mould themselves according to the pace of time to avoid more disaster.

Sir Syed published Loyal Mohammedans of India and Risala Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind that helped both the nations to redress their grievances. In 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded but Sir Syed warned the Muslims from the sinister aspirations of the Hindus. Another factor was that he intended the Muslims to abstain from the politics that could result in friction with the ruling nation.

Urdu-Hindi ControversyUrdu grew as common language of all the Indians regardless of origin or religion but in 1867 the Benarsi Hindus started campaign to replace Urdu by Hindi. To gain the objectives, they declared numerous organizations, which discouraged Sir Syed who said to Shakespeare that since now both the nations could not live together. Later the followers of Sir Syed tried their level best to save Urdu language. Mohsin ul Mulk was the outstanding person who organized the Muslims in defense of Urdu.

Muslims-as a NationSir Syed used the word ‘nation’ for the Muslims. Some writers criticize that he declared Hindus and Muslims one nation. But as a matter of fact, he advocated the Hindu-Muslim unity that meant‘the working relationship’ between the two nations as once he said: “Hindus and Muslims should try to be of one mind in matters which affected their progress.” He favored separate electorate for the Muslims in 1883

saying that the majority would override the interests of the minority. (P. Hardy, pp. 136-37)

United Indian Patriotic AssociationIn 1888, he set up the Patriotic Association to meet the propaganda of the Congress. Muslims and Hindus joined the Association. It advocated the Muslims’ emotions.

Mohammedan Defense AssociationIn December 1893, Sir Syed founded the Association. Its main purpose was to protect the political, religious and social rights of the Muslims.Sir Syed was great because he contributed greatly to the Muslim struggle for identity. Otto von Bismarck served the German nation with the help of all government sources but Sir Syed did the same without all this. To Khalid Bin Sayeed, “Many tributes have been paid to Sir Sayyed, particularly by modern educated Muslims for being daring enough to put forward such views in an age which was by no means liberal or tolerant.” (Dr Khalid Bin Sayeed, Pakistan, the Formative Phase, p. 17).

Lecture 5- Major Political Developments 1857-1918

Major Political Developments 1857-1918

The year 1857 brought decline to the Muslim rule in India. Muslims and Hindus participated in the War of Independence but the British held only Muslims responsible for the rebellion. The Muslims were persecuted ruthlessly and left at the mercy of time. The post war era was disastrous for the Muslims but some personalities emerged on the national scene and played excellent role to guide their people in this critical situation. The Central Mohammedan Association of Justice Amir Ali Syed and the Aligarh movement are very prominent in this regard. Their efforts for revival of the self-identity and political positioning in the Indian society enabled them to face any challenge in the future.Some important issues have already been discussed in the previous lectures. So a brief reference to events in historical context may be given:• Decline after the 1857 Uprising• Sir Syed and his colleagues’ efforts for revival• Removal of misunderstanding between the Muslims and the British• Educational movement or acquisition of modern knowledge and English• Hindi-Urdu Controversy was the issue that unearthed the hatred and enmity ofHindu community towards the Muslims.• Formation of the Congress was a method to incorporate the Muslims in Hinduism. It popularized the agitational politics that Muslims could not afford because they were still recovering the past gaps.• Hindu Revivalist movements mostly targeted the Muslims that accelerated the pace of widening the gulf between the two nations.

Events Since the Beginning of 20TH Century1. Partition of Bengal, 19052. Simla Deputation, 19063. Formation of the Muslim League, 19064. Changes in the Goals of the Muslim League, 19135. Lucknow Pact, 19161: Partition of Bengal: 1905

United Bengal’s area covered 189,000 sq. miles with 80 million populations. Dr Abdul Hameed writes in his book, Muslim Separatism in India, that the partition was imperative even if Curzon had not initiated it. A Lt. Governor had problems in looking after the eastern areas. Mainly Muslim suffered because of the rotten administration by the British. Before 1905, many proposals of partition of Bengal had been under consideration but Lord Curzon decided to practicalise this administrative scheme. East Bengal became incidentally a Muslim majority province having 13000000 out of 31000000. West Bengal was a Hindu majority province. Muslims were very happy on the partition as this had enabled them to promote their life conditions. It was rightly an opportunity for compensation. The Muslim community supported it strongly but Hindus retaliated furiously saying it the division of motherland. The Congress joined the anti-partition movement. They started widespread agitation, violence and boycott of foreign goods. The main reason of Hindu protest was that they had loosened grip over the eastern parts.

Annulment of the Partition on 12 December 1911The British government revoked the partition to avoid trouble on the visit of King George V. The Muslims were disappointed by the government response to the violent strategy of protests adopted by the Hindus.

2: The Simla Deputation 1906

In fact Simla Deputation was in line with a kind of thinking that was developing amongst the Muslims during that time i.e. they had certain interests and they must stand up to protect their rights and unless they do that that objective would not be achieved. The Simla Deputation of1906 was the first systematic attempt on the part of the Muslims to present their demands, to the British government and to seek their acceptance. The Simla deputation comprised 35 Muslims from all over India. It was a galaxy of Muslims leaders from all the provinces, from one end of India to the other and it had Muslims of all background. Therefore, when in 1906, this deputation called on the Viceroy, it was the most representative Muslim delegation. This delegation was led by Sir Agha Khan and Nawab Mohsin ul Malik served as a secretary and this delegation met the Viceroy in Simla that was why it was called as Simla Deputation. The memorandum which they presented was a kind of demands which were the uppermost in the minds of the Muslims at that time. The delegation emphasized that the Muslims should not be viewed simply in numerical terms but they should take into account their historical importance and the kind of contribution the Muslims had made to British India and keeping in view that importance they should work towards accommodating their demands. The delegation emphasized that democratic principle should be introduced keeping in view the peculiar conditions and circumstances of India. The diversity, the fact that there different kinds of people living in India and the fact that the Muslims consider themselves to be a separate entity, all these things had to be taken into account because the India was not a homogenous amalgamated or monolithic political identity. It was a political identity comprising diversity, divergence in view, divergence in outlook and when you introduce some kind of system then these realities had to be accommodated. In view of this submission they presented some demands:

Representation more than their population because of their importance.Separate electorateReservations of Muslims seats in government jobs.Special share in Municipal or district boards University senates and syndicatesMuslim representation in Viceroy Executive Council.Muslim University at Aligarh.The Viceroy was sympathetic towards the demands. It encouraged the Muslims to launch struggle for their rights parallel to the Indian National Congress but it required an organized platform.

3: Formation of the Muslim League in Dhaka: December 30, 1906

Time had come to formally organize the Muslims after the success of the Simla Deputation. The Muslim leaders desired to create a permanent political forum. After the meeting of the Mohammedan Educational Conference, the Muslim leaders met to set up the All India Muslim League. Wiqar-ul-Mulk chaired the meeting. Nawab Salimullah proposed Muslim League and Hakim Ajmal Khan and Maulana Zafar Ali Khan seconded.

In the Karachi session Dec. 1907 its constitution was approved and in March 1908 at Aligarh, Agha Khan was formally elected its president.

London Branch: May 1908Justice Amir Ali Syed organised a branch of Muslim League at London and responded effectively to the misunderstandings and conspiracies of the Hindus against the Muslims.

GOALS:1. Protection and promotion of political rights and interests of the Muslims.2. Cooperation with other communities without prejudice to the above goal.3. Fostering sense of loyalty, among the Muslims, towards the government

4: Change in the Goals of the Muslim League 1913

Important developments occurred during the first decade of the 20th century like annulment of the Partition of Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries, Balkan wars, Libya-Italy war, Demolition of the mosque in Kawnpur (1913), etc. weakened Muslim faith in the British. This led to a major drift in the Muslim League’s policy. In 1913, the League changed its goals:• Self government under the British Crown keeping in view the peculiar conditions in India.• Good relations with other communities’ cooperation with any party working for similar goals.This change brought the ML and Congress closer. In this way the era of cooperation between Hindus and Muslims set in. The role of the Quaid-i-Azam is highly noteworthy to bring the Congress and the Muslim League to the table. He joined the Muslim League in 1913.5: Lucknow Pact, 1916The Lucknow pact was the product of Hindu-Muslim unity envisaged by M. A. Jinnah. In December 1915, the ML and Congress met separately in Bombay. Both the parties set up committees for making a scheme for constitutional changes in consultation with other political parties.Role of the Quaid-i-AzamJinnah did a lot to unite the two nations along with the recognition of the rights of Muslims. Meeting of both parties held at Lucknow in 1916. The constitutional proposals were approved:

1. One Third seats for Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council.2. Separate Electorate3. Half members of the Executive Council to be elected by the ImperialLegislative Council.4. Commissioned ranks of the army for Indians.5. Expansion of Provincial Legislative Councils.6. Half members of the Governor’s Executive Council be elected byProvincial Legislative Council7. Weightage to minorities in provinces.Gains from Muslim Point-of-view1. Separate Electorate2. One Third Muslim seats in Central Legislature.3. Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members of a community, it will not be passed.August 20, 1917 Announcement by British GovernmentSecretary of State Montagu promised for:1. Greater association of Indian in all branches of government.2. Responsible government3. Induction of Indians in the commissioned ranks.Conclusion:The historical struggle of the Muslims confirmed their identity. They organized their political party to address the demands. They also got recognition by the Hindus as a separate nation. The British accepted their role in the political domain.

Lecture 6 - The Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British India for the retention of the Ottoman Caliphate and for not handing over the control of Muslim holy places to non-Muslims.Turkey sided with Germany in World War 1. As it began to lose the war, concerns were expressed in India about the future of Turkey. It was a peak period from 1919 to 1922 casting demonstrations, boycott, and other pressure by the two major communities, the Hindus and the Muslims. Being brothers, the Indian Muslims realized their religious duty to help the Muslim country. It was the extra territorial attachments based on Islam. Another factor same to the first was that the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of unity of the Muslim world as Ummah.

Goals:1. Ottoman Khilafat should be kept intact.2. Territorial solidarity of Turkey be preserved.3. Control of holy the places should not be given to non-Muslims.Dimensions:The writings of the Muslim intellectuals provoked the sentiments for the preservation of Khilafat and retention

of the Muslims control of the holy places. The Muslims journalism played a vital role to steer the direction of the struggle. Zamindar of Zafar Ali Khan, Comrade and Hamdard of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, and Al-Hilal of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad etc. were the prominent newspapers and magazines which performed their duties to express their resentment. The Allies imposed humiliating terms on vanquished Turkey.

Protests in India:All India Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay in July 1919. The first Khilafat Conference at Delhi in November 1919 was arranged in which the Congress leaders like Gandhi and Nehru participated. In this way, the major political parties joined hands to assault the injustice with the Muslim community. These steps were announced:No participation in victory celebrations.Boycott of British goodsNon Cooperation with the GovernmentThe second Khilafat Conference (Amritsar) was held in Dec. 1919. Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali joined the session after being released from prison. In Jan. 1920, M. A. Ansari led a delegation to Viceroy while Maulana M. A. Jauhar to Europe. The Khilafat Committee decided to start non-cooperation in collaboration with the Congress in May 1920.

Rowlett Act, 1919Rowlett Act was a black law introduced in India. To the law, the government got authority to persecute any Indian and the arrested had no facility of legal assistance and right to appeal just as the ‘Lettres de Cachet’ in France before the French Revolution. Jinnah resigned from the central legislature as a protest.

Jallianwala Bagh Incident, April 1919The people gathered in Jallianwala Bagh at Amritsar but General Dyer opened fire to disperse the throng that cast a huge human casualties (379). It is considered one of the great tragedies in India. In 1940, by killing Governor Punjab, Sir Michaal O’ Dayer, ‘Ram Muhammad Singh Azad’ got revenge of the Indian massacre.

The Nagpur Session of the Congress (Dec. 1920) approved non-cooperation with Government but Jinnah opposed and left the Congress because he was against the use of extra-constitutional means of protests.

Non-Cooperation:

• Return Titles.• Boycott of courts and educational institutions.• Resign from jobs.• Later resign from police and military jobs.• Refusal to pay taxes.

Khilafat Conference, Karachi, July 1921In the session the participants expressed their loyalty to Turkish Sultan. They decided to continue the agitation and supported Attaturk to expel foreign forces from Turkey.

Hijrat Movement 1920-21The Indian ulama (religious leaders) declared India ‘Darul Harab.’ Darul Harab means the place (country) where Muslims are not allowed to perform their religious practices. In the said situation, the Muslims should migrate to the nearest safe place. The ulama issued verdicts to go to Darul Islam, Afghanistan. There was an impression that King of Afghanistan would welcome them. So the migration took place at large scale. Initially Afghans welcomed them. Later, they closed the border and pushed the migrants back to the Indian territories. It resulted in loss of lives and money. Many died during this mission. Some went to Soviet Union from Afghanistan because they had nothing in India now.

End of the Movement

Moplah Revolt Malabar Coast, near KalicutMoplahs were the descendents of the Arab Muslims settled in the Sub-Continent even before the arrival of Muhammad Bin Qasim. In August 1921, they revolted against Hindu landlords whose treatment was very brutal with them. Later this clash changed as Moplahs versus the Police and Hindu. This embittered the Hindu-Muslim relations.There was an increase in violence day by day and the Chorachori Incident (UP) in February 1922 worsened the situation. The Congress volunteers set a police station on fire and 21 policemen were killed. Gandhi suddenly called off the movement.

Developments in TurkeyIn 1922 Attaturk emerged as a national leader and restricted powers of Sultan. Next he was appointed Chief of the state by Grand National Assembly. In March 1924, Khilafat was abolished. This caused a widespread resentment among the Indian Muslims. They sent delegations to Turkey but failed to achieve their objectives.

Conclusions:

1. It was re-affirmation of the reality that religion is a mobilizing force and especially Islam has mobilization capacity to organize masses.2. It was the movement launched on the basis of extra-territorialism. Later, no such movement but Pan-Islamic sentiments continued.3. It resulted in the sufferings of the Muslims4. Hindu-Muslim unity proved short-lived.

Reactivation of the Muslim League and other Muslim organizations to restart their activities as a separate nation was the great outcome.

Lecture 7 - Muslim Politics in British India: 1924-1935

Muslim Politics in British India: 1924-19351. Delhi Muslim Proposals2. Nehru Report

3. Quaid-i-Azam’s Fourteen Points4. Simon Commission5. Round Table Conferences6. Constitutional Proposals

Backdrop:The Khilafat movement brought Hindu-Muslim communities to cooperation. The leaders made the efforts to revive harmony for preparing constitutional proposals.

1: Delhi Muslim Proposals: March 1927

Important Muslim leaders on the initiative of the Quaid met in Delhi to discuss constitutional and political issues. The major demands were:

• Punjab and Bengal: statuary Muslim majorities• No Weightage in provinces• Sind to be separated from Bombay• Constitutional Reforms in NWFP• One-third seats for Muslims in Central Legislature• On communal issues, no law will be passed if three-fourth members of the concerned community oppose it.

If these demands are accepted, they will give up ‘separate electorate.’ Subsequently, the Muslim League was divided in the Punjab, Shafi League and Jinnah League. Sir Muhammad Shafi opposed Jinnah on the issues:

• Separate electorate• Attitude towards the Simon Commission. Jinnah continued his unremitting efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity.

2: The Nehru Report: 1928The main objective was to constitute proposals for the Indian Constitution. The Congress called All Parties Conference that appointed a 10-member committee in May 1928 under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru and Secretary ship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Recommendations that threatened Muslim interests are:

• No Separate electorate• No One-third seats for Muslims in Central Assembly• No reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal. In Hindu- majority provinces, the Muslims may be given seats according to population• Sind to be made a province if it can bear its expenses. Balochistan, NWFP were accepted to be given constitutional status on certain conditions.

Quaid-i-Azam tried to get amendments in the Report in the All Parties Conference in Calcutta but did not succeed. This is the very moment when Jinnah remarked, “it is parting of the ways.” He presented the 14 points as a Muslim leader.

3: Jinnah’s Fourteen Points: 19291. Federal system with residuary powers with the provinces2. Provincial autonomy.3. Separate electorate for Muslims.4. Effective representation to minorities in the provinces but the majority should not be reduced to minority5. One-third representation of Muslims in Central Legislature.6. One third Muslim representation in cabinets.7. No changes in the boundaries of the Punjab and Bengal that would adversely affect Muslim majority.8. Religious freedom to all.9. No law will be passed if three-fourth elected members of a community declare that it is against their interests.10. Sind to be made a separate province.11. Constitutional Reforms in NWFP and Balochistan.12. Muslim representation in govt. jobs.13. Constitutional safeguards for Islamic culture and civilization, education, language, personal laws and Muslim institutions. Government should provide financial assistance.14. No constitutional amendment unless all constituent units of the federation agree to it.

These points reflected the aspirations of every Muslim living in India.

4: The Simon Commission:

The British government sent a commission to seek the opinion of Indians on the future shape of constitutional arrangements. It arrived in India in 1927 and it published the report in 1930. Most political parties boycotted it. It presented its report containing several constitutional proposals:

• Federal system of government with strong centre• Two Houses.• Abolition of Dyarchy system in provinces• More powers to provincial governments.• Governor not to interfere in day to day affairs.• Constitutional changes in NWFP

5: Roundtable Conferences: 1930, 1931, and 1932

First Session of the ConferenceIn the first session, a number of prominent Muslims like M. A. Jinnah, Sir Shafi, Maulana M. A. Jauhar, Zafarullah Khan participated. They emphasized federalism, self- government, safeguards for minorities, separate electorate, preferential representation in central legislature, secure majorities in Punjab and Bengal.

Second ConferenceMaulana M. A. Jauhar had died after the first conference. Iqbal, Jinnah and others participated in the second conference. Gandhi represented the Congress. The key issues of the session were ‘Federation’ and ‘Minorities.’

The Communal Award, August 1932

Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award:

1. Separate electorate for all minorities of India.2. Weightage to minorities3. No Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal as was followed in Lucknow Pact4. One third representation for Muslims in Central legislature5. One fourth representation for Muslims in services6. Sind to be made a province

Poona Pact, September 1932The Congress expressed strong reaction against the right of separate electorate to the Indian minorities, especially to low caste Hindus whom Gandhi named Harijan (sons of God). Dissonance in Gandhi is conspicuous that he observed fast unto death on the right to the ‘sons of God.’ An agreement with low caste to surrender the separate electorate right was concluded to save Gandhi’s life.3rd Roundtable Conference: Nov. 17-Dec. 24 1932The main issues had been discussed in the first two conferences and now the rest of them were to be discussed. It was poorly attended conference. Quaid did not participate despite living in London. Gandhi did not attend as he had been detained.

The conference brought no change in party positions and widened Hindu-Muslim gulf.

White Paper on Constitutional Proposals: March 1933The British government issued a small document in the form the White Paper. It included detail of working basis of the Indian constitution with Dyarchy in the centre and full responsible governments in the provinces.

Government of India Act, 1935

Approved by the King: August 1935

Despite these efforts the communal problems could not be settled as satisfactory to the nations living in India particularly the Muslim. Therefore the key issues remained unchanged:

• Hindu Muslim Relations• Failure to arrive at settlement• Muslim demands transmuted from safeguarding rights to complete independence---Pakistan.

Lecture 8 - ALLAMA IQBAL’s Presidential Address December 1930

ALLAMA IQBAL’s Presidential Address December 1930

Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal ranks amongst the Muslim intellectuals who left a deep impact on history. He inspired Muslims of the Sub-Continent and beyond. He infused a moving spirit and identity in the Indian Muslims. He presented a framework of their political future and talked how that would help to achieve the goal of Ummah. He presented a vision and dream in his Allahabad Address.

1: Background

The Hindu-Muslim question had great importance and stood crucial to British Indian history after1857, especially in the 20th century. To Muslims, the key issue remained ‘separate identity.’ They tried their level best to make the rival nations understand that the Muslims are a separate nation having different culture and civilization, interests and rights. The Two Nations theory could not fascinate the Hindus and the British peoples because they believed in ‘territorial nationalism.’ The Hindus desired to absorb them in their majority but they could not face the arguments of the Muslim intellectuals. By 1930, Muslims had developed a sense of identity and political demands. Iqbal delivered his Presidential address in this background.

Iqbal’s stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to crystallize his thoughts. He returned to India in 1908 and started work on the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism to uplift the Muslims. He reminded them to follow the teachings of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) practically as the ideal leader. He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and principles of Islam. He sought salvation through Islam. He was awarded with many prominent social positions:

• Title of Sir was conferred in 1922• Member Punjab Legislative Council (1927-1930)

He delivered lectures on Islam in Aligarh, Hyderabad and Madras (1928-29). At Allahabad, he presided over the meeting and delivered his famous address.

The Address, December 1930

Iqbal presented a review of the political and social situation of India and solution of the ills befalling India. He evaluated the importance of role of Islam in the lives of Muslims of British India. He said that the European view of duality of religion and state does not apply here in the Indian society. Rejecting the secularism he said, religion is not a totally personal affair.

He explained that Islam offers an ethical order, socio-political structure, legal framework, code of life, culture and civilization. It is a living, dynamic force that has a profound impact on the lives of Indian Muslims. With the force of Islam the scattered and disoriented people have been turned into an organized force.

The Muslims are not willing to submerge their religious individuality. They have lack of trust, fear of domination from Hindus. If the British want any sort of internal harmony it would be impossible unless the communal question is settled. It’s historical reality that India is a continent inhabited by diverse people. No political arrangement may be acceptable without recognizing this reality.

• If the Muslims have an opportunity to develop in accordance with their Islamic civilization and tradition, they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for India.• Federalism cannot succeed without recognizing the national identity of theMuslims.• Territorial redistribution of British India on the basis of religion has become a need of time.

• Punjab, NWFP, Sind and Balochistan be amalgamated into a state, self government within the British empire or without it. The formation of such a consolidated North Western Muslim state appears to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North West India. To India, it will offer peace and security due to internal balance of power.• Islam is a people building force in India that has given moral consciousness and political identity to the people.

Importance

Iqbal’s address is a forceful and logical presentation of the Muslim case in India. Why should they be treated as a political entity rather than a minority?

• Territorial adjustments will enable the Muslims to develop themselves in accordance with their ideals and serve the cause of Ummah.• Redistribution of territory developed later on concept of Muslim homeland.• He further expressed these ideas in LETTERS TO JINNAH from May 1936 to November 1937. He talked of a separate federation of Muslim provinces. The North Western India and Bengal can be considered as entitled to self-determination like other nations in India and outside. Shariah’s development is impossible without a free Muslim state or states. He advised the Muslims to be above self-interest and devote themselves to Islam.• In difficult times, Islam has saved the Muslims.• Faith, culture and historical traditions are more important than patriotism.

Lecture 9 - Muslim Politics and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali

Muslim Politics and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali

Intellectuals give lines of movement, leaders act upon and the masses prove good soldiers and this way nations accomplish their achievements. Rahmat Ali was one of the eminent scholars who made a significant contribution to the movement for the establishment of Pakistan. He was conscious of Muslim identity and outlined proposals for the partition of India for the sake of Muslims. He was the man who coined the name, PAKISTAN, for the Muslim state. When he first presented his proposal for a Muslim state, nobody took it seriously.

The Muslim intellectuals and leaders were concerned about the future of the Muslims in India. They ensured a secure future for Muslims. For this purpose they worked out various proposals for securing a homeland. Rahmat Ali becomes relevant here.Biographical Sketch

Ch. Rahmat Ali was born in Hoshiarpur district in 1893. Traditionally he did his B.A. from Islamia College, Lahore. He did the private and government jobs for some time and then left for Cambridge University for higher education.He was involved actively in the activities for the protection of rights of the Indian Muslims along with some

other students at Cambridge University. His activism goes back to his student days in Lahore when he talked of separate state for Muslims of India.

Rahmat Ali’s ViewsHe said that North Western areas are Muslim majority ares. We will not only keep these majorities but will turn them into a Muslim state. Muslims should get rid of Indianism, it is better for Muslims and Islam.In his writing, NOW OR NEVER (January 1933), he proposed the name of Muslim state, PAKISTAN.P PunjabA Afghania NWFP K KashmirS SindTAN BalochistanINDIA cannot be described as a state/country or home of single nation. This state did not exist as one political entity before the advent of the British. The Muslims are a distinct nation who has maintained its identity throughout. They are a separate nation. They have as much right to live as the Hindus. Pakistan should be separated from the rest of India. He further said that the conflict between Muslims and Hindus is not religious, sectarian or economic but an international. The Muslims are striving for survival; Hindus are trying for domination over the other nations living in the Sub-Continent particularly the Muslims.He established the Pakistan National Movement in 1940. He began to talk about Bengal and Hyderabad as Muslim areas and separate states. Bang-i-Islam would comprise of Bengal and Assam and Osmanistan of Hyderabad Deccan.He visited Pakistan in 1948 but the atmosphere of the motherland did not suit him and so he returned to Cambridge. He died there on 11 February 1951.

His ContributionIt is the ever-shining contribution of Rahmat Ali that he coined the name of the Muslim state. He said that being nation, the Indian Muslims deserved a separate homeland. He gave the future lines to the Muslims considering Islamic thoughts universal and true in comparison with the contemporary isms. When the Lahore Resolution was passed, it was instantly described as Pakistan Resolution. It, the division of India, was the solution of Hindu-Muslim question but Rahmat Ali proposed this long before the Lahore Resolution.

Lecture 10 - The Congress Ministries-- Policies towards Muslims

The Congress Ministries-- Policies towards Muslims

Topics:1. Elections2. Provincial Governments3. Their Policies4. Muslim Response

Government of India Act, 1935:The Government of India Act, 1935 was not fully promulgated but the only provincial part was introduced in

the country. Muslim League and the Congress criticized it but agreed to contest provincial elections.

The 1937 Elections:The elections of 1937 were held with the restricted franchise and separate electorate. The Congress projected itself as an all-India force representing all religions and factions of the society. The Muslim League contested for the Muslim seats. There was a tough competition from the other Muslim organizations. The elections were completed in February 1937. The Congress got majorities in five provinces, Madras, U.P., C.P., Bihar, and Orissa. It emerged as the largest party in Bombay and won 704 out of 1585 general seats.The Muslim League performed poorly in the elections and got only about 21 percent of Muslim seats without winning majority anywhere, Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sind. It was mostly due to the organizational problems and opposition by local Muslim groups.

Formation of Provincial Governments:In July 1937, Congress formed governments in 6 provinces. In NWFP, Khudai Khidmatgar and Congress formed a coalition government. In the Muslim majority provinces, the Muslim League could not form the governments. The Muslim League desired to be in government in the U.P. but the Congress consented to a conditional support:

1. Dissolve AIML Parliamentary Board2. AIML members not to function as a separate group3. AIML members to express allegiance to the CongressDefinitely the above-mentioned terms were a device to subvert the existence of the MuslimLeague. Therefore, no agreement was possible on this issue.

Policies of the Congress Governments: (July 1937-Nov. 1939)First all Congress governments in the provinces launched anti-Muslim drive basically to exclude the ML and other Muslim organizations from the government making process. The Congress leaders had come to know that the ML had got roots in the masses. They started ‘Muslim Mass Contact’ movement to defame the ML in their favour. They were making cultural and educational policies that promoted the Hindu culture and symbols in the name of Indian culture. They introduced Banda-Mataram anthem from Annandmath in the institutions and offices etc. The Hindi language was given top most importance in their policies. Wardha Educational Scheme was to convert Muslims into Hindus through primary educational literature. Projection of Hindu heroes like Gandhi and distortion of Muslim history became their moral creed. They followed the policy of discrimination in services or new recruitment for jobs.

The Congress ministries adopted overall negative and cruel attitude, especially towards the Muslim activists. This unjust treatment compelled the Muslims to be disciplined in every sphere of life.

Muslim Response:

The Muslims were well aware of the theocratic inclination of the Hindu people. They arranged a close monitoring of the government. They publicized their policies and raised the issues. The mobilization of Muslims on these matters required keen probe to collect the original facts of the Hindu atrocities.

The Pirpur Report:

On March 28, 1938, the Council of ML appointed an eight-member committee under the presidentship of Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur that presented its report on, November15, 1938. It tried to dig out the cruelties of the Congress ministries in seven provinces. The report took up the Congress support to the rival Muslim organizations, intimidation and threats to the pro-Muslim League people.

The Sharif Report, March 1939

The ML deputed Mr. Shareef with members to investigate the injustices under the dictatorial rule of the Hindus. This report mainly collected the facts, concentrating on ill treatment of the government with the Muslims in Bihar.

The Fazl-ul- Haq Report: (December 1939)

A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq published a pamphlet entitled Muslim Sufferings Under the Rule of Congress and made many alarming revelations e.g. forbidding of Azan, attacks in mosques, noisy processions of the Hindu scoundrels, forbidding of the cow-slaughter etc. This pamphlet responded the indictments by the Congress on the Muslims.

All the reports described the Congress government as an attempt to create ‘Hindu Raj’ that wanted to overwhelm the Muslim culture and their identity. It was a rigorous threat to the Muslims’ interests.

Muslim League Activism:

The Muslim League highlighted the issues and mobilized the Muslims to counter them adequately. It reorganized the Muslim community to cope with the situation. The ML arranged its session at Lucknow in October 1937. Many prominent leaders like Fazlul Haq participated in the session while Sikander Hayat and Saadullah announced their support to the ML.

The Muslim leaders shed a sharp criticism on the Congress policies. They protested against the reduction of status of Urdu and other Muslim related issues. They created realization, amongst the Muslims, of what can happen under the Congress rule and urged for serious thinking about the future political and constitutional arrangements. They unearthed the real objectives of the Congress and urged the need of unity among the Muslims under the banner of Muslim League.

The Second World War (September 1939) proved blessing for the Muslims in a sense that the Congress Ministries resigned in November 1939. The Muslims observed Day of Deliverance on December 22, 1939.

The ML redefined its position during the World War II. They expressed their enthusiasm that no constitution to be enforced without the consent of the Muslims. They eradicated their organizational weaknesses and refined their objectives keeping the experiences of the Congress ministries.

Lecture 11 - The Lahore Resolution, 1940

The Lahore Resolution, 1940

The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate homeland. The Hindus made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim rule in India. The Muslims’ disappointment from the Congress leadership decided to open a new phase of history. Quaid-i-Azam’s article in Time and Tide concluded that Muslims are a nation. No Constitution can be enforced by ignoring Muslims. His comments on March 13, 1940 are remarkable: “If some satisfactory settlement cannot be found for Muslims in united India, the Muslim will have to demand for division of the country.”

The Lahore Resolution:The Muslim League held its annual session at Lahore on 22-24 March 1940. The Lahore Resolution was moved by Maulvi Fazlul Haq and seconded by Ch. Khaliquzzaman that finally approved on March 24, 1940. Jinnah rightly expressed his valuable remarks about the political circumstances of India and the Muslims stand. He said:“Indian problem is not communal but international. No Constitution can work without recognizing this reality. Muslims of India will not accept a constitution that establishes a government of the Hindu majority on them. If Hindus and Muslims are placed under one democratic system, this would mean Hindu Raj.”Text of the Resolution:• They decided that the Federal system under Government of India Act, 1935 was not acceptable for the Muslims.• No revised constitutional plan would be acceptable unless it was framed with their approval and consent.• Adjacent units where Muslims are in a majority, as in Northwest and East, should be constituted as Independent States where the constituent units will be autonomous and sovereign.• Protection of minorities would be given priority.Significance:

This Resolution did not specify any demarcation of the territory but it defined the future plan of struggle for the establishment of the Muslims states (later the word ‘states’ was replaced by‘state’ in 1946) in the Northwestern and Eastern areas where the Muslims were in overwhelming majority. It also intended to give importance to the autonomy of the states. There was no use of the word Pakistan but Pakistan was kernel of the Resolution.

Later Developments:

The World War II started in 1939 that required heavily men powered battlefield. The British who always believe in bargaining announced an offer in August 1940:

1. Expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Coucil and the setting up of National DefenceCouncil2. Special importance to the views of minorities in the revision of the constitution.3. Power could not be transferred under a system that will not be acceptable to large and powerful minorities in India.4. Dominion Status: the ultimate goal

5. Cooperation of Indians for the war

Congress rejected it and started Non-Cooperation movement 1940-41. Lahore Resolution remained the ultimate goal for the Muslim Leagues.

The Cripps Mission, March 1942

The constitutional proposals for seeking Indian cooperation for war efforts:

1. Dominion status2. Indian constitutional body to frame constitution3. Princely states would be represented.

The Cripps Mission negotiated with Indian leaders and issued the proposals. The Congress rejected the proposals and demanded that a responsible government would be set up immediately after the war. The defense affairs should be under the Indian control. The Muslim League also rejected the proposals and repeated its stand that the Muslims could not live in Indian Union.

The Hindus started Quit India Movement in August 1942 seeing British in trouble. The MuslimLeague stayed aloof and responded by saying that divide and quit India.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks, September 1944

MK Gandhi did not accept the Hindus and Muslims as Two Nations and emphasized on the freedom of united India. Jinnah told him that the Muslims could never budge even a single inch from their ideological and constitutional demand.

Lecture 12 - Major Political Developments in 1945-46

Major Political Developments in 1945-46

Political Situation in 1945

During the World War ll, the British sought Indian military cooperation and offered political and constitutional changes after the war. They desired to expand the Viceroy’s Executive Council.Lord Wavell arranged Simla Conference during June-July 1945 in which all the political parties participated by sending their representatives. Jinnah and Abul Kalam Azad represented the Muslim League (ML) and the Congress respectively. Maulana Azad claimed Congress as sole representative party of all the peoples living in India. Jinnah considered the ML the only political party of the Indian Muslims and on this the ML had right to appoint Muslim members to the Council. This issue could not be dissolved and the differences between the ML and the Congress increased.

The Elections, 1945-46

Lord Wavell announced elections in August 1945. He visited England and after consultations he presented new political steps:1. Self government with the cooperation of Indian leaders.2. New Elections in the winter.3. Provincial governments in the provinces4. Constitutional Assembly to be convened. The basis of constitution making was to be settled.5. Executive Council to be set up. It will have representation of major parties.Elections:

The ML’s stand was very clear i.e. the ML is a sole representative of Muslims and Pakistan is its ultimate goal. The ML launched the massive campaign for these destinations. The Islamic slogans became massively popular. In this way, the struggle for the establishment of Pakistan was motivated on the basis of Islam. The role of students was also prominent during the political drive. On the other hand, the Congress put the slogan of independence from British in the shape of undivided India before the Hindu nation. They proclaimed that their stand was for all the Indian communities.In December 1945 the elections of Central Legislature were held and the ML won all 30Muslim seats. The Congress won 57 seats.

Provincial Elections: February 1946

In the provincial elections, the ML won most of the Muslim seats:1. Punjab: 79 out of 86 Muslim seats2. Bengal 113 out of 119 Muslim seats3. Sindh 28 out of 35 Muslim seats4. NWFP 17 out of 38 Muslim seatsThe ML also showed an impressive performance in the Muslim minority provinces. The ML formed its ministry in Sind, Khudai Khidmatgar (Dr. Khan) in NWFP, coalition government by ML in Bengal, and Unionist (20), Akalis and the Congress in Punjab (Khizr Hayat Tiwana).

The Cabinet Mission: March 1946

The British Labour government sent a mission to formulate some acceptable constitutional settlement. Sir Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander deliberated with the governors, members of the Executive Council and then the Indian political leaders on different proposals. Maulana Azad as the president of the Congress stressed to establish federal government and Jinnah repeated the Two Nation Theory as a universal reality. On April 19, 1946, all the newly elected Muslim members pledged in the Delhi Convention to shatter the Hindu dream of united India. In the second Simla Conference (May 15, 1946) the ML wished two legislative assemblies while anti-ML political parties favoured strong centre.

Recommendations of the Cabinet Mission: May 1946

Indian Union comprising British India and princely states.1. Centre to deal with foreign affairs, defence, communication, taxation.2. Rest of the subjects with provinces.3. There will be a legislature and executive comprising representatives of provinces and states.4. No legislation on communal affairs if the majority of the two communities are not present and voting in

favour.5. Provinces will be divided into three groups:A: Hindu majority provinces e.g. UP, CP, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa.B: Muslim majority provinces in NW e.g. Punjab, NWFP, Balochistan and Sindh. C: Bengal and Assam.6. Each group could decide what to be managed jointly and what should be managed by provinces themselves. They could decide if the group desired to frame constitution.7. After ten years, a province by a vote of its legislature could ask for review of relationship with the Union. It implied that a group or province could quit the Indian Union.8. CA to be elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. Seats to be divided into three categories: General, Muslim, and Sikh on the basis of population in provinces.Separate Electorate.9. Interim Government to be set up.Muslim League Reaction:The Muslim League reiterated its demand for Pakistan. It accepted the plan for two reasons: Basis and foundation of Pakistan was in the compulsory grouping and the right to ask for review.

Congress Reaction:The Congress was critical of groupings and right to ask for review of constitutional relationship. It agreed to contest elections for the CA but declined to be bound by the proposals of the Cabinet Plan. The nonsensical stand of the Congress was that they were ‘free to make any change in the proposal.’ Definitely the ML was alarmed by the Congress’ intentions.

Interim Government:Representation in the Interim Government became controversial on the question of who would nominate the Muslims representative. To put pressure on the government, the Congress refused to join the Interim Government and the British postponed it. The ML was disappointed by the British behaviour and decided to review its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.

Direct Action Day: August 16, 1946The ML’s timely coercive political strategy brought the Congress on table with the British. The Interim Government was formed under Nehru on September 2, 1946 and the ML stayed away. They joined it on October 25, 1946:• Liaquat Ali Khan• Sardar Abdur-Rab Nishtar• Raja Gazanfar Ali• Chundrigar• J. N. MandalThere were a number of problems of smooth functioning of the Interim Government due to theMuslim-Hindu differences.

Constituent Assembly:

CA (Constituent Assembly) was elected by the provincial assemblies in July 1946. ML won all Muslim seats except 5 while the Congress won all general seats except 9. The first session was held on December 9, 1946 and the ML boycotted it because the Congress wanted to frame the Constitution for United India. The ML demanded two constituent assemblies and showed its firmness on the demand for Pakistan. By the end of 1946,

it had become clear that a constitution for united India could not be forced.The Cabinet Mission Plan offered a possibility of a loose federation with an option to the Muslims to separate after ten years.

Lecture 13 - Towards Independence, 1947

Towards Independence, 1947

Civil Disobedience Movements:

The ML decided to confront the political situation through the protesting means for the first time. The Congress had been working on these lines but the Muslim leaders considered politics a gentle man’s game. Now when the British government joined hands to oust the Muslims from the constitutional and moral position they decided to launch ‘Direct Action.’ The ML revised its decision rejecting the Cabinet Mission Plan. Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946) was a protest against the British policy of injustice towards the Muslims. The Hindu attacks transmuted the course of the protests and concluded huge life casualties. The Calcutta massacre convinced Lord Wavell to bridge the ML-Congress to some settlement.Wavell tried to prepare Nehru and Gandhi to coordinate the ML. It was imperative to do because Muslim League (95% seats) refused to join the Legislative Assembly. Congress rejected all the possible offers even from the government. Churchill snubbed the Labour government on the Calcutta riots and the Viceroy requested Jinnah to join the Interim Government that Jinnah accepted. On October 25, 1946, the members of the Executive Council were finalized.

Punjab:ML had bagged 79 out of 86 seats in Punjab but Khizr Hayat Tiwana formed his government with the help of Hindu and Sikh members (Unionist). The ML confronted this conspiracy and protested to restore the people’s will (Feb. 1947). The Punjab government dealt with the situation cruelly. Here the Muslim women played very outstanding role in the ML struggle. The Khizr Government resigned and Governor’s rule was imposed on March 2, 1947.

Assam:Maulana Bhashani launched a movement against the ejection of Muslim peasants.

Announcement of February 20, 1947:Prime Minister Attlee declared by June 1948, all power would be given to representatives. If no constitution was framed, the British Government will think whether the powers be given to provincial governments. In some areas or any other alternative that is in the interest of Indians. Mountbatten was appointed new Viceroy of India.

Mountbatten as Viceroy:Mountbatten arrived in Delhi on March 22, 1947. The basic objective of his appointment was to wind up British rule. He arranged dialogue with the Indian leaders. Then he visited England for deliberations for new plan.

3rd June Plan:

• The British will not impose a constitution but the Constituent Assembly will frame a constitution.• The constitution will not be imposed on the areas that do not accept it. Opinion will be sought from them if they want to set up a separate CA (Constituent Assembly).• Punjab & Bengal Assemblies will meet in two parts, members from Muslim majority areas and other districts separately to decide if the province be partitioned.• If any part decides for partition, each group will decide which CA they wish to join.• Sind Assembly will decide about joining either side.• Referendum in NWFP• Balochistan: appropriate method• Boundary Commission for Punjab and Bengal• Princely states to decide for themselves keeping in view their geographical contiguity.Indian Independence Act July 1947:

To give legal shape to the June 3 Plan, the Indian Independence Act was promulgated (July 1947).• Two independent dominion states on August 15, 1947• Their legislatures will have all powers to make laws for the respective states.• Government of India Act, 1935, to be interim constitution subject to changes due toIndian Independence Act 1947.• Governor Generals can amend the Interim Constitution until March 31, 1948.• All arrangements between the British and the Princely states to come to an end and they will have new arrangements with the new states.• British King will no longer use the title of the King of IndiaThe Partition Process: Punjab

The Muslim members favoured joining new CA. the non-Muslims voted for partition and joining India. Bengal Muslims favoured joining new CA while non-Muslims favoured partitioning and joining India. Sindh The Assembly voted to join Pakistan. NWFP Referendum decided in favour of Pakistan while Dr. Khan’s govt. boycotted it after it became

clear that it would lose. Balochistan Shahi Jirga and the non-official members of Quetta Municipal Committee opted for

Pakistan. Sylhet Referendum was held to join East Bengal for joining Pakistan.

Governor General’s Issue:Mountbatten wanted to be joint GG (Governor General) of India and Pakistan while ML decided to appoint Jinnah as the first Governor General of Pakistan in July.

Transfer of Power:1st meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on August 11, 1947 and the ceremonies on August 14. Radio announcement was made at midnight 14-15 Aug. Oath taking ceremony for GG (Governor General) and PM (Prime Minister) was held on August 15 1947.

Boundaries determined on August 17:Boundaries Commission award declared many controversial decisions about certain areas likeGurdaspur, Zira Tehsil etc, but the ML accepted it with protest.

Lecture 14 - Constitutional Development in British India

Constitutional Development in British India

Following acts were introduced by the British government in India.1. Indian Councils Act, 18612. Indian Councils Act, 18923. Government of India Act, 19094. Government of India Act, 19195. Government of India Act, 1935End of East India Company’s Rule:On August 2, 1858 British Parliament passed a law for complete takeover of all rights of the East India Company over India. Post of Secretary of State for India was created through the cabinet. The Secretary of State for India was empowered about government and revenues of India.On November 1, 1858 Queen Victoria issued a proclamation for the assumption of control of India by the British Crown. Lord Canning, Governor General of India was given the title of “Viceroy.” He continued in office but not as the Company’s representative but direct representative of British Crown. Moreover armies of the Company came under British Control.

Indian Council Act, 1861This act was the first legislation by the British government in India. Before that laws were promulgated by the East India Company.

According to this act:Governor General could assign special tasks to any members of the Executive Council. Important matters were to be discussed with the Governor General. Some important subjects were kept directly under the Viceroy, e. g., Foreign Department.Membership of the Council was raised: 6 to 12. Half of them were to be non-officials, nominated for two years.

The Council had limited legislative powers.In Madras and Bombay Councils approval of the Governor General (GG) and Governor was needed. This act provided Indian representation by nomination.

Indian Council Act of 1892By this act:Size of Legislative Council increased.In Central Legislative Council the membership was increased: 10 to 16 members.At Provincial level representation was increased. In Madras & Bombay 8 to 12, Bengal 12 to 20. Limited powers were given to the legislatures. Questions could be asked.Nominal elections through special interests were allowed. GG and the British government made these appointments.Government of India Act, 1909 (Minto-Morley Reforms)This act was another step towards giving Indians more representation in the Government. This act provided,• Expansion of Legislative Councils• Central: Additional members up to 60

• But official majority remained there.• Provincial: Size varied in different provinces.• Bombay, Madras, Bengal, UP: 50• Non-official majority• Not all the members were elected.• Powers of the Councils were increased. Now• Budget could be discussed. Members were allowed to present Resolutions and put up questions.• Executive Councils were formed for Bombay, Madras and Bengal and Lt.Governor Provinces.• Elections were to be held by University Senate, District Boards, MunicipalCommittees, Zamindars, and Chambers of Commerce.• Separate Electorate was accepted for minorities.Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms)

In the background of some significant developments between 1909-1919 like World War I- 1914-1918, political activity during Tehrik-i-Khilaphat, change in Muslim League objectives, Lucknow Pact 1916 etc., the British government announced that gradual induction of Indians in all branches of government would be done. Gradual introduction of responsible government would be done. Commissioned ranks of Army would be given to the Indians.Mr. Montagu, Secretary of State visited India from November 1917 to April 1918 and discussed the constitutional matters with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and the Indian political leaders. The outcome was the government of India Act 1919.

Salient Features, Government of India Act 1919This act provided a bicameral legislature at the Centre, which consisted of two houses.One was the Council of State with a membership of 60, out of which 34 were to be elected and26 nominated official & nonofficial members. The Council’s tenure was fixed at 5 years.Legislative Assembly was consisted of 145 members, out of whom 105 were elected and the rest would be nominated.Direct elections were introduced with limited franchise on the basis of property, tax paying, previous experience of legislative councils, university senate, district councils, etc.Separate Electorate for minorities.Limited law making powers were assigned to the Legislature but for certain categories prior permission was required. It had no control over defense, foreign policy, budget etc. Legislature could refuse grants but GG could restore them.Questions, Resolutions, Adjournment Motions were allowed.G.G. remained a powerful office with all the executive, legislative powers with a nominatedExecutive Council.Two lists of subjects were given in the act, one was Central and the other was Provincial. Centre had overriding powers.

Provincial Legislative CouncilsMembership increased. 70 percent were elected. They were having limited powers. They could reject budget but GG could restore it.

Diarchy System in the Provinces

The act introduced DIARCHY system in the provinces. According to the new arrangement subjects were divided into two categories i.e., Reserved subjects and Transferred subjects. Reserved subjects included judiciary, canal, land revenue, Finance, press, power, etc.

Transferred subjects included Local govt. education, public health. In case of a dispute, if something belonged to reserved or transferred side, the Governor was entitled to make the final decision.

Limited Responsible Government at the provincial level was introduced. The system of Diarchy was complicated.

The continuous tussle between the elected and nominated members created fear of breakdown of administration. GG had Control on key departments. Elective elements became strong in the legislatures.

Lecture 14 - Constitutional Development in British India

Constitutional Development in British India

Following acts were introduced by the British government in India.1. Indian Councils Act, 18612. Indian Councils Act, 18923. Government of India Act, 19094. Government of India Act, 19195. Government of India Act, 1935End of East India Company’s Rule:On August 2, 1858 British Parliament passed a law for complete takeover of all rights of the East India Company over India. Post of Secretary of State for India was created through the cabinet. The Secretary of State for India was empowered about government and revenues of India.On November 1, 1858 Queen Victoria issued a proclamation for the assumption of control of India by the British Crown. Lord Canning, Governor General of India was given the title of “Viceroy.” He continued in office but not as the Company’s representative but direct representative of British Crown. Moreover armies of the Company came under British Control.

Indian Council Act, 1861This act was the first legislation by the British government in India. Before that laws were promulgated by the East India Company.

According to this act:Governor General could assign special tasks to any members of the Executive Council. Important matters were to be discussed with the Governor General. Some important subjects were kept directly under the Viceroy, e. g., Foreign Department.Membership of the Council was raised: 6 to 12. Half of them were to be non-officials, nominated for two years.

The Council had limited legislative powers.In Madras and Bombay Councils approval of the Governor General (GG) and Governor was needed. This act provided Indian representation by nomination.

Indian Council Act of 1892By this act:Size of Legislative Council increased.In Central Legislative Council the membership was increased: 10 to 16 members.At Provincial level representation was increased. In Madras & Bombay 8 to 12, Bengal 12 to 20. Limited powers were given to the legislatures. Questions could be asked.Nominal elections through special interests were allowed. GG and the British government made these appointments.Government of India Act, 1909 (Minto-Morley Reforms)This act was another step towards giving Indians more representation in the Government. This act provided,• Expansion of Legislative Councils• Central: Additional members up to 60• But official majority remained there.• Provincial: Size varied in different provinces.• Bombay, Madras, Bengal, UP: 50• Non-official majority• Not all the members were elected.• Powers of the Councils were increased. Now• Budget could be discussed. Members were allowed to present Resolutions and put up questions.• Executive Councils were formed for Bombay, Madras and Bengal and Lt.Governor Provinces.• Elections were to be held by University Senate, District Boards, MunicipalCommittees, Zamindars, and Chambers of Commerce.• Separate Electorate was accepted for minorities.Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms)

In the background of some significant developments between 1909-1919 like World War I- 1914-1918, political activity during Tehrik-i-Khilaphat, change in Muslim League objectives, Lucknow Pact 1916 etc., the British government announced that gradual induction of Indians in all branches of government would be done. Gradual introduction of responsible government would be done. Commissioned ranks of Army would be given to the Indians.Mr. Montagu, Secretary of State visited India from November 1917 to April 1918 and discussed the constitutional matters with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and the Indian political leaders. The outcome was the government of India Act 1919.

Salient Features, Government of India Act 1919This act provided a bicameral legislature at the Centre, which consisted of two houses.One was the Council of State with a membership of 60, out of which 34 were to be elected and26 nominated official & nonofficial members. The Council’s tenure was fixed at 5 years.Legislative Assembly was consisted of 145 members, out of whom 105 were elected and the rest would be nominated.Direct elections were introduced with limited franchise on the basis of property, tax paying, previous experience of legislative councils, university senate, district councils, etc.Separate Electorate for minorities.Limited law making powers were assigned to the Legislature but for certain categories prior permission was required. It had no control over defense, foreign policy, budget etc. Legislature could refuse grants but GG

could restore them.Questions, Resolutions, Adjournment Motions were allowed.G.G. remained a powerful office with all the executive, legislative powers with a nominatedExecutive Council.Two lists of subjects were given in the act, one was Central and the other was Provincial. Centre had overriding powers.

Provincial Legislative CouncilsMembership increased. 70 percent were elected. They were having limited powers. They could reject budget but GG could restore it.

Diarchy System in the ProvincesThe act introduced DIARCHY system in the provinces. According to the new arrangement subjects were divided into two categories i.e., Reserved subjects and Transferred subjects. Reserved subjects included judiciary, canal, land revenue, Finance, press, power, etc.

Transferred subjects included Local govt. education, public health. In case of a dispute, if something belonged to reserved or transferred side, the Governor was entitled to make the final decision.

Limited Responsible Government at the provincial level was introduced. The system of Diarchy was complicated.

The continuous tussle between the elected and nominated members created fear of breakdown of administration. GG had Control on key departments. Elective elements became strong in the legislatures.

Government of India Act, 1935It was the most important and most comprehensive legislation introduced by the British Government in India. It was gradually formulated starting with the Simon Commission, Round Table Conferences, White paper (1933) and J.S.C. it was a lengthy document passed by the parliament in July 1935 and got Royal assent in August 1935.

Salient FeaturesIt provided a Federal System with a centre, 11 Governor Provinces, 6 Chief CommissionerProvinces and the states willing to join it.Three lists of subjects were given with a powerful centre. Federal list had Defense, Postal srevices, External affairs, Coinage and Communication. Provincial list included education, police, Local self-government, justice, agriculture, public service, fisheries and forests. The concurrent list included criminal law, civil marriage, divorce, registration, bankruptcy, factories and succession.

Two houses of Central Legislature:

i. Council of State comprised of 260 members, out of which 156 were from British provinces and104 from Indian States.Method of election was indirect. Communal representation was also secured.ii. Federal Assembly was lower house consisted of 375 members. Out of which 250 represented

British provinces and 125 from Indian States.They were elected by provincial legislatures on the principle of separate electorate. States were to nominate their members.Limited Powers were given to legislature:80 percent of budget was above their vote.They could do law making for two lists but GG could turn down or refuse the bill keeping it for consideration of the British Government.This constitution provided a Powerful GG: Executive Chief having powers of

• Act on advice• Independent Judgment• Discretion• Emergency powers• Ordinances• Power to rule provinces directly

Provincial Governments:Governors enjoy the powers like the GG in the Centre.• Diarchy abolished in provinces.• Responsible government was formed.• Provincial legislatures not unicameral. Act provided for bicameral legislatures in six provinces and unicameral in five provinces.• Franchise extended but still restricted on the basis of land revenue Rs. 5, Non- transferable property of Rs. 60, Education: Primary.• Federal Court and High Courts were formed under the act.• Burma was separated from India.• Sindh was separated from Bombay.

Comments:• Federal part of the act was not introduced.• Provincial part introduced in 1937.• Provincial autonomy was provided.• Elected governments were formed in provincesGovernment of India Act, 1935It was the most important and most comprehensive legislation introduced by the British Government in India. It was gradually formulated starting with the Simon Commission, Round Table Conferences, White paper (1933) and J.S.C. it was a lengthy document passed by the parliament in July 1935 and got Royal assent in August 1935.

Salient FeaturesIt provided a Federal System with a centre, 11 Governor Provinces, 6 Chief CommissionerProvinces and the states willing to join it.Three lists of subjects were given with a powerful centre. Federal list had Defense, Postal srevices, External affairs, Coinage and Communication. Provincial list included education, police, Local self-government, justice, agriculture, public service, fisheries and forests. The concurrent list included criminal law, civil marriage, divorce, registration, bankruptcy, factories and succession.

Two houses of Central Legislature:

i. Council of State comprised of 260 members, out of which 156 were from British provinces and104 from Indian States.Method of election was indirect. Communal representation was also secured.ii. Federal Assembly was lower house consisted of 375 members. Out of which 250 represented

British provinces and 125 from Indian States.They were elected by provincial legislatures on the principle of separate electorate. States were to nominate their members.Limited Powers were given to legislature:80 percent of budget was above their vote.They could do law making for two lists but GG could turn down or refuse the bill keeping it for consideration of the British Government.This constitution provided a Powerful GG: Executive Chief having powers of

• Act on advice• Independent Judgment• Discretion• Emergency powers• Ordinances• Power to rule provinces directly

Provincial Governments:Governors enjoy the powers like the GG in the Centre.• Diarchy abolished in provinces.• Responsible government was formed.• Provincial legislatures not unicameral. Act provided for bicameral legislatures in six provinces and unicameral in five provinces.• Franchise extended but still restricted on the basis of land revenue Rs. 5, Non- transferable property of Rs. 60, Education: Primary.• Federal Court and High Courts were formed under the act.• Burma was separated from India.• Sindh was separated from Bombay.

Comments:• Federal part of the act was not introduced.• Provincial part introduced in 1937.• Provincial autonomy was provided.• Elected governments were formed in provinces• A strong centre was maintained.• This act expanded electorate.• Indian government under this act had no control over defense.• Indian legislature could not amend it.• Federal legislature elected indirectly

Lecture 15 - The Problems of the New State

The Problems of the New State

The attainment of independence brought an end to one phase of the struggle and marked the beginning of a new one for setting up and running a viable, stable and prosperous state. Pakistan began its independent life under very difficult and unfavorable circumstances. Pakistan faced serious problems in the initial stages.

1. New Administration2. Division of Assets3. Integration of Princely States4. Communal Riots and Arrival of Refugees5. Canal water and trade issues

1: New AdministrationThe shortage of trained human power especially senior officers was a serious problem in the setting up of federal government in Karachi. Most of them had migrated to India. There was a shortage of office space, equipment and furniture. This disturbed the direct connections between the federal government and provincial governments. On the other hand, the provincial governments were overburdened that needed very accurate connection between the centre and the provinces to solve the problems of the Muslim refugees who had nothing to eat, drink, wear, rest, etc. To counter the critical situation, the official system should have been efficient but due to the lack of all these facilities the administrative authorities were painfully facing difficulties.

2: Division of AssetsThe Indian government was not cooperative for transfer of record and equipment to Pakistan.The civil administration was not handing over the promised financial, military, and other shares that created mountainous hurdles to eradicate the pains and miseries of the refugees.

Financial AssetsThe full financial share of Pakistan was not transferred. Initially rupees 200 million were transferred that were not sufficient to meet the expenditures of the newly born state. The Indian government was so reactionary that it tried its level best to block these funds to suffocate the newly born Muslim state as they expected foolishly that Pakistan would collapse and rejoin India soon after its existence. They did not release the remaining funds until Gandhi’s threat of marn bert (fast until death). Under this pressure, more funds were sent in early 1948 but no installment was later paid.

Military’s DivisionAs far as the problem in dividing man power there was no serious setback because the division was not in the hand of third person and Muslims were free to come to their dreamland, Pakistan. Anyhow, their shifting was slow and insecure. There were obstacles in the Pakistan’s share of weapons, equipment, and stores. The broken and damaged stuff was sent by India. Pakistan did not get any ordinance factory. Reorganization of the Armed

Forces was another tough job and the there was no army officer up to the rank of colonel. The shortage of experienced officers convinced British officers to continue their services. This also accelerated undue promotion in the military services to fill the gap.

3: Integration of Princely StatesThere were over 560 princely states in India on the verge of the partition of India. About 500 states had joined India before August 15 because of the motivation by V. P. Menon and Mountbatten. The princes were inclined to honour every gesture of the British representative sothey conceded what the member of the Royal family (Mountbatten) wished. The Hindu-British conspiracy blocked states to join Pakistan.

JunagadhIt was a small state with access to sea having about 7 lakh population and 3377 mile area. The ruler was Muslim while the majority of its population was Hindu. The ruler decided to accede to Pakistan and Pakistan also accepted the accession. In November 1947, the Indian troops entered the state and took its control. The referendum favoured India.HyderabadIt was geographically big and financially a rich state. Its ruler was Muslim and majority population was Hindu. It was surrounded by India from all sides. The Nizam wanted to stay independent. Mountbatten discouraged him and signed Standstill Agreement. But India built pressure on the Nizam by sending its troops in September 1948 claiming that serious law and order situation had developed. The state was integrated in India.KashmirThe most important state was Kashmir naturally connected with Pakistan. Its ruler was Hindu while population was Muslim. The population inclined towards Pakistan but the Hindu ruler declared to join India. The Kashmiri people revolt against the ruler in Poonch area and soon it became widespread. The ruler sought Indian support. India demanded accession. On October 27, 1947 Indian troops landed in Srinagar. The people continued their struggle for independence and India promised to finally settle the matter with reference to the people under the UN Resolutions.4: Communal Riots and RefugeesThe Communal riots occurred earlier in August 1946. The killing of Muslims in Indian areas forced them to leave India. The Sikhs and Hindus attacked the refugee caravans and trains. There were organized gangs to kill the Muslims. The refugee problem created critical condition in the border areas. The massive migration proved serious economic and humanitarian problems for the new state. The military was asked to help cope with the refugee problem.

5: Canal Water ProblemThe major rivers flow from Kashmir and some canal heads located in India. In 1948, India cut off water to some canal that was a serious threat to agriculture in West Pakistan. The Indian plans to build water storage on the rivers that are vital for Pakistan’s economy worsened the situation. It also showed the traditional anti-Muslim attitude. The World Bank settled the problem in September 1960 (Indus Water Treaty).

6: Trade Problem and the EconomyIndia devalued its currency in 1949 but Pakistan refused to do so. It stopped trade that adversely affected Pakistan’s economy as it depended on trade from India. Pakistan had inherited a weak economy and poor industrial base. The beginning years of Pakistan were troubled and difficult due to the India’s non-helpful policy and the war in Kashmir. It had profound impact on Pakistan’s worldview and its relations with India. Pakistan strived for its survival and security. Many Indians and the British predicted the collapse of Pakistan.

They were of the opinion that very soon the Muslims would realize their blunder. They would be forced by the circumstances to go back to join India. But PAKISTAN, by the grace of Almighty Allah, was able to meet the challenge even with its problems.

Lecture 16 - The Objectives Resolution (1949)

The Objectives Resolution (1949)

The Objectives Resolution was the first constitutional document that proved to be the ‘foundation’ of the constitutional developments in Pakistan. It provided parameters and sublime principles to the legislators. It made the constitution-making process easy task setting some particular objectives before them that would be acceptable to the people of Pakistan who had suffered a lot under the Hindu-dominated majority. The Resolution was moved by Liaquat Ali Khan, the then Prime Minister of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and approved on March 12, 1949.

The Constituent Assembly (1947-54)

The first Constituent Assembly came into existence under Indian Independence Act 1947. The elections were held in July 1946 to decide the destiny of the All India Muslim League (AIML)’s claim that it is the only representative party of the Indian Muslims that desire separate homeland, Pakistan. The members from the districts that became part of Pakistan were declared members of the Constituent Assembly. The number of such members was 69. It increased to 79 after the1947 when some states joined Pakistan and then increase in the population. There were two major parties, Muslim League and Congress in the Assembly at that time. This Assembly had dual functions to perform.

Features of the Objectives Resolution

1. Sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Almighty Allah alone.2. The authority which He has delegated to the state of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust.3. Constitution will be framed for sovereign, independent state of Pakistan.4. The state shall exercise its power through the representatives of the people.5. Principles of Democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice as enunciated by Islam will be fully observed.6. Muslims shall be enabled to organize their lives in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Quran and the Sunnah.7. Minorities to have freedom to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures.8. Provisions for safeguarding the legitimate interests of minorities, backward and depressed classes.9. Pakistan shall be a Federation with autonomous units. State’s sovereignty and territorial integrity will be protected.10. People of Pakistan should prosper and attain their rightful place in the comity of nations and make contribution towards international peace and progress and happiness of humanity.

Explanation and ImportanceThe Resolution declared the sovereignty of God as the distinctive political philosophy. The Western democracy gives the notion that sovereignty lies in the people but this Resolution is important having the concept of the

sovereignty of God. It clarified that people would utilize powers gifted by God so they would have to work within the limits prescribed by Him. The exercise of the powers is a sacred trust. The representatives of the people of Pakistan will manage the affairs under the universal ideology of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice with the spirit of an Islamic framework.

The Resolution pledged to give the due respect and rights to the minorities, backward and depressed classes in the benign society of Pakistan. Their rights, interests, religion and culture were not confuted.

It’s important that the Resolution promised the federating units for due powers, autonomy and territorial integrity.

Objections by Non-MuslimsThe major objection by the Non-Muslims was that the government was trying to mix the religion and politics that was against the spirit of democracy. The non-Muslims objected on the‘Sovereignty of Allah’ and minorities’ rights, saying it would promote inequality in the society. They were also of view that Shariah was not adequate for the modern time. They feared that it would encourage the religious extremists to work for the establishment of a ‘theocratic state.’

ImportanceThe Objectives Resolution is a basic and primary document of the constitutional history of Pakistan. It is a framework that provides mechanism to achieve goals for a better life of the people of Pakistan. It’s important that it embraces centrality of Islam to polity sustaining their links with the pre-independence period. The AIML leaders were modernist Muslims not in favour of an orthodox religious state. Therefore, they selected the middle way abiding by the Islamic laws and the international democratic values. The Resolution remained ‘Preamble of all the constitutions due to its importance.

Lecture 17 - Constitutional Issues

Constitutional Issues

Constitution is a set of basic principles and framework for governance and exercise of political power and legal authority. It clarifies the scope of power, relationship among various institutions within the government and society. It has precedence over ordinary laws and cannot be changed like ordinary laws. The Government of India Act (1935) was modified and promulgated in the newly state of Pakistan. The elected members in the 1946 elections made the first Constituent Assembly that faced grievous circumstances.

Major IssuesThe major issues, the first constituent assembly faced, were about:1. Federalism2. Representation3. Separate or Joint Electorate4. The National Language Issue5. Parliamentary or Presidential system6. The Islamic or Secular State

1: Federalism

There was consensus on federalism but yet there were many issues to be settled. The main was that Pakistan consisted of two territorial parts, East Pakistan (with more population, less territory but administratively one unit) and West Pakistan (administratively 4 units). Federalism is meant to accommodate such kind of diversity maintaining the unity of the state or country.Division of power:It was the most difficult question that how the power would be divided between Centre and the Provinces. The heritage of British rule gave the tradition of a Strong Centre. But the provinces were demanding more Autonomy and Provincial Rights.In the Interim Constitution and the 1956 Constitution tradition of strong centre continued.

2: RepresentationRepresentation at the federal level was another conflicting issue because East Pakistan and West Pakistan were different in population and size. On the other hand there was diversity in Western part of Pakistan. The provinces of West Pakistan were also different in population and size. All of them were sensitive to their representation and provincial autonomy.To have a Standard Formula for the representation of units and population the Constituent Assembly (CA) formed a Basic Principle Committee (BPC) on March 12, 1949. The primary task of this committee was to frame a set of basic principles for the future constitution of Pakistan.

First BPC Report:This committee presented its first report on 28th September 1950. According to this report two houses of the parliament were proposed. The lower house was to be elected on the basis of POPULATION and the upper house was to be elected on the basis of equal representation for all the provinces of Pakistan namely East Bengal, West Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan.Equal powers were proposed for the both Houses. No mention of National Language was made.East Bengal opposed this report and Liaqat Ali Khan withdrew it.

Second BPC Report:BPC presented its final report on 22nd December 1952. According to this report two Houses of the Parliament will enjoy the equal status and powers. It proposed equal representation to East and West wing.This report also faced reaction in both the wings of Pakistan. The principle of parity was not appreciated in both East Pakistan and Punjab.

Muhammad Ali Bogra Formula:Muhammad Ali Bogra immediately after assuming the office of the Prime Minister presented a formula to resolve the deadlock in constitution making. According to this formula Pakistan would have a bicameral legislature. In upper house there would be EQUAL representation to each of five units. In lower house population will be represented. In this way more representation was given to East Pakistan.Both wings would have equal strength in joint sessions of the two houses.

Reaction to Bogra FormulaIt was welcomed in both parts of the country. The principle of parity and representation of the population was appreciated. It also solved the problem of national language by suggesting Urdu and Bengali both as national language.

One Unit of West Pakistan October 1955One Unit of West Pakistan was established on 14th October 1955. The provinces of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan would be amalgamated in one unit to establish parity between the two parts of the country.

3: Separate or Joint ElectorateSeparate electorate was adopted on the demand of Muslims in 1909 by the British Government. But the minorities did not favour this after independence. Religious elements supported this as a part of heritage.East: decided for Joint Electorate. West: Separate electorate.1957: Joint Electorate was adopted for all Pakistan by the National Assembly.

4: The National Language IssuePre-independence: Muslim elite all over India adopted Urdu. In 1948 Jinnah declared that Urdu would be the national language but provinces could use their languages.Opposition against Urdu was there in East Bengal. This became more pronounced after the death of Jinnah as controversies erupted on constitution making. Language Movement started in East Pakistan February, 1952.There was a complaint about anti Bengali language attitude of the federal government.Two-language formula was adopted in 1954. Since 1973 Urdu was adopted as national language along with the support for development of regional languages.

5: Parliamentary or PresidentialThere was a consensus for parliamentary system. But there was a limited demand for presidential system. Supporters of Presidential system became dominant after the 1958 military takeover. The 1962 Constitution was a Presidential constitution.

7: The Islamic or Secular StateFrom the very beginning of Pakistan Movement there was an agreement that the state will have close relationship with Islam. Muslims defined their national identity with reference to Islam and its heritage. Some opposition came from the Congress members of the Constituent Assembly, and a few secularists.There was a BROAD AGREEMENT that the state will identify itself with Islam. The ConstituentAssembly took time to define the precise relationship between the state and Islam.Objectives ResolutionAs discussed in lecture 16 Objectives Resolution rejected theocracy in Pakistan and provided the basic objectives for the future constitution of Pakistan.

The issues to be addressed were:1. Scope of legislation for an elected Assembly?2. Who will decide about the Islamic nature of laws? Should a Board ofUlema be given this power?3. Position of women, vote and work?4. Religious minorities?Discussion in the Constituent Assembly and outside continued. There was an active demand by religious elements for Islamic political system. In this context the leading Ulema of various sects presented famous 22 points to provide a religious base to the future constitution.

The Key Issue:

What kinds of institutions and processes have to be created to translate the notion of supremacy of the Qur’an and the Sunnah• The Constituent Assembly adopted a middle course and a modernist perspective.• Spirit of Islamic principles and values, modern notions of governance, representation and administration were amalgamated.Islamic provisions would be taken up when we discuss the constitutions.

Lecture 18 - Constitution Making (1947-56)

Constitution Making (1947-56)

Constitution is a basic document in the handling of domestic affairs. It sets out the framework for governance and exercise of power. It gives guiding lines of relationships among the federating units. Law making is always within its limits.The modified Government of India Act (1935) became the Interim Constitution of Pakistan in1947. The Constituent Assembly (CA) was given the task of framing the Constitution. The first meeting of the CA was held on August 11, 1947 at Karachi. In the lecture 17 we have discussed the constitutional issues that the CA had to deal with, mainly 6 major issues. Now we will discuss the stages of constitution making.

The process began with the passing of the Objectives Resolution (Lecture 16) in which the Islamic and democratic values were adopted as grounds for the future constitution. The Basic Principles Committee (BPC) consisting of 24 members was made to work for the constitutional powers. The various sub-committees on Federal and provincial powers, Franchise, Judiciary, and Fundamental Rights started working. Board of Talimat-i-Islamia was also set up to seek advice on the religious matters.

First BPC Report, 19501: The Objectives Resolution to be included in the Constitution as the directive principles.2: Legislature: Two houses of the parliament.Upper: (House of Units) Equal representation for the unitsLower: (House of People) On the basis of Population. Both the Houses would enjoy the equal powers.3: The Head of State elected by joint session would be for five years (Two terms only). President had discretionary and emergency, appointment and other powers. President was not answerable to anyone, might be a Muslim or non-Muslim, would be assisted by the Prime Minister (PM) and Cabinet that would be answerable to the CA. Parliament may impeach him by 2/3 majority. He was given the power to abrogate the constitution.4: Cabinet responsible to both the Houses.5: No mention of national languageCriticism:This report was severely criticized throughout the country. It could not satisfy both the wings, East and West. The religious group objected that the report contained nothing about Islamisation. On the question of representation, the East Pakistan (EP) protested that their majority had been denied by the Report. They remarked that they were thrown into a permanent minority. The population of EP was slightly larger than that of the West Pakistan (WP) but it was treated as the small provinces because both the Houses were given equal powers. So the domination of WP was intolerable for the East wing.

The language issue proved subversive to the national solidarity. The Eastern Pakistanis condemned the proposal that made Urdu as official language.Second BPC Report, 19521. Head of State would be Muslim and no change in powers.2. Equal representation to East and West wings: UH (Upper House) 60, 60 LH 200, 2003. More powers were given to Lower House. Cabinet was made responsible to Lower House.4. It was promised that law making would be in accordance with ISLAM. No law would be made in violation of Islamic principles.5. Advisory Board of five Islamic scholars was founded.6. Silent on national language.Criticism:The politicians particularly from the Punjab deplored the Report because formation of the UH on the basis of representation was not acceptable. It was declared against the principle of federation. The WP favoured equality only for Upper House. The political crisis removed Prime Minister Nazimuddin and attention diverted from the core issue.Third Report: Muhammad Ali Formula October 1953

The proposals were revised in the light of the criticism and decided: Upper House: Equal representation to all five unitsLower House: More representation to Eastern partWhile in joint session, both wings had equal representation: East Pak __West PakUpper House 10 40Lower House 165 135------------------------------ Joint Session 175 175Decision by majority but it must include 30 percent members from each zone.

Criticism:It suggested some difficult process but mostly it was widely acceptable. Two languages, Urdu and Bengali, were approved as official languages that injured the national unity as Quaid-i-Azam had wished Urdu as national language.This is important that after the Formula, the work began on constitution drafting because the deadlock was over.CA DissolutionIn October 1954, GG (Governor General) dissolved the CA that was challenged in the Sindh court by Maulvi Tamizuddin. The court declared the dissolution illegal but the Federal Court upheld the GG action but asked for setting up an elected CA.

2nd Constituent Assembly, June-July 1955Ghulam Muhammad called a Convention on May 10, 1955. All its members were to be elected indirectly (by the provincial assemblies). In this way, the 2nd CA came into existence.

One Unit Scheme, October 1955The presence of different provinces in the WP had complicated the issue of the WPrepresentation in the CA. It was handled by uniting all the WP units into ONE (One Unit, October

30, 1955). Now both the parts had become two units and could be addressed equally.

Constitution-makingOne Unit scheme helped the task of constitution making to accomplish successfully. The previous committees report helped the new Assembly that completed its work and presented in the 2nd CA on January 9, 1956. It, with certain amendments, was approved on January 29, 1956 and enforced on March 23. With this Pakistan had become an Islamic Republic.

Lecture 19 - The 1956 Constitution

The Constitution of 1956 was passed after long deliberations. It replaced the Interim Constitution. It has 234 Articles and 6 Schedules. It declared that the name of the country would be the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.There was clear impact of the Government of India Act, 1935 and the Interim Constitution.

Features1: Parliamentary SystemExecutive Authority vested in the President who exercised it on the advice of the Prime Minister except in the matters he had discretion.President had ceremonial functions and exercised limited powers.The President would be of 45 years of age, Muslim and qualified to be a member of National Assembly.He was to be elected by National Assembly (NA) and Provincial Assemblies.Prime Minister

PM would be appointed by President. President could not remove him unless he was sure that PM did not enjoythe support of majority in the National Assembly. The President would be its sole judge. He could ask PM to show his support. Cabinet was collectively responsible to NA. PM was the head of government assisted by cabinet.One House Parliament:

National Assembly was the only house of the parliament having a membership of 300 plus10 women seats. Principle of parity was observed for representation.Method of direct elections was adopted for general seats. All legislative powers were rested with NA.President could return, reject or sign the bills.Regarding monetary bills of ordinary expenditure NA had all powers but they could not vote on Consolidated Fund List. Salaries of President, judges, federal service commission, etc. were to be paid through Consolidated Fund.NA could control the Executive.2: Federal System

The constitution provided three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. There were two Provinces in the federation of Pakistan.

3: Provincial Structure:

At the provincial level there was elected Assembly. The Parliamentary System under the nominal headship of Governor. The real powers were given to Chief Ministers and his cabinet. Centre had some overriding powers and some Emergency powers too. They were Clause 191: Security or economic life was under threat for external or internal reasons. Clause 193: Constitutional crisis in provinces.

4: Independent Judiciary

At centre level the highest court was Supreme Court, then High Courts in provinces and subordinate courts were established.

Higher Courts have the power of Interpretation of the constitution. They could hear the disputes between governments. They were guardians of the Legal rights of the citizens.

5: Fundamental Rights

Civil and Political Rights were given to the people of Pakistan but they could be suspended in case of emergency.

6: Directive Principles of State Policy

These principles provided guidelines for policy making.Principles of Objectives Resolution were included as preamble. The other principles included surety about Islamic practices, Welfare of people, non-discrimination, and fulfillment of basic needs, etc.

7: Islamic Character• The name of the country was the Islamic Republic, Objectives Resolution was thePreamble.• Other Islamic clauses were part of Directive Principles.• No law can be made to violate Islamic principles and teachings.• Existing laws would be brought in conformity with Islamic teachings.• A Commission was to be appointed to examine the laws for bringing them in conformity.• Whether a Law is Islamic or not, NA had to decide. The matter could be taken up with theJudiciary.• Islam was not declared state religion.• Islamic heritage and roots are combined with modern notions of governance and a moderate political system was adopted.Working of the Constitution

No elections were held after the enforcement of elections. It was finally abrogated on October 7, 1958.It worked from March 23, 1956 to October 7, 1958.

Lecture 20 - The 1962 Constitution

The 1962 Constitution

1: BackgroundMilitary took over on 7 October 1958 and consequently Ayub Khan became Chief Martial Law Administrator. One major task was to frame a new Constitution. The administration was critical of Parliamentary system because it caused instability in the past. They sought stability of the nation in the gradual development of democracy.2: Constitution MakingThe government introduced Basic Democracies in October 1959. Under this system Forty Thousand basic democrats (local councilors) were to be elected in each province. They have to perform functions as local government and their role in developmental work. They also acted as an electoral college for the election of president and the national assembly.Elections for the Basic Democracies (BD) were held in December 1959 and January 1960. ThenPresidential referendum was held by the elected BD members on February 17, 1960.A Constitutional Commission was established in February 1960 under the chairmanship ofJustice Shahabuddin, former Chief Justice. The tasks assigned to the Commission were:• To examine the causes of failure of Parliamentary system.• Recommend a new system keeping in view the(a) genius of people(b) standard of education(c) internal conditions of the country(d) need of developmentCommission presented its report in May 1961 after then two committees reviewed it. Under the report of these committees the new Constitution was drafted.Ayub announced the Constitution on March 1, 1962. Elections to the National Assembly (NA)and Provincial Assemblies (PAs) were held in April and May 1962 respectively.The new Constitution was enforced on June 8, 1962. Martial Law was withdrawn. The newConstitution was consisted of 250 articles, 5 schedules.

3: Salient Features of the Constitution

3.1. Title of the StateRepublic and Islamic Republic

3.2. Presidential SystemA Powerful President who was responsible for administration and affairs of the state. He should be a Muslim, at least 40 years of age, should be qualified to be a member of NA. He would be elected through indirect elections for a period of five years.If he has held office for more than 8 years, he could seek reelection with the approval of the NAand the PAs.National Assembly was given the power to impeach the president, however it was difficult to achieve.President could dissolve the NA but in that case he must seek re-election.

3.3. Powers of the President:

President was the Focal point of all the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers. Cabinet was responsible to him. All key appointments were to be made by President. He could issue Ordinances. He could also declare State of Emergency in the country.

3.4. National Assembly (NA)NA was consisted of one house on the basis of principle of parity between two wings of the country. There were 150 seats plus 6 seats were reserved for women. All were elected indirectly. For the membership minimum age limit was 25 years.

3.5. Legislative Powers:NA had all the powers of law making but law was to be finally ratified by the president. President could sign, reject or return the bill.

3.6. Financial PowersFinancial Powers of NA were limited. Only new expenditure could be voted. NA could not rejectConsolidate Fund List and Recurring Expenditure.

3.7. FederalismThere were two provinces of the federation: East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Only one list of subjects, i.e. the Central list was given in the constitution.

3.8. Provincial GovernmentsGovernors were head of the provinces and govern the province with his cabinet. Provincial governments were directly under the control of President.There was a strong center with a Powerful President. He had enough powers to manage provincial affairs. In case of emergency powers Central government could take direct control of the province.

3.9. Principles of Policy• National solidarity would be observed.• Interests of backward people would be looked after.• Opportunities for participation in national life.• Education and well being of people.• Islam would be implemented in day to day life.3.10. Fundamental RightsFundamental Rights were provided in the constitution.

3.11. Political PartiesOriginally Political Parties were not allowed. Political Parties Act was introduced in 1962.

3.12. Islamic ProvisionsObjectives Resolution was the Preamble of the Constitution. Other Islamic provisions were a part of Principles of Policy and not the constitution.

3.13. Advisory Council for Islamic IdeologyAn Advisory Council for Islamic Ideology was made in the constitution having 5-12 members. It was a

recommendatory body.

3.14. Islamic Research InstituteIt was designed for the Research and instructions in Islam for assisting the reconstruction ofMuslim society on truly Islamic lines.

3.15. Working of the ConstitutionConstitution remained enforced from June 8, 1962 to March 25, 1969

Lecture 21 - The 1973 Constitution

1. Background2. Constitution Making3. Features1. BackgroundAbrogation of the 1962 Constitution on March 25, 1969 led to second martial law in the country. Yahya Khan handed over power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on December 20, 1971 after the first general elections. But martial law continued and there was no constitution.National Assembly approved an Interim Constitution, which was enforced on April 21, 1972.

2: Constitution MakingConstitutional Committee comprising National Assembly (NA) members from all parties was set up in April 1972. Law Minister was the Chairman of this Committee.All parties agreed on the future political system in October 1972. The Committee reported on December 31, 1972. After long deliberations and compromises final draft was approved unanimously on April 10, 1973. The new Constitution was enforced on August 14, 1973.The Constitution functioned since then with two gaps. It remained operational during following periods:1973-77: Operational1977-1985: Suspended1985-1999: Operational after changes1999-2002 : Suspended2002 onwards Operational after changes3: Features of the Constitution3.1. Parliamentary SystemIt was a parliamentary constitution having powerful Prime Minister (PM) as head of government with a very weak President.President must act on the advice of PM. All his orders were to be countersigned by PM. Prime Minister to be elected by the NA.PM exercised all executive authority. PM was answerable to the NA.In 1985, powers of the President were increased. He enjoyed some discretion in appointments of PM. He had power to dissolve the NA. He had the powers of appointment of caretaker PM. He gives his assent to bills passed by the parliament or returns these.

3.2. President:Must be at least 45 years of age, Muslim, qualified to become member of the NA. He is elected by the

Parliament and the Provincial Assemblies for 5 years.

3.3. Parliament with two houses:• Upper House called Senate. In this house equal representation is given to Provinces. Seats are reserved for the tribal areas, women and technocrats. Its original strength was 63, which was later raised to 87 and then 100.Senate is elected indirectly. It’s a permanent House as half of its members are elected after three years.• Lower House: National Assembly is elected on population basis. Its Original strength was 210 but now it is 342. NA is elected for five years.• Senate: Indirect elections• National Assembly: Direct elections• Voting age for the franchise is lowered from 21 to 18.• Parliament under 1973 constitution is a powerful legislative body. It enjoys all legislative powers. It has control of the executive through questions, resolutions, parliamentary committees etc.• National Assembly is more powerful than the Senate. Budget is presented before NA. Cabinet is answerable to National Assembly.3.4. Federal SystemFederation of Pakistan has four provinces and federally administered areas.Two lists are given in the constitution: Federal list and Concurrent list. Residuary powers belong to provinces.

3.5. Provincial Structure:Provincial Governors are appointed by the President on the advice of the PM. Elected ChiefMinister exercises executive powers. Parliamentary system is there in the provinces. Size of the provincial assemblies varies:In 2002:Punjab 371Sindh 168NWFP 124Balochistan 65Enough provincial autonomy is guaranteed. Tradition of strong centre continues.Centre has emergency powers. Governor’s rule can be imposed if the government cannot function in the provinces.Provinces are dependent on centre for Finances.

3.6. Principles of Policy:a. Islamic provisions are provided in Principles of Policy. Foreign policy principles are also given under this heading.3.7. Fundamental Rights:b. Fundamental Rights are secured in the constitution and are implemented through the highest court.3.8. Islamic Provisions:c. Title of the state is Islamic Republic of Pakistan.d. The objectives resolution was the Preamble in the initial constitution but through article 2-A of 8th amendment it was inserted in the constitution in 1985.e. Islam was declared the State Religion of Pakistan.f. Definition of Muslim was included by an amendment. g. Principles of Policy also carry some Islamic clauses.

h. Council for Islamic Ideology is established under the constitution. i. Federal Shariat Court was added in 1981.3.9. National Language:j. Urdu is declared National Language, however English may be used for official purposes until arrangements would be made for its replacement by Urdu. k. Provincial Assembly may prescribe measures for teaching, promotion and use of a provincial language in addition to the national language.3.10. National Security Council:l. National Security Council was added in 2002 in advisory capacity.3.11. Judiciary:m. An independent judiciary is given under the constitution. Supreme Court of Pakistan is the highest court. One High Court is established in each province and one in Azad Kashmir. A chain of lower courts is there under the high courts.

Lecture 22 - Political History

Political History1. 1947-19712. 1972- to the PresentFirst Part:1947-1971

1. 1947-582. 1958-693. 1969-71

1: First Eleven Years (1947-58)

Pakistan won independence under extremely difficult conditions. The next task was setting up of a new state.There was no administrative structure. Riots, refugee’s problem and economic pressures were challenging for the new state.Negative attitude from Indian government and war on Kashmir created problems in relations with India.The Government of India Act 1935 was adopted as the first Interim Constitution. Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General (GG) of Pakistan and Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister (PM).

Governor Generals:1. M. A. Jinnah August Sept. 1947-Sept. 19482. Kh. Nazimuddin Sept. 1948-Oct 19513. Ghulam Mohammad Oct. 1951-Oct. 19554. Iskander Mirza Oct. 1955-March 1956President:1. Iskander Mirza March 1956-Oct. 1958

Prime Ministers:1. Liaquat Ali Khan August 1947-Oct 19512. Kh. Nazimuddin Oct. 1951-April 19533. Muhammad Ali Bogra (i) April 1953-Oct 1954 Oct. (ii) 1954-August 19554. Ch. Muhammad Ali August 1955-Sept 19565. H.S. Suhrawardy Sept. 1956-Oct 19576. I.I. Chundrigar Oct. 1957-Dec 19577. Firoz Khan Noon Dec. 1957-Oct. 1958Major Issues• Constitution-making• Elections at the provincial level1. Punjab, NWFP 19512. Sindh 19533. East Bengal 1954• 1st Constituent Assembly (CA) was dissolved and 2nd CA was constituted in 1955.• One Unit Scheme October 1955• Economic management, Agriculture, Industrialization and Education was a question dealt in 1st Five Year Plan.• Political Instability was there. Weak and short-lived governments shattered the whole political system.• Decline of Political Parties created bad name for politicians.• Instability was also there at the provincial level.2: Second Phase (1958-69)Martial Law remained imposed from October 1958 to June 1962. Constitutional Rule was restored on June 1962 and remained till the 2nd Martial Law on March 1969.Ayub Khan took over as Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and the President. He got himself elected through referendum in 1960 and re-elected in January 1965 through presidential elections.Important Policy MeasuresImportant Policy Measures taken by the Ayub government were:Administrative Reforms which included removal of unwanted officials, some 1662 in number.Restrictions on political activities. Political leaders were stopped from taking part in politics for 6 years on the charge of corruption and other charges under the law named EBDO.Economic planning was done for industrial development and green Revolution. Educational ReformsConstitution was introduced.Downfall of Ayub Khan:Indo-Pakistan war started and at the end of war Tashkand Pact was signed with India. People were not satisfied with this pact. They also resented the election results of 1965. Fruits of economic development were not distributed at masses level. Wealth of nation was concentrated in a few hands. This brought people to agitation and public demand resulted in resignation of the president.3: Third Phase (1969-71)Ayub Khan handed over power to Army Chief Yahya Khan. He imposed Martial Law and 1962Constitution was abrogated. He took some immediate steps:• Removal of officers 303• Provinces Revived: March 30, 1970• Abolition of Parity• Legal Framework Order (LFO) as interim law issued in March 1970 which provided basic principles for:• Constitution making

• Rules and regulations for elections• Seats in the assemblies• National Assembly 313 (300 plus 13 women seats) For East Pak 162 plus 7 West Pak 138 plus 6General ElectionsGeneral Elections were held in December 1970. Election Results were: Awami League 160 general seatsPakistan People’s Party 81 general seatsTransfer of power became a major problem. Failure of dialogue for transfer of Power among three top leaders led to confrontation and military action on March 25, 1971. It ultimately resulted in Civil war and alienation of East Pakistan.

India played a very negative role. It attacked on East Pakistan and India-Pakistan war started which ended with the separation of East Pakistan.

Lecture 23 - Political History (1972-2003)

Political History (1972-2003)

1. 1972-19772. 1977-19853. 1985-19994. 1999-20025. 2002 onwards

1: 1972-1977:Z. A. Bhutto assumed power on December 20, 1971. First he became President of Pakistan and also the first civilian Chief Marshal Law Administrator.

Major PoliciesThe first task was the Constitution making. In 1972 Interim Constitution was adopted and then theParliament of Pakistan unanimously adopted 1973 Constitution.The major policy of Mr. Bhutto was Nationalisation. His government nationalised:1. Emerald mines in Swat2. Key industries like Iron & Steel, Basic metals, heavy engineering, heavy electrical, Motor Vehicles & Tractors, Heavy & Basic Chemicals, Petro- Chemicals, Cement, Gas, Oil Refinery etc.3. Life Insurance in 19724. Banks in 19745. Schools and Colleges in 1972. New University Ordinance was issued in 1973.6. Managing and sub-agencies were abolished.Labour PolicyA new Labour Policy was announced in which more rights and concessions were given to the working classes.

Health PolicyUnder new Health Policy cheap medicine and facilities were promised to the masses.

Administrative ReformsAdministrative Reforms were introduced to eradicate corruption in the country. Hundreds of civil servants were removed on the charge of corruption.

Problems of Reforms:Reforms were good in outlook but as their results were not according to the expectations of the masses. Discontentment took the place of initial optimism.

1977 Elections and Agitation:As a result of elections of 1977 PPP won the elections. But joint opposition blamed a mass rigging in the election results. They demanded fresh elections. Bhutto initially was stubborn but later showed inclination to compromise but history has taken a U-turn. As he refused to negotiate the elected majority party in 1971, now opposition refused to compromise and took the case to the streets. Urban shopkeepers, businessmen, students, women and even the intelligentsia joined hands against the government. The result was the third Martial Law and end of democracy.

2: 1977-1985:Chief of Army Staff General Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq took over and imposed Martial Law. He suspended constitution. It was the longest military Rule in the history of Pakistan. To justify his rule Zia-ul-Haq presented his Agenda about:• Effective Administration• Islamisation• Return to Democracy

Major Policies:Zia-ul-Haq promised Elections first within 90 days, and then extended this period after the reforms. These reforms included:Accountability of the ousted regime;Restrictions imposed on political activities and press.

Islamisation:In his way of Islamisation of the system he introduced many steps for forging cooperation of some Islamic groups.He also introduced Constitutional and legal changes to emphasis on Islamic values in the society. He established:• Shariat benches established in 1979;• Federal Shariat Court was established in 1981;• Introduced Islamic Punishments; Amputation of hands, Stoning to death and lashing etc;• Interest free banking initiated in 1981 on the principle of profit & loss sharing;• Zakat deducted on saving accounts & investments;• Ushar was imposed on agricultural produce in 1983;• New education Policy with Islamic character of syllabus along with Pakistan Studies and Islamiat compulsory for all the classes up to graduation.• Islamisation of Mass media;• Prayers break was introduced in offices, and Mohaallah Salat Committees were formed to observe the

compliance of Prayer Ordinance;• Pakistan Bat-ul-Mall was established.Return to democracyIn order to return to democracy Zia-ul-Haq took the following measure:1. Local Bodies elections, 1979.2. Referendum was held to elect Zia-ul-Haq as president for next five years on December 1984.3. Then he held elections on non-party basis on February 1985.4. New National Assembly (NA) was formed and a Civilian government was installed.5. Revival of the Constitution Order March 1985 with most controversial 8th Constitutional Amendment was introduced.6. Withdrawal of martial law, Dec 30, 1985.3: 1985-1999 Civilian RuleDemocracy was restored but no civilian government could complete its tenure of five years and became the victim of 58-2B of 8th amendment by virtue of that President can dissolve NA and dismiss the elected government.1. Junejo March 1985-May 19882. Benazir Bhutto November 1988-Aug 19903. Nawaz Sharif October 1990-July 19934. Benazir Bhutto October 1993-November 19965. Nawaz Sharif February 1997-October 1999Interim Prime Ministers appointed for holding fair elections were1. Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi: August-November 19902. Bulkh Sher Mazari: April-May 19933. Dr. Moeen Qureshi: July-October 19934. Malik Meraj Khalid: November 1996-February 1997Civilian government adopted policies for the welfare and betterment of the people but their effects were compromised due to several reasons:• Problem of keeping coalitions intact;• Weak political parties, which weakened the government;• Greater confrontation;• Complaints of corruption and misuse of state resources.4: 1999-2002:In 1999 again Military Rule was imposed against the civilian government’s attempt to concentrate power in the office of Prime Minister. Nawaz government introduced political and constitutional changes to have a complete control on all branches of the government.Nawaz government’s attempt to remove the Army Chief, while he was out of the country and returning from his visit to Sri Lanka, proved counter productive. General Musharraf took over as the Chief Executive of the country and suspended the constitution. Martial law was not declared. No military courts were established. Political and press freedoms remained intact.

Political Priorities:General Musharraf announced his Political Priorities:• Rebuild national confidence and morale;• Strengthening federation;• Remove inter provincial disharmony;• Restore national cohesion;

• Revival of the economy and restoration of investor’s confidence;• Improving Law and order situation and dispensation of Justice;• Depoliticise the state institutions and devolution of power;• Swift and across the board accountability.General Musharraf designed the following policies to achieve these goals:• Accountability and return of looted wealth of the state;• Revival of the economy through increasing Foreign exchange reserves and reducing International debt burden through rescheduling; • Poverty Reduction and social uplift.General Musharraf introduced New Local Bodies System, delegation of power to the District Government.In the process of Return to Democracy he held:1. Referendum, April 2002.2. Introduced Legal Framework Order (LFO).3. Held General Elections of National And Provincial Assemblies on 10thOct 2002.4. Revival of the Constitution.5. Civilian Governments formed in the provinces and the Centre.5: Civilian Rule EstablishedIn the new set up Musharraf is President in uniform. Mir Zafer-Ullah-Khan Jamali was the head of a coalition government. In three provinces there are governments of Muslim League (Q) and in NWFP there is the government of MMA working successfully.

Let’s hope for the gradual consolidation of democratic rule.

Lecture 24 - Geography, Land, Boundaries and Neighborhoods

Geography, Land, Boundaries and Neighborhoods1. Geography and the People2. Boundaries3. Neighborhoods1: Geography and the People

Pakistan was comprised of two wings when it came into existence on August 14, 1947. East Pakistan separated in 1971. Post-1971 or present day Pakistan is located in the Northwestern part of South Asian Sub-continent.

It has maintained its distinctiveness in the Sub-continent. Indus Valley Civilization is as old as 2500-1600 BC. The archeological heritage of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are clear evidence of this fact. Arians first came to this land followed by Islam and Muslims from Central Asia and Afghanistan. Muslim rule continued about one thousand years. Then the downfall of Muslim empire paved the way for British Rule, which ended with the formation of two independent states of India and Pakistan.

Location:Pakistan is located between 24_37 degrees North latitude 61_75 degrees East longitude.

Territory:Its area is 796,095 sq Kilometers.__________________Territory_____percentage________________(in thousand)_____%Balochistan _________347.2_______43.61Punjab______________205.3_______25.81Sindh_______________140.9_______17.71NWFP________________74.6_______9.4FATA________________27.2_______ 3.4Islamabad_____________0.9________0.1

Diversity in the nature of territory:• North and Northwest: It includes Mountains of Himalayan and trans-Himalayan Ranges, Korakoram & Pamirs, which includes some of highest peaks like K2, Nanga Parbat etc.• West: Baluchistan Plateau is about 1000 feet in elevation with dry mountains crossing it from northeast to the southwest. Here very little rainfall occurs.• Indus Plains: Main agricultural region in the middle of the Indus valley.• The Potohar Plateau is there in the East of upper Indus plains.• In South East of Indus Plains there is Deserts Thal, Cholistan and Thar.

Climate:Climate of Pakistan is diverse.North, Northwestern Mountains are extremely cold in winter but mild in summer. The Indus Plains are extremely hot in summer but cold and dry in winter.Coastal regions are having temperate climate. There are some variations within each region.

Four Seasons:Summer: May to September Winter: November to February Spring: March-AprilAutumn: September-OctoberRain: It varies from region to region. The main rainy season is the summer i.e. Monsoon.Population:Pakistan is having a large population. The growth rate recorded over 3 percent in the 1970s to early 1990s. Now declined due to a number of measures by the government but still it is higher as compare to the other countries of the region. Census is taken after every ten years.

--------1951, 1961, 1972, 1981, 1998-----------------------------------------------Year Population----Annual Growth-------In Million-----Percent1951 -----36.2 --------1961 -----46.2 ----2.801972 -----65.3 ----3.101981 -----84.3 ----3.06

1998 -----130.6 ----2.61*In 2006, the population is estimated to be over 160 million.

Important Features of the Population:• More than 50 Percent population is under the age of 21. A large part of this population is dependent.• Add to this people over 65 years.• About 30 percent population lives in urban areas.• Why migrations to urban areas: Education, jobs, facilities etc.• Impact of urbanization: Poor civic conditions, education, health, housing, town planning etc.• Provincial population. Punjab 56-57 percent Sind 23 percent NWFP 14 percent Baluchistan 5.3 percent• Low literacy rate: Official literacy rate is 46 percent but functional literacy rate is even lower.• Women literacy rate is much lower. In certain areas of Baluchistan women literacy is nominal to non-existent.• Why population figures are important. For Planning and development, Socio-economic development and poverty alleviation etc.• Social development indicators are poor in Pakistan. No ideal figure for population can be named. It depends upon the resources. High population is asset as well as a liability because we cannot feed them.• Efforts to manage population are being done by the Government as well as by non-governmental organizations in the field of health care, family planning and education.2: Boundaries:Pakistan shares boundaries with four countries.• China in the northeast: About 600 km long border in the Northern Areas. Silk Route is a major link for trade and traveling.• Afghanistan: North and Northwest about 1200 miles. Durand Line was drawn onNovember 1893 as a border between the two neighbors.• Iran in the West share about 590 miles border from Koh-i-Malik Siah to Gawadar.• India in the East having a border about 1400 miles which was established in August1947.• We also face India on the LOC in Kashmir, the most troubled frontier having hardly any natural barriers, highly volatile and porous.• South: Arabian Sea, Coastline 450 miles. Stretches from the Rann of Kutch Indian border to the Iranian border in the West.3: Neighborhoods:

Pakistan is located in strategically important region. It is the center of global interests. For all the big powers like China and Russia it is important. U.S maintains interests to keep an eye on both China and Russia.It is on the gateway of Central Asian Muslim States through Afghanistan. On the other side of it is the outer region of the Gulf region having rich oil resources and economic wealth. Pakistan has close brotherly ties with these states. Now the pipelines of oil and gas are planning to be passed through Pakistan. It will be a new start of economic cooperation in the region.

Lecture 25 - Natural Resources, Agriculture

Natural Resources, Agriculture

1: Natural Resources

• Mineral Resources• Rivers and Canals• Forests• Animals2: Agriculture

1: Natural Resources:The resources endowed by the nature to the country and the people are called National Resources, e.g., Mineral resources, rivers, forests and animals. Agricultural lands hold key to development and prosperity of a country.The rate of development and prosperity of a country depends on efforts to make use of it. Effective management and human efforts are needed to avail them. Modern technology is also required to make use of it.

Mineral Resources:Pakistan is blessed with considerable mineral resources. Some of them are explored but much remains to be done for the search for more. Some important resources are:• Iron Ore is used for industry, especially steel industry. It is found in limited quantity and low quality. Most of the required Iron ore is imported from abroad. Its deposits are found in Chitral, Chaghai, Kohat, Kurram Agency, Mardan, Hazara, Mianwali (Kalabagh) and DG Khan.• Chromite: is used in preparing other metals, leather tanning, making of steel products, armament and stainless steel. The deposits of Chromite are found in Zoab (Muslim Bagh), Chaghai, Malakand, Mahmand, Waziristan, Fort Sandaman etc.• Gypsum is used for plaster of Paris, Paints and Cement. It is found in Jhelum, Mianwali, DG Khan, Kohat and Loralai.• Sulphur is used by chemical industry. Its deposits are found in Kalat, Khairpur, Mardan, and Jacobabad etc.• Coal is used in power generation. It is basically used as fuel. It is not found in good quantity and quality. It is mostly found in Sindh (Thatta, Tharparkar, Manara) Balochistan (Deegari, Sharig, Soer, Khost, Maach, Hernai), Punjab (Makarwal, Dandot), NWFP (Cherat and Noshera).• Oil: It is a major source of energy. It is mostly imported from Iran and Gulf states. Now some valuable reserves are found in Jhelum, Mianwali, Attock, Balkasar, Mial, Chakwal, and Dhodak.• Gas: it is itself a source of energy and fuel, and also used as a source of power generation. It is found in Sui, Mari, Uch, Khairpur, Jacobabad etc. Now some new discoveries are also found.• Uranium: It is the basic element for atomic power, indispensable for the defence. Its deposits are in DG Khan, Hazara and Kohat.Rivers:The river system of Pakistan is consisted of Indus and other associated rivers. We have a well- defined Canal system. The most important one is the Indus Basin project.What we require is the proper management of water, its conservation, effective use, storage, dams and flood control. Water is dangerous if it is too much, it become a problem if it is too little. It is used for Agriculture where it is the backbone of agro-economy. It is also a cheapest source of hydroelectric Power generation.Forests:Normally 25 percent area of a country should be covered with forest. But in Pakistan it is only 4 to 5 percent.Some areas are not suitable for plantation like deserts and dry mountains. It is because of shortage of water and rainfall. Deforestation is also due to unplanned cutting of trees.Advantages:Forests have many advantages. They are helpful in improvement of weather. Protect against windstorms, help in slow melting of snow to stop floods. They add greenery, beauty and fresh air to the environment. Plants are

source of food, medicine, timber, chemicals and fertilizers. They are the homes of animals, birds and insects. They are also used as fuel.Animals:Animals provide milk, meat, hide and skins, wool etc. They are also used for agriculture and transportation. They are a source of foreign exchange.Their proper breeding requires planning and care. Animal husbandry and colleges of research are established to breed and cure useful species of animals. Department of Live Stock also provides Support System for raising animals both privately and through Government Projects. Government farms and military farms are also working for that purpose.Fisheries:It is also a source of food and income. Department of fisheries also encourage private farmers to invest in this field and add to personal and national wealth.2: AgriculturePakistan is an agricultural country. More than 70 percent of its population lives in rural areas. Over 50 percent are directly engaged in farming or agro-based activities.• Share of agriculture to GDP is 26 percent.• In Punjab and Sindh plains are very large. There are irrigated farmlands.• Two major crops are yielded in a year(a) RABI: Sown in October-November and produce obtained in April-May. Important produces are Wheat, Gram, Oil seeds.(b) KHARIF: Sown in May-June and produce is obtained in October-November.Important crops are Rice, Sugar Cane, Cotton etc.• Main crops: Wheat, Rice, Cotton, Sugar Cane, Gram, Maize, Mustard, Tobacco, Oil seeds, Fruits and vegetables.• Land Reforms are introduced from time to time by different governments: in1959, 1972, and 1977. The aim was to reduce land holding and to strengthen the position of tenants. It was done for improving yield per acre and poverty alleviation in agriculture field.Problems in Agriculture:There are number of problems in our agriculture, for instance:1. Outdated modes of cultivation, which cause low per acre yield.2. Water Logging and Salinity.Attention is being given to these since mid 1960.3. Crop diseases are big problem. Technical support is being provided by Department of Agricultural. It helped to overcome the problem. Our inputs have problem of quality, which cause low prices in market. Other handicaps are low quality seeds, costly fertilizers, non-availability of electricity or oil for tube well etc.4. Water related problem, sometimes it is too little, but sometimes it is too much. Cleaning of Canals is also necessary to provide water at the end of canal.5. Credit facilities are also problematic.6. Access to market is difficult.7. Availability of reasonable price should be ensured for the welfare of the farmers and high yield of crop.Agriculture and Development Plans:• Research is done for the development of high yield seeds giving better output. Information and guidance is being provided to the common farmer to enjoy the fruits of the advance research in the field of agriculture. University education is developed in various parts of Pakistan especially in Faisalabad and Jamshoro. Emphasis is laid on modern technology in practical field.

• Communication and transportation facilities are increased.• Government ensures the payment to the farmers for their produce immediately.

Lecture 26 - Industrial Development

1. Importance2. Historical Overview3. Major Industries4. Future Directions1. ImportanceIndustrialization is the key to economic development and overall prosperity. Without it no economy can grow. It is the backbone of a strong and stable economy. It is the basis of modernization and development of the state. Industrialization helps the international standing of a state. Industry and technology go together. It enhances trade and save foreign exchange. Industrialization brings self-reliance for a nation.It is also important for agriculture. Agriculture provides raw materials and so input for industry and output is the finished goods.Industrialization improves the quality of life, help in Poverty reduction, and provide employment facilities.Industrialization has close relevance with the defence and security of the country.

2: Historical Overview:In 1947 Pakistan inherited very small industrial infrastructure. Only about 4 percent of India’s industry was there in areas of Pakistan. It was insufficient to meet the needs of the day-to-day life. Initially sugar mills, biscuit factories, cigarettes factories, oil mill, cement units, match factory, steel rolling, and glass work factories were set up.Priorities set out in the early years:1. Industry would be based on indigenous raw materials.2. Consumer goods should be manufactured to meet the immediate needs of the people.3. Private initiative to be encouraged.4. The state to be involved in the process through: facilitation and help, financial help, tax incentives, protective tariffs etc. It also played direct role to set up industry.5. Training and research facilities would be provided.6. Industrial Development Board was formed in 1948. All Five Years Plans from 1955, 1960, 1965-70 paid greater emphasis on private sector and rapid industrialization. It added to aggregate economic growth.Institutional Arrangements:• Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation (PIDC) was established under a law in 1950. It encouraged the setting up of industry that was less attractive for the private sector. Initially 15 industries were identified.• Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan (IDBP) was set up in 1961. It provided loan facilities for industrial projects at concessional rates to middle and small investors.• PICIC: Pak Industrial Credit & Investment Corporation was established to give loans and credit facilities, including foreign exchange facility, for setting up industry. It also launched investment schemes.• Investment Promotion Bureau, 1959 was formed for the promotion of domestic and foreign investment and to provide advice and guidance to investors and provision of necessary help to them.• Other institutions like ICP, NDFC, NIT were established.• External financial and technical support was provided both bilateral and multilateral by World Bank, IMF, and Colombo Plan etc.

Nationalisation of the Seventies:New democratic government of PPP after assuming power adopted the policy of nationalisation. Ten basic industries were nationalised. Later some others were also taken over to have a greater state role. Initial euphoria ended and industrial output suffered. It also caused flight of capital from the country

Since the early 1990s:The policy of the governments in 1990s changed. Since 1990s all the governments including that of PPP followed the policy of denationalisation and privatisation. They are promoting free economy, foreign investment, non-governmental initiatives, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and investment from Pakistanis settled outside the country.

3: Major Industries:• Textiles: It is major industry based on agriculture, heavy textile industry caters to domestic and external market. Major Centres are Faisalabad, Multan, Lahore and Karachi. Woollen Cloth is manufactured in Karachi, Lawrencepur, Harnai, Quaidabad, Multan and Bannu.• Sugar: Pakistan has made tremendous progress in this industry. It is a food item; agro based industry, located in Sindh, Punjab and Sindh.• Cement: This industry has gone through major expansion. Over 20 factories are established in the pubic and private sectors which cater to Pakistani needs. Still it is imported in limited quantity. Most of the sites are in Dandot, Daud Khel, Wah, Rori and Karachi.• Vegetable Ghee: Cooking oil is a major food item. There is much expansion over the years both in private and public sectors. Now we are self sufficient, although some raw material for making cooking oil is imported. About 60 units are in Sindh, Punjab and NWFP.• Iron and Steel: Steel Mill near Karachi was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union. The major problem was that of raw material. The iron ore found in Pakistan is very poor in quality. Steel rolling units and iron related factories exist in different parts of Pakistan.• Paper: Major paper industry was in East Pakistan, which was lost in 1971. We had to face shortage of locally made paper after 1971. Now this industry is located in Noshera, Charsada, Gujranwala, Lahore, and Gharo. Some quality paper has to be imported.• Machine, tools: Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) Texla serve this purpose. HMC was set up with Chinese cooperation.• Machinery, industrial equipment, engineering goods, engines, machinery for sugar, cement, and fertilizer industry is prepared here.• Defence Industry: Wah Ordnance Complex is established for weapons and armaments. HMC is making Tank Rebuild Factory. Kamara Aircraft Rebuild factory overhaul F-6 and Mirage. It is also manufacturing Maashak, K-8.• Other Important Industry: Fertilizer, Tobacco and cigarettes, Oil Refineries, Cars and Tractors production, Shipbuilding: Karachi Shipyard, Ship breaking.• Cottage Industry: Industries established on small scale, involving a household or small number of people, use of limited resources, having less investment are called small or cottage industries e. g., Carpets, sports goods, toys, power or handlooms, handicraft etc.4: Future Directions:There is no escape from industrialization. It is a must for prosperity and development.We are having Mixed economy with an emphasis on private initiative. Privatisation and Foreign investment need appropriate conditions: political and economic stability, infrastructure, less bottle necks, corruption issue, low interest loans and state support and above all security of investment

Lecture 27 - Education in Pakistan

Major Areas Covered:1. Importance2. Educational Issues3. Kinds of Education1: Importance of Education:Education is a key to development for individual, society and state. It shapes natural qualities and talents of the individuals. It has positive relevance to family and society. It also confers citizens’ confidence to deal with environment, a sense of purpose. Education provides a goal orientation and is helpful to others by educating them.Education provides entitlement to job and professions. It gives effective tanning to the citizens about their rights and duties. It plays a more constructive role in character building of the person and in turn society as a whole.Education should be integrated to nation building and should be able to transmit the primary values. Education should be responsible for the formation of attitude.It should transmit socialization among individuals.Education system is designed according to the ideology of the state and its identity. Education is the indicator of socio-economic development. For the real progress proper educational facilities should be provided. Literacy rate should be enhanced. Trained and qualified human power can make a nation success. Only such educated people can better be equipped to deal with changing situations and challenges of the time. Education provides better understanding of international environment that affects all of us. Islam asks Muslims to get education. Other religions also value education.

2: Educational Issues:From historical perspective Pakistan has made commendable efforts for spreading education since independence. Funding, facilities and free primary education was introduced to enhance student enrolment. Following steps were taken for uplift of education:• It made integral to development planning in all Five Year Plans and Yearly Plans.• Education Commission was established and new Education policies were introduced.• Critical evaluation points out serious issues requiring immediate attention for enabling education to achieve its goals.

Problem of Resources:Resource allocation for education is far from satisfactory. It is much less than what a large number of countries spend on education, especially those having developed after World War II. Most of these allocations go to salaries and administration.Fewer amounts are given for infrastructure, facilities of research and development.

Low Literacy:In Pakistan literacy rate is 46 per cent. While meaningful literacy is far less. Female literacy is lower. In rural

areas literacy is much low.

Enrolment and Retention:All Children are not enrolled in schools. Drop out at the primary and high school level is very high. The incentive to send children to the school is to retain them there. Poverty and lack of appreciation cause drop out. Not enough schools with proper facilities. Number of schools exist on papers only i.e., Ghost schools.

Teachers related issues:Shortage of qualified teachers at the lower levels is main cause of less interest of young students towards education. Student-teacher ratio is very high in Pakistan. So the teacher cannot properly treat students. Teachers are not given any incentives for devotion to the profession. Salary and other facilities especially at the lower levels are very disappointing. Training and refresher courses are also inadequate. New techniques of teaching and facilities needed for good teaching should be provided to the teachers.

Examination System:Examination System remained a problematic issue in Pakistan. How to judge the performance of students is a difficult question. Instead of comprehension and depth of knowledge emphasis is laid on test of memory. Learning is geared to passing the examination. Some people work only at the end of the year and get good marks due to flaw in the system. Some of they use unfair means. Students have were little knowledge of how the papers are actually graded. This becomes a serious problem at the higher levels. Still there is a debate that whether Annual system or Semester system should be adopted.

Politicization:Student groups have political links with outside groups. Political parties have their sub units in educational institutions, which result in use of violence and threats. This also damages the educational environment.3: Kinds of Education: Primary:From class 1 to 5 years is primary stage. Mosque schools are also working on this level. Effortsare being made to make it universal.

Middle Level:It is from class 6 to 8.

Secondary:It is from class 9 to 10.

Higher Secondary:It is from class 11 to 12.

Degree Level:It is a university level education for 2 or 3 years for the award of bachelor degree of Science/ Arts.

University, Post Graduate Level:M. A., M.Sc., M.Phil. and Ph. D. Specialized diplomas and programs are also offered at this level. Colleges are also teaching at Postgraduate level. Now some Colleges are given university status.

Professional:Professional educational fields are Medical, Dentistry, Engineering, Business and Commerce are Technical and professional degrees.

Adult Education:For adults who could not get education in their early years adult education is introduced for them.

Distance Education:

People do not go to an institution but stay home and get education. This method is useful for people in service and for those living in remote areas. This is a method of Improvement of qualification without actually going to an institution.It is a Flexible system in which Lectures and tutorial system are used through media. Examples are:• Allama Iqbal Open University.• Virtual University: TV and Internet.Privatization of Education:Schools (English medium), Colleges and Universities are introduced in private sector. Some of them are imparting some good quality education but very expensive.

Military Foundations:• Medical and IT education• National University of Science and Technology• Bharia University• Air Force UniversityModern Technology and Education:Technology education means education of IT, Computers- software and hardware. IT and regular education, Access to knowledge and technical education.

Concluding Remarks:Education in Pakistan could not play a proper role. That’s why Pakistan is much behind of some of the developing countries. The only way to meet the challenges of the time is to provide technical education at all levels. For that purpose spending on education should be raised. Primary education should be universal and women education should be enhanced. Only meaningful education can fulfill the demands of development.

LECTURE 28 FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

No state can live in isolation as individuals cannot live in isolation, they interact with each other. Similarly the states can not live in isolation and they will have to interact with other states that are there in the international system and they also interact with international organizations and other entities that play important role in the World affairs. You interact with the international system in order to project, protect and promote your national identity and national interests. Economic interests or economic needs also emphasize the need of working with other states and other actors in the international system. A large part of economic system relates with the financial and technical assistance that a country gets from outside. Similarly, issues of peace, security and

stability in the international system cannot be promoted unless different states work together, discuss their issues and decide about the ways and strategies to deal with the situation.

Pakistan is an active and an important member of the international community. It interact with other states at different levels, one level of interaction is bilateral which mean that you interact or you deal with or you develop relations with individual countries for example we can talk about Pakistan’s relations with Afghanistan, Iran and so on and this is bilateral level. There is another level of interaction which is called as multilateral level of interaction; Pakistan interacts with more than one state, this interaction is generally with reference to issues for example the issue of peace in the international system is something that has to be addressed along with a large no. of other states. Multilateral level of interaction also includes interaction with the international organizations. The third level of interaction is through the United Nations and other international organizations.

Pakistan is an active member of the UN and in addition to UN Pakistan is a member of several other international and regional organizations. You act as the member of these organizations within the framework, basic principles and charter of these organizations and work with others for the achievement of goals of these organizations like the goals of the UN, goals of the organization of Islamic Conference and that is another level that you function and operate within the framework of an international organizations and bodies.

The next level is the non official, in addition to official channels govt to govt communications there is also a non official side where ordinary citizens play an important role or various groups, various organizations play a role for example, lot of Pakistani students go abroad for education, they also go abroad for visits and other purposes, Pakistanis are settled abroad and they are doing jobs. All these peoples are not officials of Pakistan but what they do, how they live, how they interact with others affects a nation’s role at the international level. Similarly there are different organizations NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS they also interact with similar Non-governmental organizations else where in the World. So when you talk of Pakistan’s relations with the rest of the World you talk of the both official and non official level where individual, citizens and their groups interact with each other.

Now we will highlight some of important features of Pakistan’s foreign policy that is within the broad outline that I have given we will talk about certain principles which have influence on Pakistan’s foreign policy or you can say that these are certain goals which Pakistan wants to achieve.

Features:

1. protection of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Pakistan

The 1st feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is protection of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Pakistan, primary concern of Pakistan and for that matter every state is its security and survival. This is for key concern of Pakistan’s foreign policy and Pakistan is in a position all the times to conduct its foreign policy and domestic affairs on the basis of its national interests and goals as defined by the leadership. Therefore attention has to be paid to the security affairs. When we talk about security there are couple of things that have to be kept in mind.

First, for security diplomacy is must that you interact with other states and develop relations with other states and you try to deal with the issues with peaceful means through negotions by opening different channels of

communications, so we can say that diplomacy is compulsory for the security of a country. For security we also need strong trained and professional and equipped military although problems and issues should be resolved peacefully through diplomatic means but there are some situations where non peaceful method are resorted too, when some other state may impose aggression on you then you need strong military to deal with the situation.

Along with that you also need security arrangements to deal with the conditions. In addition to military you need all kinds of security arrangements. An integral part of security system is social mobilization. You involve people in security and defense of the country because modern warfare is not limited to the border areas or to particular or specific battle fields. When modern war breaks out all parts of the country becomes the battle field because you can use Air Force, a country can use missiles and a lot of other ways therefore a perfect defense requires that the military must enjoy the sport of the nation as a whole. If nation as a whole stands up to the security challenge only then you can meet with the threats to security and sovereignty of your country.

Pakistan’s relations and problems with India have greatly influenced its foreign policy options and security issues, but we will talk about Indo-Pak relations later on.

2. Relations with all states:

The second feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is the relations with all states. Pakistan maintains its relations with all kinds of states irrespective with the type of the political system; these states are adopting that s not Pakistan’s concern, so Pakistan maintains relations with all kinds of states and the relations at the international level are maintained on the bases of common interest, what you need is certain areas of common interest. Those commonalities of interests are the bases of good relations. So if you have more common interests between Pakistan and other country relations would improve. Another thing that influences the relations is the relationship must provide some benefits; some rewards to both sides, relationship cannot be one way traffic. Let’s say if Pakistan has relations with Iran then that relationship must be viewed by the both govts as serving their interests. So the basic criteria for Pakistan’s friendly relations with other countries is that there must be some common areas identified to work together and this relationship must be of use to benefit to both the countries. Another consideration which affects Pakistan’s relations s non interference with each others affairs. Pakistan does not interfere in the internal domestic affairs of all the states with which it has relationship. Similarly Pakistan will not like other states interfering in it domestic and internal affairs.

Another related principle is problems should be resolved peacefully, amicably and through negotians so that the problems are either resolved or kept within manageable limits.

Relations with Major Powers:

The nature of relations with major powers has varied. Here we can briefly mention Pakistan’s relation with the major powers to have an idea of the fact that Pakistan conduct relationship with different and diverse types of countries.

United States

First let’s say few words about United States, Pakistan-US relations have been generally friendly, smooth and cordial but problems developed from time to time and there are issues on which Pakistan and United States do not see eye to eye but despite differences they still work together for example some areas of

differences are on nuclear issue, this is an area on which Pakistan and the United states have differences and there are certain other issues on which both countries have reservations like arms sales, Kashmir etc. However there are common grounds and shared areas on the bases of which Pakistan have maintained smooth relationship with the United Sates.

China

Since the 60s China proved to be a reliable trustworthy and consistent friend over the periods of decades and despite the fact Pakistan and China have different domestic political systems, their domestic priorities are different but still they maintain very close cooperation and interaction. China had provided affective and consistent economic assistance to Pakistan and it had also contributed to the industrial development of Pakistan and in this context it is also important to note that China had also made significant contribution to Pakistan’s Defense Industry and it also extends support on diplomatic forums and on Kashmir Chinese policy is symphatic to Pakistan’s position and emphasizes a peaceful resolution of the disputes which Pakistan has with India. Pakistan supported China diplomatically in the UN and the Outside. Both the countries have developed close relations in the areas including science and technology, environment and trade.

Russia:

With Soviet Union before 1991 and now Russia Pakistan has working relations with Russia but frequent problems remained unsolved during the period of Cold War. Within the South Asian context Russia had always been remained favorable to India at the cost of its relations with Pakistan. On Kashmir issue, her attitude has been ranged from pro India to neutrality.

Despite these kinds of problems Pakistan and Russia have working relations and they regularly interact and try to expand the areas of common interests. Some economic relations strengthened the bilateral relations when Russia provided economic and technological assistance to Pakistan in establishing steel mill in Karachi. Russia had also helped Pakistan from time to time in oil exploration. In post-Cold War era, Pakistan is trying to normalize the relations. The recent tour of President Musharraf is a step towards this goal.

So what we have seen here is that Pakistan has maintained relations with different countries on the bases of sovereign equality, mutuality of interests, shared goals and consideration which give benefits and rewards to both sides.

3. Economic Issues, Trade, Investment:

The third important feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy relates o economic issues, trade and investment. These issues are important all the times even in the past but now for the last 10 years economic issues, trade and investment have gained a lot of importance in the foreign policy of all the countries and Pakistan also pursued that objective. For that purpose Pakistan deals with other countries and several other international financial institutions in order to obtain economic assistance for its development projects and to obtain loans which Pakistan gets from international financial institutions and also from the states. International financial institutions may be described as World Bank, IMF, Asian Development Bank and Islamic Development Bank. The issue of trade that is Pakistan goods go abroad is also important then investment Pakistan has been striving hard for attracting international investment for different kinds of industrial and other projects in the country because if

you obtain international financial support and investment it speeds up the process of industrialization and economic development.

Issue of transfer of technology to Pakistan, issue of favorable trade that the trade is done in a manner that it provides advantage to Pakistan and also humanitarian assistance. Sometimes there are natural calamities in Pakistan and these calamities are in rest of the World. So Pakistan extends technical and humanitarian assistance to other countries when they face problems like Earthquakes, Floods and other problems. Similarly when Pakistan is confronted with these kinds of problems it also seeks assistance from abroad.

Economic relations are both bilateral and multi-lateral. Technology, trade, access to market and investment are keys to the cordial relations between the two countries.

Pakistan is also trying to establish its relations with other countries on the same footings.

4. Muslim States:

The 4th feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is its relations with the Muslim states. Pakistan attaches great importance to developing relations and the ties with the Muslim States. It is one of the basic principles of Pakistan’s foreign policy but we are not going to discuss this relationship in detail at this stage. We will devote one of our lectures to this aspect that is Pakistan’s relation with Muslim World and in that lecture we will discuss this topic in detail. Being Islamic country, Pakistan has been always in search of good relations with the Muslim countries. It has been a central point in the ideology of Pakistan even before Independence.

5. Solidarity with the Developing States:

The next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is solidarity with the Developing States. Pakistan is a developing country, trying to develop itself in all fields of life in economic development in industry and in other areas. Pakistan had been concerned with the issues and problems of the states of Asia, Africa and Latin America. As it is developing countries it is well aware of the problems of underdevelopment, poverty, disease, famine, civil strife and border disputes, refugees and drug addiction. Pakistan has always cooperated with the developing countries so that they can meet with the problems of underdevelopment and poverty. In fact if you examine and study the social, economic and cultural problems of states of Asia and Africa and Latin America then you will find a lot of common problems, problems of underdevelopment, poverty, illiteracy, civil strifes, inter state wars, human migration and the problem of refugees. These are the issues which are common in varying degree in the developing World. So Pakistan works at two levels to deal with this kind of issue.

1. Pakistan raises these kinds of issues or the problems of the developing countries at the international forums like the United Nation and other forums and urges the industrialized and developed countries to contribute in solving these problems in the developing World because peace cannot be maintained in the international system if half of humanity is suffering with these kinds of problems. Stable peace can only be possible if globe as a whole prospers and develops. The disparity in the international system is reduced. This is one level on which Pakistan is working for the developing countries.

2. When Pakistan urges other developing countries to collaborate with each other that is Cooperation among developing countries in the areas of economic and technical assistance, trade and diplomacy. They can help and cooperate with each other for addressing the problems that I have highlighted. Since problems are common then

you should learn from each other experience, you could also transfer technology from one developing country to an other. I give you an example, in Pakistan literacy rate is low but there are developing countries where literacy rate is very high, you can take the example of Sri Lanka a neighboring country of Pakistan where the literacy rate is over 90 percent therefore Pakistan can learn from their experience that how they have dealt with this problem and then Pakistan can also adopt the methods suitable to our conditions to raise literacy. Similarly Pakistan can help other country in the areas where Pakistan had made progress. So the issue is that for improving your conditions you should not look towards the developed and civilized World but you should also make effort and take certain steps to deal with the situation.

6.United Nations:

Next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy relates to its membership with UN and other international bodies. Pakistan joined the UN as a new member on Sept. 30, 1947. And since then it has commitment to the UN Charter and is an active member in UN bodies. One Pakistani has served as the president of the UN General Assembly and Pakistan has been a non permanent member of the UN Security Council for 6 times and the latest membership for the SC is the year 2003-04. In addition to the UN Pakistan is also a member of other international bodies and within UN Pakistan has been active in different specialized agencies and organs of the UN. An important role played by Pakistan relates to Peace Keeping Mission. It has been a part of UN Peace-Keeping Missions all over the world. UN sends its forces to different countries for peace keeping where conflicts exists and UN doesn’t have its own forces and then the UN sends the forces from different member countries and Pakistan has been contributing in this mission by sending its Army, Police personnel and others for UN peace keeping operations. Even today Pakistani army and other official are serving under UN to different countries which help Pakistan to build its image at the international level.

7.Anti-Colonialism, Right of Self Determination:

Next feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy is Pakistan’s support to anti-colonialism and opposition to the racial discrimination that existed in the past and sometimes it now manifest in certain parts of the World. As we have been suffering from colonial rule after our independence and we always support decolonization for Asia and Africa. Pakistan always opposed racial discrimination in the World for example Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) suffered from apartheid or racial discrimination where white minority was ruling the black population by force and Pakistan was the part of the global effort to eradicate this kind of injustice and ultimately Rhodesia became an independent state with majority rule under the name of Zimbabwe, We can talk about South Africa where similar case existed, Namibia another case of racial discrimination etc. So in all three examples majority rule was established and Pakistan supported UN effort to promote the principle of equality and opposed racial discrimination.

Pakistan has always supported right of self determination for the people and the areas whose political future is not as yet settled. It is not merely in Kashmir that Pakistan supports the right of self-determination, Pakistan supports the Palestinian cause their national rights and their freedom, Pakistan had also supported very strongly Algeria’s freedom movement because that was another case of right of self-determination. In Afghanistan when Soviet troops marched in December 1979 and occupied Afghanistan. Pakistan opposition to Soviet occupation and support to Soviet resistance to Soviet occupation was part of its commitment to the right of self determination and the presence of foreign troops in a country.

8.Arms Control:

The next feature of foreign policy is Arms Control. Pakistan is not in favour of spread of weapons and arms in the international system because it diverts resources to non development purposes and if arms and weapons proliferate there is a danger of wars and conflict therefore Pakistan had joined global efforts to control weapons and that control. Pakistan believes that arms races to be controlled, resources to be used for human development. It has spoken for this cause in the UN and the outside. It opposed arms race not only at the superpower level because arms race in the past was at the super power level, I am talking about the period before the 1991 when Soviet Union and United States were competing so there was an arms race between them. But also at the regional and bilateral levels both for conventional and non conventional arms. It stressed that the root causes of arms races should be curtailed. Pakistan’s point of view is that the best way to control arms proliferation is to address the issues, the causes the factors which contributes to arms race, the factors that lead a country to obtain weapons and to engage in wars, conflicts and similar actions

9.Nuclear Policy:

Pakistan has been a great champion and supporter of peaceful uses of nuclear technology although Pakistan has acquired nuclear manufacturing capabilities in the mid 80s but Pakistan avoided making weapons. Pakistan avoided nuclear explosions despite having the knowledge and capability of processing Uranium, Plutonium. It was only for the sake of deterrence and reaction to India’s nuclear explosions. Pakistan was of the view that this technology should primarily be used for economic development and for betterment of the people rather than for making weapons. Pakistan exploded nuclear weapons in May 1998 in response to India’s nuclear explosions. India’s nuclear explosions created strategic imbalance in the region. Pakistan decided to rectify and remove this imbalance there at the end of May 1998 Pakistan exploded its nuclear explosions. So had India not exploded the nuclear devices Pakistan would not have gone for that strategy. Even after its explosions Pakistan talked about nuclear restrained regime in this region that India and Pakistan should agree on basic principles for control of convential weaponry and also containment of Nuclear weapons proliferation.

There are other principles which are important for the foreign policy of Pakistan and which Pakistan emphasizes from time to time. One important area pertains to Pakistan’s relation with India.

Relations with India:

The most problematic area of Pakistan’s foreign policy is the relationship with India. The relations have been strained since independence in 1947. There were periods of normal relations but generally it remained troubled marked with distrust and conflict changes of tough statements have been the features. This bitterness caused three major wars in 1947-48, 1965 and 1971. Then there have been Limited conflicts and troubles at Loc (Line of Control) along with propaganda war are common practices. This relationship is of major concern due to which Pakistan have security measures. Tension escalated when India mobilize its troops on the Pakistan although at the end of this year most of the troops were withdrawn but even in the year 2003 there were problems in the relationship and despite Pakistan’s effort to start negotians to diffuse the tension and start dialogue India was not forthcoming. India was not ready to open dialogue. But now there is a hope of bilateral dialogue on Kashmir and other issues. It is the only way to bring prosperity and peace for 1.2 billion people of South Asia.

Kashmir:

Another feature pertains to Pakistan policy on Kashmir. Main source of conflict and bone of contention between India and Pakistan is Kashmir dispute. Pakistani position on Kashmir is that this is a disputed territory and its future should be determined in accordance with the resolution of the UN passed in 1948-49 which calls for a fair and free plebiscite to be held in Kashmir so that the people of Kashmir decide their political future. Despite Pakistani efforts India doesn’t want to hold plebiscite there. But India has declared it as integral part of it. Instead of having plebiscite, she has blamed Pakistan for initiating insurgency in Kashmir since 1989. India claims that it is engineered by Pakistan and equates this with terrorism.

Control of Terrorism:

The last feature of Pakistani foreign policy is control of terrorism. Since year 2001 Pakistan is an active participant in global efforts to contain terrorism. The issue of terrorism gained prominence as the UN took up the issue and passed a resolution calling up the states to cooperate for controlling terrorism. Pakistan has been cooperating with the international community for the control of terrorism because Pakistan itself has been a victim of terrorism. Pakistan withdrew support to Taliban and joined hands with the international community. She also acted against terrorists within Pakistan, as it was victim of terrorism & sectarianism.

Pakistan believes that to eradicate terrorism first the root causes of the problem should be removed.

Concluding Remarks:

Pakistan has been an active member of the international community. It has been balancing the diverse pressures through diplomacy, engagement and compromises for the betterment of humanity. This concludes our discussion on important features and highlights of the foreign policy of Pakistan.

LECTURE 29 PAKISTAN AND THE MUSLIM WORLD

This discussion is going to be divided into three parts.

Foundation of Pakistan’s relation with the Muslim World Multilateral relations with the Muslim World Bilateral relations or you could say country to country relationship

Foundations:

First of all we will take up the first part and that is the foundations of Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim World and why Pakistan attaches great importance to its relations with the Muslim World that is the issue that will be dealt with in the first part of the lecture. As I have said that Pakistan assigns prime importance to its ties and relations with the Muslim World. Pakistan is an advocate of Pan-Islamism in the International system that is greater unity, greater cooperation amongst the Muslim states so that they can affectively project and protect their interests.

Another consideration s support to Muslim causes at the International level whether you are talking of international forums or bilateral levels Pakistan has supported Muslim causes at any level in the World. The Muslims of the sub-continent have deep-rooted affiliation with the Islamic countries on the basis of religion. They demonstrated this zeal of brotherhood on many occasions. From the days of Pakistan movement, Muslims of India followed the traditional policy with the Muslim World. Pan-Islamism and Islamic values were the strongest motives behind the demand of a separate Muslim state. So after the partition, they always preferred close bilateral relations with the Muslim countries.

Another aspect relates to Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim World on country to country bases or what we call bilateral levels, when Pakistan conducts its relations with individual Muslim country. If you look at the constitution of Pakistan you find that one of the principles of policy urges the govt to maintain and pursue close and cordial relations with the Muslim World. So in other words it is imperative from constitutional perspective for the govt of Pakistan to maintain and pursue close and friendly relations with the Muslim World. Its not simply in the post independence period that Pakistan started pursuing cordial relations with the Muslim World, Pakistan heritage shows that Muslims of this region had great interest in and concern for Muslims living in any part of the World. You could find in the pre-independence period that the Muslims of this region and the ML that led the independence movement always supported the Muslim cause else where. After independence this became a permanent and regular aspect of Pakistan’s foreign policy.

So, we can say that the principles of policy in all the constitutions carry special attachment for Muslims and their heritage. The love for Muslim brotherhood continued during and after the independence.

Multilateral Relations:

Now we move on to the second aspect of today’s lecture that deals with multilateral relations that is the relations of Pakistan with other countries that involve several countries at the same time. In the multilateral domain, we can talk about Pakistan’s support for the de colonization of the Muslim World.

Support for Independence:

After becoming independent Pakistan championed the cause of liberation of those Muslim states that were under foreign control or domination and in this connection we can talk about Pakistan’s full moral support for the independence of Indonesia, Tunis, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Sudan and Eritrea. You would remember that Algerian freedom movement went on for a long time and Pakistan was a great supporter of their freedom movement and when Algeria became independent Pakistan welcomed this positive change that another Muslim country had become independent and sovereign.

Palestine:

Second issue that can be raised here is the Pakistan’s support for the Palestinian cause. There is a consistency and continuity in Pakistan’s support to the Palestinian cause. Pakistan, being a Muslim state, always sided with the national rights of the Palestinian people. It strongly supported the independent Palestinian state. This support goes back to the pre-independence period when ML passed resolution after resolution in support of the Palestine issue and after independence the state of Pakistan has been an ardent and an active supporter of the Palestinian cause at all levels. Sharing grievous concern over the atrocities inflicted on the Muslims, it condemned the Israeli policies. And Pakistan has criticisized time and again quite bitterly the atrocities that

Israel commits against the Palestians from time to time. Pakistan supported their right to have sovereign and independent state.

Organization of Islamic Conference:

Third we can talk about OIC which is a manifestation of the Muslim World and a concept of Pan-Islamism. Organization of Islamic Conference is the largest Muslim forum in the world. Pakistan was very active in creating this forum and it had remained associated with the OIC right from the beginning of this organization Pakistan was among the 51 Muslim nations which attended the inaugural session in Rabat (1969). Its second conference was held at Lahore in 1974, its session held at the city chambers in the city of Lahore which was a matter of great honour and pride for Pakistan that the heads of states, govts and the top leaders of the Muslim World were present in Pakistan for sometime. Pakistani desired to make it an effective forum to address the political, economic, technical, scientific matters. The OIC has repeatedly extended support to Pakistan on Kashmir. It had passed resolutions demanding that the people of Kashmir should be given their right to decide their political future. One Pakistani had served as the secretary general of OIC

RCD and ECO:

Fourth important area in the multi-lateral field is RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) and ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization). RCD was set up in 1964 and this included Turkey, Iran and Pakistan, It worked in the area of economic trade, cultural and related fields. However, this organization became in active in 1979. In 1985-86 Turkey, Iran and Pakistan decided to set up ECO its objectives were very similar to the RCD. However, a significant development was that in 1992 6 other members were added to the ECO when Afghanistan and five Central Asian Republics, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan joined it. This means that now ECO has 10 members 3 original and others who joined later on and these members are trying to promote greater economic, trade technological and cultural cooperation and exchanges amongst the members.

Economic Assistance and Investment in Pakistan from the Middle East:

Some of the Middle East Countries had been extending economic cooperation to Pakistan from the beginning, trade relations were there from the beginning. From 1972 this relationship, economic relationship, economic assistance, economic cooperation, investment extended rapidly. Some of the Middle Eastern Countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, UAE and Libya provided economic assistance to Pakistan in the 70s and in the 80s. These countries also made investment in Pakistan primarily in the 70s and some assistance in the 80s. Their economic assistance and cooperation contributed to Pakistan’s economic development and stabilization in the 70s and the 80s.

Further more; Pakistan extends military training facilities to the number of the Gulf States and other Middle Eastern States in Pakistani institutions. Pakistan military personnel retired and serving also go these countries for different trainings and staff appointments. We all know another dimension of relationship between Pakistan and the Middle Eastern States that is thousands of thousands of Pakistanis are employed in different states of the Gulf region and other Middle Eastern Muslim states and from these states these Pakistanis working there send part of their earnings back home and this becomes an important source of earning, foreign exchange earning for Pakistani state. In this way Pakistanis living abroad especially in the Middle Eastern region are playing a significant role in Pakistan’s economy.

This relationship is very important for Pakistan and if there is a crises in the Middle East this adversely affects the trade between Pakistan and the ME and also those Pakistanis who are living and working there and their dependents in Pakistan who get their financial support from these countries from their own family members.

Rights of Muslim Minorities in different counties:

There is another dimension at multilateral level that pertains to the rights and issues of Muslim minorities in different countries of the World. Muslims are living as minorities that is where majority community is Non-Muslim. The rights and interests of Muslim minorities living in other countries is a matter of interest for Pakistan and its people. Usually Pakistan operated through the organization of Islamic Conference which monitors the rights and interests of the Muslims living in Non-Muslim majority areas.

Muslim World:

Now we move on to the third part of our lecture today which deals with country to country relationship that is Pakistan’s bilateral relations with individual Muslim countries. It is not possible to discuss all the details of this relationship with all Muslim countries. Pakistan has good relations with all the Muslim countries but we will highlight Pakistan’s relations with some of the Muslim countries so that you have a fair idea of the nature of relationship and the kind of interaction that takes place between Pakistan and different Muslim countries.

Saudi Arabia:

Let’s take up Saudi Arabia first, this has been an important relationship which is characterized by continuity of cordiality going back to the early years of Pakistan. The two countries Pakistan and Saudi Arabia shared views on major international and regional issues. Both countries consult each other on regional and international issues from time to time. They work together on Organization of Islamic Conference. Saudi Arabia supported Pakistan in all its wars with India and its position on Kashmir is supportive of Pakistan. Saudi Arabia being sacred country is a centre of the Muslim ‘Ummah’.

Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have an extensive economic relationship that expanded rapidly after 1972. Saudia had always provided economic assistance and loans to Pakistan and it had also invested capital in Pakistan in various projects. An important aspect of relationship is oil supply to Pakistan from Saudi Arabia. Since 1998 SA had been supplying crude oil to Pakistan on deferred payment bases which mean that you get the oil now but you make the payment of its price later on gradually. This has help to ease economic pressure on Pakistan and Pakistan has been able to obtain oil. SA is the biggest oil supplier to Pakistan at the moment. This relationship is going to expand over the years because both have been expanding the area of cooperation for example latest addition to this cooperation is counter terrorism that is both are cooperating to contain terrorism in the region.

UAE, Kuwait and other Gulf States:

The second important relationship is with UAE, Kuwait and other Gulf States. As a matter of fact Pakistan maintains very cordial and friendly relationship with all Gulf States and Pakistanis are based in all these states. They are working there and contributing to the economy of these countries. These countries and States have close and cordial relations with Pakistan. The new era of economic relations has set in after the Gawadar port was built. These countries have been providing economic assistance and investment in Pakistan. UAE had

established hospitals and Islamic centers in some of Pakistani universities where students get knowledge and instructions about Islamic studies and related subjects. I may mention here that the kingdom of Umman have a large no. of Pakistanis living there, it recruits its people in Baluchistan from its army from time to time. So there is a special relationship between this kingdom and Baluchistan. The ruling families of these states make official and personal visits to Pakistan. So far as QATAR is concerned the relations are cordial and friendly. There is a plan under consideration that a gas pipeline from Qatar to Pakistan and if this project is implemented then the economic ties of both the countries would deepen.

Iran:

Pakistan maintains good and cordial relations with Iran. Iran is a neighboring state with long historical and cultural ties. Iran had another distinction. Iran was also the first country which extended formal recognition to Pakistan that is Iran was the first that recognized Pakistan. Iran’s King was also the first head of state who visited Pakistan after it came into existence. Pakistan and Iran had worked together in different organizations; both had joint arrangements in regard to CENTO which was earlier called as the BAGHDAD PACT, RCD, and ECO in addition to other global organizations where they are partners. Iran supported Pakistan in the wars with India. It stressed on liberty of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan welcomed the Iranian Revolution of February 1979. However in the initial years of the revolution the relations were rather at low key. Firstly because Iran was busy in its internal affairs, secondly Iran had some reservations over the strong ties of Pakistan with the United States at that time. However since the mid 80s the relations have been revived and Iran and Pakistan have gradually become close friends and partners with lot of exchanges and visits at different levels. In fact, 3 Iranian presidents have visited Pakistan since the revolution. In January 1986, president Khamani visited Pakistan later he became the Rahber n Iran. The 2nd president who visited Pakistan was Ali Akbar Rafsanjani who visited Pakistan in March 1997. The 3 rd Iranian president who visited Pakistan was president Khatmi who visited Pakistan in December 2002. From Pakistan side there have been similar important visits. Currently there is a project under consideration for constructing a gas pipeline from Iran to Pakistan and then from Pakistan it will go to India and if this project is materialized naturally the relations would further expand in the economic domain.

Turkey:

Turkey is another Muslim country with a long history of close and cordial relations with Pakistan. Turkey had stood by Pakistan in all kinds of situations in wars or in peace Turkey has supported Pakistan. On Kashmir Turkey has supported Pakistan and called for a peaceful resolution. If Turkey had been supportive of Pakistan then Pakistan has also supported in all kinds of situations especially on the Cyprus issue. In Cyprus people of Turkish origin or you can say that Turkish Cypriotes were a minority and there was a problem of their rights and interests in Cyprus. In 1974 Turkey landed its troops in Northern Cyprus and Turkish Cypriotes established their own separate entity. Pakistan has been supportive of Turkey and Turkish Cypriotes for this problem and Turkey had appreciated that gesture. There have been high level civil and military visits, in fact their top military leaders visited Pakistan and Pakistani top military leaders responded to that and go back to Turkey for similar visits. Both have great contribution in the multilateral arrangements of CENTO, RCD, ECO, etc.

Egypt:

Egypt Pakistan relations are normal and cordial; currently they exchanged views on regional and international issues. However in the past in the 50s and 60s there was a problem in Pakistan’s relation with the Egypt. Egypt under Nasser had some reservations due to Pakistan’s ties with the West. Pakistan supported Egypt when it was attacked by Israel in 1956, 1967, 1973. The relations began to improve and the cordiality has increased since 1967 and especially after the death of Nasser in 1970.

Libya:

Libya’s head of state Col. Qazzafi has been a great well wisher and supporter of Pakistan. He and his govt extended valuable support to Pakistan in the 70s, this support was not only diplomatic support but also economic support and in the 70s Libya invested in Pakistan. When in 1986 American army launched air raids on Libya Pakistan despite its close ties with America condemned American air raids on Libya, We can look Pakistan and Libya relations in another dimension since the 70s Pakistani military and civilian retired personnel have been doing job and employment in Libya and this has been an important bond between the two countries. Now the Libya is overcoming its problems with the United States Libya Pakistan relations are becoming friendlier and activated.

Jordan:

Jordan is another example of cordiality and friendship. King Hussein had special regard for Pakistan and throughout his rule he supported Pakistan. He worked for close relation with Pakistan. He supported us on India-Pakistan issues. Now his son King Abdullah continued with this tradition, tradition of friendship, cooperation and supportive to Pakistan on different issues. Both have an arrangement of cooperation in the military relationship and since the mid 60s Pakistani military personnel were based there in different capacities for training purposes, which strengthened the relationship between Pakistan and the state of Jordan. Both have trade and diplomatic exchanges. Pakistan supported Jordan on all international issues especially in its problems with Israel.

Afghanistan:

Afghanistan is a neighboring state. At the moment Pakistan has good and friendly relations with Afghanistan but if we go back especially to the early years of independence we do find problems in the relationship. It was mainly because of the govt of that time questioned the legitimacy of the Durand Line that is the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, and laid claim Pakistani territory on the name of Pakhunistan. It sided with the ‘Pakhtunistan’ issue and created problems for Pakistan, but as this issue was pushed to the background with the passage of time, relationship between Pakistan and Afghanistan improved. No matter what was the relationship between the govt of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the early years the relationship at the common person level or at the individual level was always cordial. Afghanis are coming into Pakistan and Pakistanis are going into Afghanistan that has always been the features. The Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan in December 1979, Pakistan opposed the Soviet intervention and supported the resistance against the Soviet Union which gave birth to the Mujahideen groups, Taliban. Pakistan supported the Taliban govt in Afghanistan but in Sept 11, 2001when the regional and international environment changed Pakistan withdrew support to the Taliban, because incident in America concluded major changes in the world diplomacy. Pakistan got involved in global efforts to contain terrorism. After Taliban, Karzai government took responsibility of Afghanistan’s reconstruction. Pakistan extended all kinds of economic and technological assistance to the Karzai govt for reconstruction and rehabilitation of Afghanistan. The interest of Pakistan is that a friendly neighboring country

should stabilize, overcome its problems so that the refugees that are there n Pakistan can go back to their homes in security and they might have better future there.

Bangladesh:

Bangladesh came into existence in December 1971 in a situation which created a lot of bitterness in Bangladesh against Pakistan and in Pakistan against Bangladesh. So in the initial years there was a lot of bitterness between the two countries. Bangladesh was East Pakistan but the internal instability and external conspiracies gave birth to Bangladesh. Pakistan had initially bitter relations but recognized it in February 1974 and from that time its relation with Bangladesh have gradually improved. Despite the fact that in the initial years both the countries have complaints against each other. In the present day context countries have cordial relations, trade has improved and the visits of senior official and political leaders has been there. Both worked together within the framework of SAARC, OIC. With the passage of time the relations of both these countries are going to expand.

Other Muslim Countries :

Then there are other Muslim countries with which Pakistan has good and friendly relations. I can mention some of the names Indonesia, Malaysia, and then there are Muslim countries in Africa like Algeria, Tunis, Morocco and Sudan. With all these countries I have named Pakistan has close and cordial relations. This reflects Pakistan’s effort to maintain close relations with the Muslim World which is an important feature of Pakistan’s foreign policy. This reflects the aspiration of the people of Pakistan who have been great supporter of Pakistan’s relations with the Muslim countries. Whenever there is a problem in the Muslim World the people of Pakistan have always stood by them and supported them in all respects therefore the govt of Pakistan has always been doing the same thing because this is enjoin on the govt from the constitution and this is also part of Pakistan’s political heritage, this also fits in Pakistani identity derived from and based on Islam that it must reflect these values in its foreign policy.

pak affairs notes

TOPIC # 1EVOLUTION & GROWTH OF MUSLIM SOCIETY IN SUBCONTINENT

Pakistan emerged on the world map on August 14 1947. It has its roots into the remote past. When British archaeologist, SIR MORITIMER WHEELER was commissioned in 1947 by the government of Pakistan, he entitled his work as “Five Thousand Years of Pakistan”. He writes in “The Indus Civilization” that Pakistan has a history that can be dated back to the Indus valley civilization.

A. ADVENT OF ISLAM IN INDIA (712-1206):1. Arab rule of Sindh: During Hazrat Omar’s Caliphate, the Governor of Iraq sent an expedition by land, which captured Makran under the command of Rabi Bin Zeyad Haris. Though Makran was conquered but the victory was short-lived, as the locals recaptured the country. In fact the permanent Muslim foothold in the subcontinent was achieved with the entrance of Muhammad Bin Qasim.2. Trade relations b/w Arabia & the Subcontinent: long before the advent of Islam in Arabia, the Arabs used to visit the coast of Southern India, which then provided the link b/w the ports of South and South East Asia. A number of Arabs lived in coastal area embraced Islam. During those days of 711 A. D., some Muslim traders living in Ceylon died and the ruler of Ceylon sent their widows and orphans back to Baghdad. They made their journey by sea. The King of Ceylon also sent many valuable presents to Walid and Hajjaj. As the eight-ship caravan passed by the seaport of Daibul, Sindhi pirate, who were being supported by Raja Dahir, looted it and took the women and children prisoner.3. Muhammad bin Qasim’s invasion (712):In 712, Hajjaj sent 6000 selected Syrian and Iraqi soldiers and a baggage train of 3000 camels to Sindh under the command of his nephew and son-in-law Imad-ud-din Muhammad Bin Qasim (695-715). He first captured Daibul, and then turned towards Nirun. Dahir was overpowered and killed and Muslims conquered Brahmanbad. In the words of Italian scholar “F. Gabrieli,” “Present day Pakistan, holding the values of Islam in such high esteem, should look upon the young Arab conqueror, Muhammad Bin Qasim, almost as a founding father, a hero of South Asian Islam.”Besides being a great general, he was also an excellent administrator. He established peace and order as well as a good administrative structure.4. Spread of Islam:5. Raids of Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030): Mahmud of Ghazni (979-1030) led a series of raids against Rajputs and rich Hindu temples and established a base in Punjab for future incursions. His court was full of scholars including Ferdosi the poet, Behqi the Historian and Al-Beruni the versatile scholar. He was called the Idol Breaker.6. Al-Beruni, real founder of two-nation theory in South Asia: he wrote Kitab-ul-Hind7. Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri’s rule: he was the first Muslim ruler to conquer Delhi and established a Muslim rule in India. In 1192, he defeated Raj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Tarain. He had no heirs so he left his throne for his slaves to whom he treated as sons.8. Effects of the establishment of Muslim rule:

B. DELHI SULTANATE (1206-1526):1. Slave Dynasty: Qutbuddin Aibak, the first Muslim Governor of Delhi.2. Khalji Dynasty (1209-1320): founder was Jalal-ud-din.3. Tughluq Dynasty (1325-1413): Muhammad Ibn Tughluq (1290-1351) was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325- 1351. Mahmud was the last ruler from 1399-1413.4. Destruction of Delhi by Tamerlane (1398): 5. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451):6. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526):

7. Role of Delhi Sultanate in expansion of Islam: I. Role of Sufis & Ulemas: Hazrat Ali Hajveri, Moin-ud-din Chisti, Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar, Nizam-ud-din Aulliya, Bahaudin Zikariya, Rukn-ud-din Alam.II. System of administration:III. Cultural development:IV. Economic development:V. Social development:C. ESTABLISHMENT OF MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526):1. Battle of Panipat (April 1526): Babar ousted Ibrahim Lodi2. Wars of Succession, Humayun & Sher Shah (1530-1556): Humayun defeated Bahadar Shah in 1535 and captured Gujarat. Later on, Sher Khan defeated Humayun and ruled over many parts of subcontinent and finally died in 1545.3. 2nd battle of Panipat & reestablishment of Mughal Empire (1556): Humayun recaptures Hindustan just before his death.4. Akbar the Great (1556-1605): I. Akbar and Islam II. Prosecution of Islam in the name of Din-e-Illahi III. Political impact of Akbar’s Toleration policies on Muslims.5. Glorious period of Shah Jahan (1628-1658): 6. Shah Jahan & English Company: in 1632, he permitted the English merchants to set up a trading post in Surat. K. K. Aziz in ‘A History of the Idea of Pakistan’ “By 1700, the East India Company extended its commercial activities in Bengal and had established itself as a leading player in Indian politics.”7. Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707): he was regarded as Zinda Peer. He compiled Fatawa-I-Alamgiri. He converted Dar-ul-Harb into Dar-ul-Islam.8. Fall of Mughal Empire: 9. Ahmed Shah Abdali & 3rd battle of Panipat (1761):

D. IMPACT OF ISLAM:1. Religious influence:2. Cultural influence:3. Social influence:4. Influence on intellectual life:5. Economic influence:6. Influence on political life:7. Influence on Business:

E. RELIGIOUS AMALGAMATION:1. Bhakti Movement: the purpose of the movement was to eradicate the evils of Hindu religion. There was no difference b/w Ram and Rahim and Quran and Pran in this movement. The main purpose was to resist spread of Islam.2. Mahdavi Movement: Sayyid Muhammad of Junapur stood and claimed himself as Mehdi. But with the blessing of God, he was put to his end at the fatwa of Sheikh Makhdum-al-mulk.3. Akbar’s Din-I-Illahi:

TOPIC # 2RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS“The history of efforts and movements aimed for the renaissance of Islam and the Muslim rule in the subcontinent is as old as the downfall of the Muslim rule. No doubt these various efforts and movements failed to achieve their objectives immediately but it can be said with out any doubt that the various efforts made and the movements launched for the renaissance had the great impact on the advent of Muslim nationalism. Therefore, all these efforts and movements inevitably are considered to be a great asset of the Muslims of the subcontinent.”

1. IMAM RABANI HAZRAT MUJADID ALF THANI (1564-1624):I. Introduction: born in Sarhind on June 26, 1564. He joined Naqshbandia Silsila at the age of 36. His father Sheikh Abdul Ahad was a well-known Sufi. He was one of the disciples of Khawaja Baqi Billah.II. Un-Islamic Practices:III. Din-e-Elahi:IV. Negative attitude of Ulema:V. Submissive attitude of masses:Services: I. Purification of Muslim society: in his writings Ittiba-al-Nubuwwah, he quoted Imam Ghazali justifying the need for prophet hood and explaining the inadequacies of human intellect. He had an excellent knowledge of Hadith and Tafsir.II. Preservation of Islamic faith:III. Preservation of values:IV. Logical negation of Hindus’ beliefs:V. Wahad-ul-Shahud: he was highly critical of the philosophy of Wahadat-ul-Wajud, against which he gave his philosophy of Wahadat-ul-Shahud; the difference b/w the man and his creator. His greatest work was the Tauheed-I-Shahudi.VI. Negation of Din-e-Elahi:VII. Two-Nation concept:

VIII. Imam Rabani & the Mughals: he refused to prostrate before Jehangir, as a result of which he was imprisoned at Gwalior Fort for 2 years until the Emperor realized his mistake.IX. Publications of Imam Rabani:X. Dr. Riaz-ul-Islam in his book ‘A history of Freedom Movement’ wrote, “Mujaddid boldly opposed all plans to bring Islam and Hinduism together on the religious level, which could not but loosen the Muslim grip on the sources of Imperial strength. He clearly enunciated that Islam and Kufar were two different entities which cannot be fused together.”XI. “He passed away leaving behind him a deathless legend, a legend of dedication to the cause of Islam.”XII. Gardan Na jhuki jis ke Jehangir ke agy, jis ke nafs-e-garam se garamey Ehrar.2. SHAH WALLI-ULLAH (1703-1762):I. Introduction: in the 18th century, after the death of Aurangzeb, Islam in the subcontinent was facing menacing problems such as sectarian conflicts, low moral tone of the society, poor understanding of the Holy Quran etc. Shah Walli-ullah was born on February 21st, 1703 in UP. His real name was Qutab-u-din Shah Wajud-ud-din. His father Shah Abdul Rahim was a Religious scholar who had founded the Rahimiya Center for religious learning in Delhi. At the age of 14, he completed his studies in the fields of Holy Quran, Hadith, Fiqah, philosophy, Jurisprudence and basics of medicine. At the age of 17, he became the head of Rahimiya Center and had been serving for 12 years. II. Allana wrote in “Our Freedom fighters”, “He was not an extremist in his religious views and his searches in the realm of Sufism had mellowed his thinking, making his teachings the voice of synthesis rather than that of anti thesis.”III. Maulana Obaidullah Sindhi wrote in his book ‘shah Walli Ullah, “The essence of the teaching of Shah Abdur Rahim and his brother was an effort to discover a path which could be traversed together by the Muslim philosophers and Muslim jurists.” IV. Religious Services: i. Bridge the gap b/w Sufis and religious scholars:ii. Emphasis on Islamic teachings:iii. Translation and Teachings of the Holy Quran: in 1737-38iv. Socio-religious services: during his visit to Mecca on the pilgrimage in 1730, he returned in 1732 with a vision. He wrote Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah.V. Economic Services: he advised the Mughals to be conscious of their duties and not to indulge in accumulation of wealth. Economic prosperity depends on the hard work of its Labourers. Those people have the right on wealth of the nation who work hard for the prosperity of country. VI. Political Services: he wrote letters to Ahmad Shah Abdali. Finally, Marhattas were defeated by Abdali and Najib-ud-Daula, in the 3rd battle of Panipat in 1761. He wrote, “ Give up the life of ease. Draw the sword and do not to sheath it till the distinction is established b/w true faith and infidelity.” VII. Allama Iqbal his address published under the title ‘Reconstruction of religious thought in Islam’, “The task before the modern Muslim is immense. He has to rethink the whole system of Islam without completely forgetting the past. Perhaps the first Muslim who felt the urge of the new spirit in him is Shah Wali Ullah of Delhi.”VIII. G. Allana wrote, “Shah Wali Ullah always thought ahead of his times and was in that respect a true visionary and pioneer. He had an encyclopedic mind and a heart that beat in union with compassion for his fellowmen. He has left a mark on his times and has bequeathed a rich legacy of learning to the Muslims of India.”IX. “Crowns come and go, the people alone are immortal”3. MUJAHIDEEN MOVEMENT BY SAYYID AHMED SHAHEED BARAILVI:I. Introduction: Ahmed Shaheed was born on 29 November 1786 in Rai Bareli. He was very mush impressed by

the teachings of Alf Thani and Shah Walli-ullah. After performing Haj in 1821, he stayed in Mecca and acquired knowledge of various Islamic movements of the world.II. Religious services: the basic purpose of the movement was to make Islamic government should be based on Shariah that bound the Muslims into a single community, as was in the times of “Khilafat-e-Rashida”. He laid a great stress on the importance of Jihad for Muslims and organized them against the Sikhs. In 1818, he wrote Sirat-i-Mustaqim.III. Political services & Jihad movement: he directed Maulana Ismail and Maulana Abdul Haye to march with a party of 6000 Mujahideen. He reached Nowshera in 1826. He sent message to Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh to embrace Islam. On December 1826 at Akora, Mujahideen defeated the Sikhs. Mujahideen fought 2nd battle at Hazro and won that too. Yar Muhammad, the Governor of Peshawar joined Syed Ahmad along with the Pathans. Mujahideen were rose to 80,000. Yar Muhammad betrayed and killed by Mujahideen in 1829. In 1930, Syed Ahmad captured Peshawar. Shariah was imposed. After leaving from Peshawar, at Balakot, Sikhs attacked the Mujahideen in which Syed Ahmad and other eminent leaders were died. 4. TITU MIR:I. Introduction: Titu Mir, original name was Mir Nisar Ali born in 1782, led a peasant revolt against the exactions of the government and oppression of the landlords. After returning from pilgrimage. II. Spiritual influence of Syed Ahmed Shaheed: he made Narkelbaria, a village near Calcutta, the center of his activities. He organized a command and appointed Masum Khan as a commander of his forces and Miskin Shah as his advisor.III. Peasant revolt: he defeated Krishna Deva in Bengal and set up government. But he was defeated by the British + Hindu troops due to the lack of military equipment.5. FARAIZI MOVEMENT BY HAJI SHARIATULLAH (1780-1840):I. Introduction: Shariatullah was born in 1780 in Bengal near Faridpur District. At the age of 18, he went for performing Haj. He stayed there from 1799 to 1818 and got his religious education. He learnt Persian and Arabic from Maulana Basharat.II. Why name Faraizi? The basic purpose was to turn Muslims towards fulfilling their fundamental Islamic duties.III. Movement: the conditions of Bengali Muslims were miserable. There was a revolutionary change in the Muslim masses with his teachings and character. In the place of concept of Pir and Murid, he established another relationship of Ustad and Shagrid. His chief innovation was the non-observance of the Friday prayers. He died in 1840.6. POLITICAL MOVEMENT OF DADHU MIAN:I. Introduction: after the death of Hajji Shariatullah, his son Muhammad Mohsin, popularly known as Dadhu Mian, organized the movement. He was born in 1819.II. Political organization: the most famous one was the organization of ‘Fara’izin’. He divided the Bengal into different circles from administration point of view. He appointed Khalifahs in different regions.III. Opposition against landlords: he got popularity because he opposed the taxes imposed by the Hindus landlords for the decoration of durgah. He declared that “Earth belongs to God and that no one has a right to occupy it as an inheritance or levy taxes upon it.” He was put under arrest for organizing the peasants of Faridpur districts against the British government in 1857 rebellion. He died in 1862.

TOPIC # 3WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1857-59)

1. Background: The British maintained their empire in the Indian subcontinent for nearly 200 years. The first 100 years were marked by chaos and crisis. The Sepoy Rebellion erupted in 1857 was an important event in the

history of the Indo-Pak. 2. Causes of Revolt: I. British had failed to respect the Traditions & religion of their troops:II. Rumours circulated that the cartridges for the newly issued Lee-Enfield rifles were greased with the fat of cows & pigs: III. The revolt first started at Barrack Pore in Bengal in March 29th 1857:IV. The issue exploded in Meerut, near Delhi in the Ganges River Valley: 85 men of the 3rd light cavalry refused on April 23 1857.V. Members of 11th and 20th infantry regiments too revolted: slaughtered 40 British officers and civilians in Meerut.3. War Period:I. Sepoy reinstated 82-year old Bahadar Shah Zafar.II. State of Oudh was the center point of the rebellion. III. On May 30 1857, rebel forces besieged Europeans along with the Loyal Indians at the British residency in Lucknow.IV. British forces retaliated and on September 15, five days of ferocious fight was held.V. A relief force reached Lucknow residency on September 25 but became pinned there until late November, when 2nd relief force broke the siege and evacuated them.VI. The British returned to Oudh in February 1858 with an army of 30,000 men.VII. On March 23, 1858, the city of Lucknow fell; Bahadar Shah was exiled to Rangoon where he later on died.

VIII. Finally, Nana Sahib, his general Tantia Topi and other leaders were killed and arrested, and in April 1859, the revolt ended.4. Consequences:I. Absence of unity:II. Ill-planned war:III. Formal end of Mughal Empire:IV. Started the Crown rule:5. Impact of British rule on Muslims after War of Independence:I. Treated with distrust:II. Ruthless punishments:III. Government posts were snatched away:IV. Took all inherited lands and palaces:V. New education system:VI. Employment opportunities were closed:VII. Poverty etc.

TOPIC # 4DEOBAN + NADWA + HAMAYAT-I-ISLAM

A. DEOBAND MOVEMENT (1866-1947):1. Background: Apart from the Aligarh Movement, there were many other forces working in the Sub-continent that contributed to national consolidation. These were in the form of institutions that grew up within the country. These institutions occasionally held views in opposition to the Aligarh leadership, but they all worked towards a common goal; national awakening and integrity.2. Establishment: Iqbal said “Its neither a creed nor a sect; Deobandi is the name of every rationalist religious man.”• Most important of these institutions was the seminary at Deoband. The original idea of establishing a madrasa for teaching religious subjects was that of a practicing sufi and a reputed saint, Haji Muhammad Abid of Deoband. He became the honorary patron and manager of the seminary, and when ample funds became available, Maulana Muhammad Yaqub, a leading educationist, was appointed as the headmaster. On April 14, 1866, the madrasa started functioning in a small mosque.• The madrasa at Deoband followed the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in its emphasis on Hadith, but it also incorporated many features of the new educational institutions established by the British, e.g., division of students in regular classes, attendance registers and written examinations. By 1931, 900 students were enrolled in the madrasa, including 43 foreign students.• Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan, who remained head of the institution for 23 years, encouraged contacts between Aligarh and Deoband. In 1920, the Maulana established the Jami'ah Milliyah for students who had discontinued studies at Aligarh during the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Jami'ah incorporated many features of Deoband.

• Another personality associated with Deoband was Maulana Ubaid Ullah Sindhi. He figured in the "Raishmi Roomal Tehrik" launched by Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan and left India for Afghanistan during the World War I to organize actions against the British. He was appointed as Home Minister in the provisional government of India formed at Kabul. However, after the failure of the scheme, he proceeded to Moscow and then from Turkey to Mecca. 3. Need for Establishing Deoband:I. Historical grudges of the Christians:II. Against the Christian missions:III. Spread of European culture:4. Objectives:I. Fundamentalist in religious matters but flexible in political affairs.II. Calling for the true Islam of Quran and Hadith.III. Upholding the principles of immutability of the Shariat.

IV. Projects the golden vision of Islam.V. Stipulates e central role of Ulema in rejuvenation of Muslim society.5. Contribution of Dar-ul-uloom:I. Role of Ulemas:II. Muslim’s inferiority complex was removed: III. Struggle for freedom:IV. Strengthen the faiths:V. Madrassah Mazahr-e-Uloom:6. Comparison of Deoband & Ali Garh:I. Religious difference: Deobandis stood for rigid and orthodox Islam; the study of Hadith occupied the main place. The door of Ijtihad was closed tightly. While Sir Syed approached Islam from the values of the modern west. He felt the necessity of Ijtihad. II. Political difference: Sir Syed remained loyal to the British, while Maulana Qasim fought against the British.

B. ANJUMAN HIMAYAT-I-ISLAM (1884-1947):1. Background: For a thousand years, Lahore had been a great cultural and intellectual center of the Muslims. Under the Mughals, Lahore boasted of rapid progress in the domains of education and learning. But towards the end of the Muslim rule in India, the Sikhs devastated large areas of Punjab. The annexation of Punjab brought peace to the region, but failed to create conditions conducive to the growth of intellectual and academic activities. The War of Independence of 1857 added to the woes and worries of the Indian Muslims. The Muslims refused to acquire modern education.2. Introduction: Towards the close of 19th century, the impact of Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement was felt all over the Sub-continent and Punjab was no exception. In March 1884, Maulana Qazi Hamid-ud-Din invited his pupil Maulvi Ghulam Ullah Qasuri and a number of other public-spirited persons to a small gathering and set up the Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam. On September 22, 1884, the establishment of the Anjuman was formally announced and Qazi Hamid-ud-Din was elected its first president.3. Objectives:I. To arrange for the religious and general education of Muslim boys and girls.II. To propagate and defend Islam against the Christian missionaries.III. To counteract the propaganda against Islam through speeches and publications.4. Achievements:I. In 1885, the Risala-i-Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam made its appearance, publishing the principles of IslamII. In 1892, the Anjuman established the Islamia College at Lahore. This was later elevated to degree level in 1903.III. Awakened the Muslims:IV. Textbooks and literature:V. Orphanage organization:VI. In 1939, the Anjuman established the Islamia College for Girls.

C. DAR-UL-ULOOM NADWAH-TUL-ULOOM OF LUCKNOW (1894-1947):1. Background: Prof. Dr. Shafique Ali Khan in ‘Two Nation Theory-As a Concept, Strategy & Ideology.’ “There was a common view that there was three main distinct tendencies prevailed among Muslims; the first was that of Deoband, pro-religious and anti-English; the 2nd tendency was that of Ali Garh, pro-English and anti-Congress and the third tendency was that of Nadwah, pro-British, anti-Ali Garh and anti-Deoband.”Under the president ship of Maulana Lutfullah Sahib, the first session was held at Kanpur in 1893. The purpose

was to bridge the gap b/w modern and orthodox group.2. Founders of Nadwah: Maulana M. Ali Mongheri was the first secretary general. Others were Maulana Shibli Nomani, Syed Sulaiman Nadvi etc.3. Objectives:I. To introduce suitable changes in the syllabi of Islamic theological institutions.II. To change the syllabi with the view to bringing it in line with the change conditions of the modern age.III. To examine the principles and injunctions of the Shariat with a view to keep it conformity with the fundamental guidance of the Holy Quran and Sunnah.IV. To train and educate preachers who have the deep knowledge of the Holy Quran and Ahadees along with the deep insight of the prevailing situation.4. Achievements:I. Bridge the gap b/w religion and modernism:II. Create a new mould of educational system:III. Body of Ulema:IV. Served as envoys and ambassadors:V. Finest Islamic literature:VI. The Dar-ul-Musannifin, or "Academy of Authors", at Azamgarh, manned by the former students of the Nadwa, is a byproduct of the institution.5. Contribution of Shibli Nomani: Shibli Nomani wrote extensively on Islam, highlighting those periods and personalities that offered guidance, and provided inspiration to the Muslims, enabling them to take their proper place in the world. His writings include the series "Heroes of Islam". The first book of this series was "Al-Mamoon", a biography of Mamoon-ur-Rasheed. Other books in the series included the biographies of Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Ghazali and Maulana Roomi.

TOPIC # 5SIR SYED (1817-98) & ALI GARH MOVEMENT

A. BACKGROUND: 1. “The events of 1857 have a two-fold significance in the history of modern Muslim India. They dealt a final blow to the idea of the Mughal Empire on one hand, and they put a seal on the debacle of the Muslims in all walks of life on the other.”2. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “After the Holocaust of 1857, the Indian Muslims came under a dark cloud. It was perhaps natural for the new rulers to turn their back on those who by religion were connected with the erstwhile rulers of India. The Muslims were not only dislodged from power but were also penalized. The government singled them out for exclusion from any position of responsibility, as it was very widely believed that the responsibility for the ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ rested mainly on the Muslims. It was therefore quite natural again for the British authorities to suspect the Indian Muslims as potential rebels. The Muslims’ share in the administration of the country was reduced to negligible proportions.”3. W. W. Hunter in ‘the Indian Mussalmans’, “There is now scarcely a government office in Calcutta in which a Muhammadan can hope for any post above the rank of porter, messenger, filler of ink-pots and menders of pens.”

4. “The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries because they had ousted them from power. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Their efforts resulted in the liquidation of the Mughal rule and the Sub-continent came directly under the British crown.”5. “After dislodging the Muslim rulers from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities available under the new regime. This tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community.”6. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “Coupled with this policy of repression by the government was the Muslims’ unwillingness to reconcile themselves to the changed circumstances. They were loath to take to western learning as it would, they thought, produce disbelief in the Muslim faith. It was argued that to read English was forbidden by the laws of Islam. “Pride of race, memory of bygone superiority, religious fears and a not natural attachment to the learning of” Islam were some of the most powerful factors which precluded the Muslims from accepting their new position. They were not prepared to change with the times.”7. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “While the Muslims thus sulked in the corner brooding over their misfortunes, the majority community, with its traditional flexibility of mind, continued to make a great progress.”8. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “They desperately needed a bold leader who can pull them out of the quagmire and stem the tide of their further degeneration. It was at this time that Syed Ahmed Khan came forward to lead the destinies of his co-religionists and help them steer through stormy seas of ignorance and superstitions to safe shores of confidence and fresh aspirations.”

B. INTRODUCTION:1. “As a social reformer, a political leader, a religious thinker and as a moralist, a rationalist, a humanist and a jurist, he contributed much to the realm of theology, philosophy, religion, history, literature, education and politics, besides building institutions which aimed at eradicating ignorance, apathy and superstition.”2. “Sir Syed washed off the dust of the centuries and melted the ice of rigidities that had made the Muslims moribund. It was he who brought about a rapprochement b/w the British and the Muslims who had been characterized for over a century as the inveterate foes of the colonies.”3. “A great thinker and reformer, Syed Ahmed Khan shaped the destiny of Muslims in the subcontinent and galvanized a frustrated mass of people into a nation with a future.”4. “Syed Ahmed Khan appeared on the horizon of Indo-Pak at a time when the existence of the Muslims in the subcontinent was at a stake.”5. “Sir Syed's first and foremost objective was to acquaint the British with the Indian mind; his next goal was to open the minds of his countrymen to European literature, science and technology. “C. EARLY EDUCATION & PROFESSION: He was born in October 17, 1817 A.D. in Delhi. His mother Aziz-un-Nisa took a great deal of interest in his education. Then he got education from Maulvi Hamid-ud-Din. He became Naib Munshi in 1839 and Munshi in 1841. In 1867, he was promoted as the Judge of the Small Causes Court. He retired in 1876.D. CONTRIBUTION IN POLITICS: the political career of Sir Syed began after 1857.Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “He was neither a politician nor a political leader. He was essentially a social reformer and his panacea for all the ills of his community was education.”

1. The Causes of the Indian Revolt (1858): on July 28 1859 about 15,000 Muslims assembled in the famous Delhi mosque to thank Queen Victoria for the general amnesty. He wrote, “The British had no attachments with the land over which they ruled and had no access to the minds of its people.” The book was translated and sent to all, high officials and members of the British parliament. HUME, the father of the India National Congress said, “It was after reading Syed Ahmed’s book on the Causes of Mutiny that I first felt the need of having a forum of public opinion of India and eventually the Indian National Congress came into existence.”Sir Syed wrote, “Granted that the intentions of government were excellent, there was no man who could convince the people of it; no one was at hand to correct the errors which they had adopted.”Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “The pith and soul of this pamphlet is that the estrangement b/w the governors and the governed led to the Indian Mutiny.”2. Pamphlet ‘The Loyal Muhammadans of India’ (1860): these were the series of articles.3. Tabyin-ul-Kalam: he tried to bridge the gap b/w the Christians and the Muslims. Sent 500 copies to British parliament.4. British Indian Association (1866): purpose was to keep in touch with the British parliamentarians. Both Hindus and Muslims could be the members.5. Urdu-Hindi Controversy (1867): it was started at Benares. He said, “Now I am convinced that these two communities will not join whole-heartedly in anything. He who lives will see.”6. Speech on Local Self Government System (1883): “For socio-political purposes – the whole of the population of England forms but one community. It is obvious that the same cannot be set of India.”7. United Indian Patriotic Association (1888): “As a practical counterblast to the Congress, Sir Syed formed still another association in August 1888, which was open to members of all communities.”He founded United Indian Patriotic Association and in connection with this party he wrote to General Graham, “The aim of this party is to oppose the political ideals and activities of the Congress.”And Sir Syed was correct in his thoughts, it is also clear from the statement of the Governor of Madras who once said, “An eagle doesn’t care a bit for the chirping of sparrows (Hindus) but if a falcon (Muslims) dares to oppose him he at once breaks its neck.”E. RELIGIOUS SERVICES:1. Risalah Ahkam-I-Taam-I-Ahli-I-Kitab (1868): 2. Essay on ‘the Life of Muhammad and Subject Subsidiary Thereto’: Sir William Muir wrote a book “The Life of Muhammad” in which he gave false knowledge about Muhammad (PBUH) and Islam.3. Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq (1870): 4. Tabyin-ul-Kalam: he tried to bridge the gap b/w the Christians and the Muslims.5. Commentary on Holy Quran: it was in Urdu in 7 volumes.6. Rahe Sunat Aur Rad Biddat & Kalamat-ul-Haq:7. Muhammadan Defence Association (1893): to counter Anti-Cow Killing Society founded by B. G. Tilak in 1890. “Its aim was to acquaint the authorities with the views of the Indian Muslims and also to prevent them from participating in political agitation.”, writes Waheed-uz-Zaman.

F. AS A FATHER OF TWO-NATION THEORY:1. “After the Urdu Hindi controversy, now I am convinced that these two communities will not join whole heartedly in anything, he who lives will see.”G. EDUCATIONAL SERVICES:1. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “He firmly believed that the crying need of the moment for his community was not their participation in politics but a comprehensive plan of education to fit them for

life in a changing world.”2. As a prophet of education:In the words of Iqbal, “The real greatness of the man consists in the fact that he was the first India Muslim who felt the need of a fresh orientation of Islam and worked for it – his sensitive nature was the first to react modern age.” He was appreciated by The Times of London as a Prophet of Education.3. Educate, Educate & Educate: “In our right hand will be the Holy Quran and there will be philosophy in our left hand and then there will be Crown of Laelaha on our head.”4. 1859: Built Gulshan School in Muradabad. 5. 1863: Set up Victoria School in Ghazipur.6. Translation Society (1864): established in Ghazipur. It was later on known as Ali Garh Scientific Society; the purpose was to translate the European books into Urdu for Muslims. It was being managed by Raja Jai Kishan Das.7. Ali Garh Institute Gazette (1866): he himself wrote articles and editorials.8. Society for Educational Progress of Indian Muslims (1870): in 1869, he went to London and took a keen observation of Oxford and Cambridge and decided to establish a university in India.9. Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq (1870): he founded a monthly journal in the lines of Spectator, an English magazine. “Its object was to bring home to the Muslims the need for liberalizing their religious thoughts and turning to western education in order to regain their former prosperity.”10. Muhammadan college Fund Committee (1872): purpose was to raise funds for new educational institutions. It worked for 3-years.11. Ali Garh (May 24 1875): Sir Syed said, “From the seed which we sow today there may spring up a mighty tree whose branches, like those of the banyan of the soil, shall in their turn strike firm roots into the earth and themselves send forth new and vigorous saplings. This college may expand into a university whose sons shall go forth throughout the length and breadth of the land to preach the gospel of free enquiry, of large hearted toleration, and of pure morality.” Firstly MAO college, later on in 1920, it became Ali Garh Muslim University (AMU).12. Ali Garh as nursery of politicians: Quaid regarded it as ‘ a nursery of politicians’. He also said that “Ali Garh is the arsenal of Muslim India.” He further stated, “Ali Garh is the ammunition for the Pakistan movement.”13. Ali Garh Movement & Freedom Fighters: Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, Hasrat Mohani.14. Scholars of Ali Garh: Saddat Hasan Minto, Ismat Chughtai.15. Muhammadan Educational Conference (1886): a general forum which held its meetings at various places and carried the message of Ali Garh at all parts of the country.16. United Indian Patriotic Association (1888): “As a practical counterblast to the Congress, Sir Syed formed still another association in August 1888, which was open to members of all communities.”17. The Muhammadan Defense Association of Upper India (1893):H. CONCLUSION: 1. He once said, “I don’t agree with those who believe that political discursion would be conducive to our national progress. I regard progress of education as the only means of national progress.” 2. He was denounced as Kafir, but he persisted with determination. 3. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman, “Towards Pakistan”: “Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was neither a traitor nor a turn coat. He sincerely believed that the Muslims were backward, educationally and economically, and were far behind the Hindus in every respect. There could be no cooperation between them in a political struggle unless they were on a footing of quality. He, therefore, worked ceaselessly to divert the Muslim energies into literary rather than political activities. Cooperation with the government was their only chance.” “He started out as a nationalist and

ended up as a champion of Muslim rights.”4. Sir Syed’s contribution to Muslim renaissance in India can be summarized in one phrase, “that it was the inculcation of self-confidence in his people”.5. “He shaped the destiny Muslims with a nation with future.TOPIC # 6THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (1885)

1. REASONS BEHIND THE CREATION: I. Civil service agitation: in 1876, Surender Nath Banerjee of Bengal founded the Indian association with the object of making it the center of an all India movement. The agitation took a serious turn when the Secretary of State reduced the age limit for Civil Service examination from 21 to 19 years.II. Vernacular press act & Arms act (1878): it made distinction b/w the Indians and the Europeans. The Vernacular press act imposed restriction only on the Indian languages press and not on newspapers published in English.III. Ilbert Bill (1883): C. P. Ilbert who was the law member of the Viceroy council, introduced a bill to enable Indian session judges to try Europeans, as had been the practice in the presidency town, the Indian British community started a fierce and persisted agitation against the measure.

2. FORMATION OF CONGRESS: I. Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, held series of meetings with Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy. He further went to Britain met with John Bright, Sir James Caird and others.II. Convention of the Indian National Union (Dec. 1885): on his return to India, he invited the convention of Indian National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884. 70 delegates, most of them were lawyers, educationalists and journalists, attended it. The first session of Congress was presided over by Womesh chandra Banerjee. Out of these 70 delegates, only 2 were Muslims.

3. OBJECTIVES:I. To seek the cooperation of all the Indians in its efforts.II. Eradicate the concepts of race, creed and provincial prejudices and try to form national unityIII. Discuss and solve the social problems of the country.IV. To request the governments to give more shares to the locals in administrative affairs.

4. BRITISH ATTITUDE TOWARDS CONGRESS:The members of the Congress expressed their satisfaction and loyalty to the British Raj. But, the first demand of Congress in the field of constitutional reforms made in 1892, when it was urged that indirect election by the local bodies to Legislative councils should be held to be final and not to subject to veto by government. Lord Lytton declared that Congress represent nothing but the social anomaly of their own position. Lord Dufferin passed a remark on Congress as a “microscopic minority”.

5. ATTITUDE OF MUSLIMS TOWARDS CONGRESS:Firstly, Congress showed itself as a national body. Two Muslim presidents were chosed b/w 1885-1896 named as; Badruddin Tyabji in 1887 and R. M. Sayani in 1896. but later on, Sir Syed changed the minds of the Muslims.

6. SIR SYED & CONGRESS:He founded United Indian Patriotic Association and in connection with this party he wrote to General Graham,

“The aim of this party is to oppose the political ideals and activities of the Congress.”And Sir Syed was correct in his thoughts, it is also clear from the statement of the Governor of Madras who once said, “An eagle doesn’t care a bit for the chirping of sparrows (Hindus) but if a falcon (Muslims) dares to oppose him he at once breaks its neck.”

TOPIC # 7PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905-1911)

“Important landmarks of history don’t reach their culmination without a long chain of precedent causes and events that imperceptibly direct the course of history to that final fulfillment.”

A. REASONS:1. As the rule of the East Company spread form the South through Bengal to the North, country was divided into presidencies and provinces. Bengal with a number of adjacent territories like Assam, Orissa and Bihar became a very extensive and unwieldy province, Calcutta as capital.2. Administrative problems due to huge size:3. In Feb. 1904, Lord Curzon toured Eastern Bengal to study the problems himself. At Dacca, he was the guest of Nawab Salimullah with whom he held discussions.4. Curzon, the Viceroy of India, sent the proposal to London in February 1905. The Secretary of State for India St. John Brodrich sanctioned it in June, and the proclamation of the formation of the new province was issued in September. The province of Bengal and Assam came into being on October 16 1905. 5. Before partition, in 1903, the total area of the province of Bengal was 189000 sq. miles with population of 78 million. Province was given revenues of 75,00,000 pounds.6. Assam with capital of Calcutta, with population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 9 million Muslims), and an area of 141, 580 sq. miles. Eastern Bengal with Capital at Dacca and an area of 106, 540 sq. miles. The population was 31 million (18 million Muslim and 12 Million Hindus).7. Obstacles to travel in Eastern Bengal:8. Little attention towards the education & public works:9. Muslims were totally ignored in Eastern Bengal:

B. REACTION OF THE MUSLIMS:1. “Incidentally, the partition went in favor of the Muslims. Before the partition, Western Bengal, being the first area to come under western influence, was developed and industrialized. It was a striking contrast to the eastern part where the Muslim peasantry was crushed under the Hindu landlords, the river system was infested with pirates, and very few funds were allocated for education. It was dreaded as a place of banishment. The partition helped boost Bengali literature and language; efforts were also made towards the social, economic and educational uplift of the Muslims.”2. Hindus media and lawyers were enjoying monopoly before the partiton.3. Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dacca established “Mohammedan Provincial Union”.

4. Muslims of West Bengal founded “Mohammedan Literary Society”.5. Economic, social and cultural uplift of the Muslims in the Eastern Bengal:

C. REACTION OF HINDUS:1. The Muslims outnumbered the Hindus in Eastern Bengal and this alleviated the Bengali Muslims politically and economically. This resulted in a series of unprecedented agitation by the Hindus. 2. They alleged that Lord Curzon had deliberately tried to divide the Hindus and the Muslims by drawing a line between the Hindu and the Muslim halves of Bengal. And by favoring the Muslims by giving them a new province in which they were in a clear majority, had struck a deadly blow to Bengali nationality. They branded him as the upholder of the devilish policy of 'divide and rule'. 3. He was blamed that he tried to vivisected the Bengali homeland; he had struck a deadly blow at Bengali nationalism.4. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar writes, “The Bengali-Hindu had the whole of Bengal, Orissa, Assam and even UP for his pasture. He had captured the civil service in all these provinces. The partition of Bengal was a diminution in the area of this pasture – the opposition to the partition of Bengal on the part of the Bengali Hindus was due principally to their desire not to allow the Bengal Mussalmans to taken their place in Eastern Bengal.”5. T. Walter Wallbank writes, “There were other motives too, less indigenous. Lawyers in Calcutta feared that the competition of the new law courts to be set up in Dacca and businessmen also dislike the prospect of competition from new enterprises that might spring up in the new provinces.”6. Hindus feudal lords and businessmen vis-à-vis Hindu Officials:7. They launched a mass movement, declaring October 16 as a day of mourning in Calcutta. Surrindernath Banerji and Bipin Chanderpaul were among the people who were more aggressive.8. Influenced by the Chinese boycott of American goods, the Hindus started the Swadeshi Movement in 1908 against the British. 9. In the meantime, the Hindus raised the Band-i-Mataram (first appeared in a Bengali novel ANAND MATH written by Bankim Chandra Chatterji) as the national cry protecting worship of Shivaji as a national hero. This organized anarchist movement took a terrorist turn resulting in political sabotage and communal riots.10. Dada Bhai Naroji encouraged the Hindus by saying that: “Agitate, agitate over the whole length and breadth of India.”

D. RESULT OF THE HINDU REACTION:1. I. H. Qureshi writes, “Nothing illustrates so well the validity of Sir Syed’s reading of Hindu mind as the agitation against the Partition of Bengal.”2. T. Walter Wallbank writes about B. G. Tilak, “Tilak’s nationalism was exclusively Hindu, and in this connection he founded a Cow Protection Society and that was aimed only at Muslims. B. G. Tilak was the father of Indian unrest; agreed by the mostly British historians.”3. Hindus started targeting Muslims as well as the British officials. An attempt was made to assassinate the Viceroy. A bomb was also thrown on a Bengal magistrate; as a result two English ladies were killed. Many Hindus were arrested. It further exacerbated the situation.

E. ANNULMENT OF PARTITION (1911):1. In 1911, the partition was cancelled by the Royal announcement by his Majesty King George V on 12 December at the occasion of the coronation at the Delhi Darbar. 2. “Keeping in view the fluid political situation in India and the cult of Hindu revivalism, the British decided to undo their earlier decision to please the Hindus. The provinces were reunited in 1911. This act saddened the Muslims. It was a catalyst in making the Muslims of India realize the need for a separate homeland.”

F. SIGNIFICANCE:1. Hindu Muslim relations worsened:2. It negate the Congress’s claims:3. Sir Syed’s fears came true:4. Establishment of Muslim League:5. British-Muslim relations affected:6. Call for the unity for the Muslims:

G. CONCLUSION:Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “In December 1911, the settled fact of the Lord Morley was unsettled by the annulment of the partition of Bengal.”

THE GOAL OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE CHANGED AT ITS LUCKNOW SESSION HELD IN 1913 from G. Allana’s Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents:“Attainment under the aegis of the British Crown of a system of self-government suitable to India through constitutional means, by bringing about, amongst other things a steady reform of the existing systems of administration by promoting national unity, by fostering public spirit among the people of India. And by cooperation with other communities for the said purpose.”

TOPIC # 8ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)

1. BACKGROUND: • Three factors had kept Muslims away from the Congress, Sir Syed's advice to the Muslims to give it a wide berth, Hindu agitation against the partition of Bengal and the Hindu religious revivalism's hostility towards the Muslims. The Muslims remained loyal to Sir Syed's advice but events were quickly changing the Indian scene and politics were being thrust on all sections of the population. • But the main motivating factor was that the Muslims' intellectual class wanted representation; the masses needed a platform on which to unite. It was the dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton and Thomas Paine, etc. at the M. A. O. College that initiated the emergence of Muslim nationalism.

2. ESTABLISHMENT OF AIML:• On December 30 1906, the annual meeting of Mohammedan Educational Conference was held at Dhaka under the chairmanship of Nawab Wiqar-ul-Mulk. Almost 3,000 delegates attended the session making it the largest-ever representative gathering of Muslim India. For the first time the conference lifted its ban on political

discussion, when Nawab Salim Ullah Khan presented a proposal for establish a political party to safeguard the interests of the Muslims; the All India Muslim League. • The headquarters of the All India Muslim League was established in Lucknow, and Sir Aga Khan was elected as its first president. Also elected were six vice-presidents, a secretary and two joint secretaries for a term of three years. The initial membership was 400, with members hailing proportionately from all provinces. Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar wrote the constitution of the League, known as the "Green Book". Branches were also setup in other provinces. Syed Ameer Ali established a branch of the League in London in 1908, supporting the same objectives.

3. OBJECTIVES:I. To inculcate among Muslims a feeling of loyalty to the government and to disabuse their minds of misunderstandings and misconceptions of its actions and intentions. II. To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and to represent their needs and aspirations to the government from time to time. III. To prevent the growth of ill will between Muslims and other nationalities without compromising to it's own purposes.

4. CONCLUSION: “Many Hindu historians and several British writers have alleged that the Muslim League was founded at official instigation. They argue that it was Lord Minto who inspired the establishment of a Muslim organization so as to divide the Congress and to minimize the strength of the Indian Freedom Movement. But these statements are not supported by evidence. Contrary to this, the widely accepted view is that the Muslim League was basically established to protect and advance the Muslim interests and to combat the growing influence of the Indian National Congress.”

TOPIC # 9MINTO-MORLEY REFORMSOr THE ACT OF 1909

1. INTRODUCTION:In 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, announced in the British parliament that his government wanted to introduce new reforms for India, in which the locals were to be given more powers in

legislative affairs. With this, a series of correspondences started between him and Lord Minto, the then Governor General of India. A committee was appointed by the Government of India to propose a scheme of reforms. The committee submitted its report, and after the approval of Lord Minto and Lord Morley, the Act of 1909 was passed by the British parliament. The Act of 1909 is commonly known as the Minto-Morley Reforms.

2. MAIN FEATURES:The following were the main features of the Act of 1909: 1) The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60. 2) The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It was fixed as 50 in the provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest of the provinces it was 30. 3) The member of the Legislative Councils, both at the Center and in the provinces, were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio members (Governor General and the members of their Executive Councils), nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor General and were government officials), nominated non-official members (nominated by the Governor General but were not government officials) and elected members (elected by different categories of Indian people). 4) Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims. 5) At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official members would be in majority. 6) The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the amendments and even to vote on them; excluding those items that were included as non-vote items. They were also entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative proceedings. 7) The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay from two to four. 8) Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs. 9) The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive Council.

3. CONCLUSION:Muslims established legal and constitutional status in subcontinent in the shape of separate electorates. This scheme of separate electorate aroused Hindu antagonism.Penderel Moon writes in his book ‘Divide & Quit’, “It propounding the two-nation theory and drawing attention so pointedly to the difficulties of majority rule in a country where the popularity is not homogeneous, he (Sir Syed) had not only put his finger on the main crux of the problem of Indian Constitutional Development, but also, by implication, had suggested a possible answer to it, for if two nations could not sit on the same throne, why should they not divide.”

TOPIC # 10THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916)Or THE CONGRESS LEAGUE SCHEME OF REFORMS

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:I. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote, “The outbreak of the World War in which Turkey was engaged as an active belligerent against England created serious perplexities for the Indian Muslims. Their spiritual allegiance to their Khalifa and their loyalties to the King Emperor pulled them in opposite directions. They, however, remained loyal to England and fought her battle I distant theatres of war. But the situation on the home front was different. The anti-British feeling which had been gaining momentum for some time past apace and brought the Muslim League even closer to the Congress.”II. “The first decade of the 20th century witnessed many such events which caused misunderstandings and bitterness b/w the Muslims and the Hindus. The misunderstandings and bitterness b/w the two communities however turned into better understanding and cooperation due to the political events taking place in the midst of second decade of the 20th century. The annulment of the partition of Bengal, Trablas and Balkan Wars, Kanpoor Mosque incidents were such events that made the Muslims suspicious and hostile towards the British Government. The beginning of the First World War also necessitated the better understanding and cooperation b/w the Hindus and the Muslims to force the British government to introduce further constitutional reforms in the subcontinent. When internal and external factors and events were paving the way for the close cooperation b/w the Hindus and the Muslim, an other step taken by the Muslim League raised the prospects of close ties b/w the Congress and the Muslim League.”III. THE GOAL OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE CHANGED AT ITS LUCKNOW SESSION HELD IN 1913 from G. Allana’s Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents:“Attainment under the aegis of the British Crown of a system of self-government suitable to India through constitutional means, by bringing about, amongst other things a steady reform of the existing systems of administration by promoting national unity, by fostering public spirit among the people of India. And by cooperation with other communities for the said purpose.”IV. The following years witnessed the desire and efforts of both the Congress and the Muslim League in close their ties for the betterment of the peoples of both nations. For example, in 1913, the Muslim League passed a resolution expressing its earnest desire of the Muslims to seek close cooperation with all communities without any prejudices for the attainment of common objectives. The resolution expressing the belief that the future prosperity of people would be determined by the relations of the Congress and the Muslim League.V. In 1913, Mr. Jinnah join Muslim League and tried to unite the Hindus and the Muslims.VI. In 1914, Quaid advised the Muslims to hold its annual session at the same time with the Congress in Bombay. Such step was necessary to facilitate the negotiations b/w the two parties. Thus in December 1915, the sessions of the Muslim League and the Congress were held simultaneously in Bombay. At this session a resolution moved by Quaid was unanimously passed asking for the appointment of committee to prepare in consultation with other political organisations a scheme of reforms.VII. The Congress reciprocated by appointing a committee to prepare a scheme of reforms in consultation with the Muslim League. Accordingly, both the committees of Muslim League and Congress held discussions in April 1916. Ultimately, the two committees succeeded in formulating agreed proposals for the constitutional reforms at their joint meeting in November 1916 at Calcutta.VIII. Duke Memorandum: in October 1916, 19 member of Imperial Legislative Council of both the parties met and jointly prepared and submitted a memorandum to British government for the political reforms.IX. Quaid’s role: Sarojini Naidu gave Quaid the title of “Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”. He was also given the title of “Principle Architect”.

2. LUCKNOW PACT:To pay homage and gratitude to Quaid-e-Azam for his yeoman services for the Hindu-Muslim unity, he was elected as the President of the 8th session of the All India Muslim League, which was to be held at Lucknow in 1916 along with the session of the India National Congress. Quaid made a strong plea for unity, “Towards the Hindus, our attitude should be of good-will and brotherly feelings, cooperation in the cause of our motherland should be of our guiding principle. India’s real progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and harmonious relations between the two great sister communities.”Major provisions of the scheme:I. The legislative assembly would be of 4/5 elected and 1/5 nominated members.II. The members were to be elected directly by the people for the term of five years.III. The strength of the members in major provinces was to be not less than 125 and 0 to 70 in small provinces.IV. The scheme gave the Muslims right to elect their own representatives by the method of separate electorates in the following proportion:Punjab 50% Bengal 40%U.P. 30% Bihar 25%C.P. 15% Madras 15%Bombay 33%V. “No bill or any clause therefore nor a resolution introduced by a non-official member affecting one or other community shall proceed if ¾ of the members of that community in the particular council, imperial or provincial council, oppose the bill or any clause of the resolution.”VI. The provincial councils were rested with full power regarding the internal administration such as power to raise loans, to impose and alter taxation and to vote for budget.VII. The provincial govt. was to be headed by the governor, not belonging to Indian Civil Services or any other permanent service.VIII. With regard to the Central Legislative Council. The scheme envisaged that it would consist of 150 members, 4/5 of whom were to be elected on the basis of separate electorate by the members of the provincial council.IX. The Muslim were given 1/3 representation of the Indian elected members in the central legislative council.X. The government of India was to be headed by the Governor General, half of whose members were necessarily to be the Indians elected by the members of legislative council.XI. The government of India or Central government was not entitled to interfere in the internal affairs of the provinces, except the general supervision over the provincial administration.XII. In legislative and administrative matters, the government of India was to be independent of the Secretary of State or India.

3. MERITS OF THE SCHEME:I. It gave autonomy to the provinces.II. The Muslims were given the right to elect their own representatives by separate electorate.III. People were given the right:IV. India was given status equal to the other dominions.V. No law can be enforced without the approval or consent of the minorities.

4. DEMERITS OF THE SCHEME:I. The scheme did not envisage the full representative and effective govt.II. The Muslim majority was reduced to minority.

III. The net result would have been a stalemate in which real power would have been exercised by the civil servants.

5. A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SCHEME:I. It was argued by some Muslims that the interests of the Muslims would be jeopardized by enforcement of the scheme. They further argued that the Muslim majority was reduced to minority in Punjab and Bengal.II. The greatest achievement for the Muslims was the recognition of the principle of separate electorate by Congress, which in other words was the recognition of separate Muslim identity in India.

TOPIC # 11MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMSOR THE ROWLETT ACT OF 1919A. BACKGROUND:In World War I, the British claimed that they stood for the protection of democracy around the world. Thus the Indians, who fought for them in this war, demanded that democracy should also be introduced in their country. In his famous August Declaration presented before the House of Commons on August 20 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs said that in order to satisfy the local demands, his government was interested in giving more representation to the natives in India. New reforms would be introduced in the country to meet this objective. He came to India and stayed here for six months. During this period he held meetings with different government and non-government people. Finally, in cooperation with the Governor General Lord Chelmsford, Montague presented a report on the constitutional reforms for India in 1918. The report was discussed and approved by the British Parliament and then became the Act of 1919. This Act is commonly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms.B. MAIN FEATURES:The following were the main features of the Act of 1919: 1.The Council of the Secretary of State was to comprise of eight to twelve people. Three of them should be Indian, and at least half of them should have spent at least ten years in India. 2. The Secretary of State was supposed to follow the advice of his council. 3. Part of the expenses of the office of the Secretary of State was to be met by the British Government. 4. The Secretary of State was not allowed to interfere in administrative matters of the provinces concerning the 'Transferred Subjects' and also in the matters on which Governor General and his Legislative were in agreement. 5. The Governor General had the power to nominate as many members to his Executive Council as he wanted. 6. Members appointed to the Executive Council were to have served in India for at least 10 years. 7. The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses i.e. the Council of the State (Upper House) and the Legislative Assembly (Lower House). 8. Council of the State was to consist of 60 members out of which 33 were to be elected and 27 nominated by the Governor General. 9. The Legislative Assembly was to consist of 144 members out of which 103 were to be elected and 41 to be nominated by the Governor General. 10. The franchise was limited.

11. The tenure of the Upper House was five and of the Lower House was three years. 12. Both the houses had equal legislative powers. In case of a tie, the Governor General was to call a joint meeting where the matter was to be decided by majority vote. 13. The Executive Council was not responsible to the Legislature and the Governor General had the right to refuse its advice. 14. Provincial Legislatures were supposed to be unicameral. 15. Seventy percent members of the Provincial Legislative Councils were to be elected and thirty percent were to be nominated. 16. The Governors were given 'Instrument of Instructions' which guided them in carrying out their administrative affairs. 17. The System of Diarchy was introduced in the provinces. 18. Besides Muslims, other minorities including Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Christians and Europeans were also given the right of separate electorate. 19. New reforms were to be introduced after ten years. C. CONCLUSION:The Montague-Chelmsford reforms were not accepted by most quarters in India as they fell far short of the Indian natives' expectations. Although Jinnah advised his countrymen to “treat the Report with due respect and serious consideration.”D. Aga Khan’s “India in Transition” from G. Allana’s Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents:“If the British, on whom historical causes have thrown the ultimate responsibility for the future of India and of surrounding states and nations, were to fail in this their greatest task, Southern Asia would become the theatre of one of the heaviest disasters humanity was faced. Sooner or later, an ignorant and innumerable proletariat, extending over nearly the whole length of Asia from the Red Sea to Pacific, divided by religion and race and language, would be faced with the challenge of self-government and self-development.”

TOPIC # 12KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

1. BACKGROUND:I. “Victorious Nations were sitting on a peace table like vultures feasting in a carcass, each trying to grab as mush as it could of Turkey and of other Muslim Territories. Turkey the seat of Caliph was in danger, Muslims were bound to emphatically and violently protest against the unholy conspiracy against Muslim countries. The purpose being to save the Khilafat from being liquidated.” II. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote, “With the Allied victory at the end of the First WW, the Muslims became apprehensive about the probable destiny of turkey. They demanded that Jazirat-ul-Arab including Mesopotamia, Arabia, Syria and Palestine with the holy places situated therein must always remain under the direct suzerainty of the Khalifah.”III. “As an institution, the Khilafat had a checkered past. It had originally migrated from Medina to Damascus and from Damascus to Baghdad. For sometime it was located in Egypt, then it fell to the lot of Turkey, very much as a prize.”IV. “The Lucknow pact showed that it was possible for middle-class, English-educated Muslims and Hindus to arrive at an amicable settlement on Hindu-Muslim constitutional and political problems. This unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Movements.”2. OBJECTIVES:The objectives were as follows: 1) To maintain the Turkish Caliphate.

2) To protect the holy places of the Muslims. 3) To maintain the unity of the Ottoman Empire. There was absolute unanimity among the Indian Muslims. Though separated from Turkey by thousands of miles, they were determined to fight Turkey's battle from India.3. JALIANWALA BAGH TRAGEDY:Rioting started in Amritsar on April 10, 1919. On April 13, 1919, a crowd assembled at the Jalianwala Bagh. These protestors were unaware of a ban that had just been imposed by the martial law administrators on public meetings. Sir Michael O'Duiyer opened fire on the crowd, resulting in 379 dead and 1,200 wounded.4. TREATY OF SEVRES (1920):When the terms of the Treaty of Sevres were announced in 1920, it caused deep resentment among the Muslims. They felt betrayed. In June 1920, 90 influential Muslims wrote to Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, informing him of their intent to start a non-cooperation movement against the government from August, until the terms of the treaty with Turkey were revised.5. KHILAFAT CONFERENCE (1919): On 5th July 1919, under the leadership of Hakeem Ajmal Khan and Dr. M. A. Ansari, Khilafat Conference was held to set a platform for the Khilafat movement. October 27, 1919 was observed as the ‘Khilafat Day’ and the well-known Khilafat Movement was started. “To secure the acceptance of their demands as body known as Khilafat Conference was institute at a meeting of Hindus and Muslims on November 23, 1919, at Delhi. B. R. Ambedkar wrote, “Mr. M. K. Gandhi took a leading part in these discussions and it was he who advised the Muslims to resort to non-cooperation to get their demands accepted by the government.”“Ali brothers were ready to jump into the ring where brave men were needed to right a wrong, backed by orthodox Muslims.”6. KHILAFAT COMMITTEE: Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, who in H. G. Well’s words, possessed “the heart of Napoleon, the tongue of Burke and the pen of Macaulay”, challenged the British imperialism on their breach of promises. Maulana Shaukat Ali was appointed as Secretary of the committee. 7. FIRST SESSION OF KHILAFAT CONFERENCE (DEC. 1919): first session was held at Amritsar under the president-ship of Maulana Shaukat Ali. In this conference, it was decided to send a delegation to Europe.8. DELEGATION TO EUROPE: A deputation headed by Maulana Muhammad Ali reached Europe in March 1920 and addressed various meetings in Paris and London. Speaking in London, he said, “Turkey cannot be torn into fragments like Germany and Austria, because the day you fear the Empire of the Khilafat to fragments, you outage the feelings of seventy five million of your own people. That is where the principle of self-determination comes in.” finally, the delegation returned home empty-handed in October 1920.

9. CONGRESS & NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT: Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote, “It was not easy even for a man of Mr. Gandhi’s influence as there was a powerful section of opinion in the Congress who were opposed to their participation in an agitation which was purely religious and exclusively a Muslim affair. But Mr. Gandhi insisted that the Congress should join hands with the Muslims in their hour of trial.”G. T. Garatt writes in ‘An Indian Commentary’, “for Mr. Gandhi, it was such an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans as would not arise in a hundred years.”Congress agreed on the non-cooperation programme at a special session at Calcutta in September 1920. This decision was later confirmed and elaborated at the annual session of the congress at Nagpur and following practical steps were recommended:1) Surrender of all British titles.

2) Refusal to attend any govt. functions.3) Withdrawal of all students from schools and colleges.4) Boycott of British law courts by lawyers and litigants.5) No service by Indians in the British army in Mesopotamia; and6) No participation in the coming elections either as electors or as candidates.10. QUAID-E-AZAM’S REACTION: Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “It was at this point that Mr. Jinnah finally left the Congress never to return (Sept. 1920). As a strict constitutionalist, he could not subscribe to the methods now being favoured by the Congress Party. He was not opposed to agitation or even to strong measures in support of India’s claim but he dislike and distrusted the kind of programme the Congress Party had now adopted.”Quaid said, “Your way is the wrong way: mine is the right – the constitutional way is the right way.” He further said about Gandhi, “I have great respect and admiration for him, but I am sure he is taking the country to a wrong channel.” His words about non-violent were, “If we are going to regulate everything in our country by the doctrine of non-violent, non-cooperation, then I am afraid we are forgetting the human nature.”Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada writes, “Besides the distaste for unconstitutional methods, he took exception to the Gandhian programme even on practical grounds. He could not contemplate how long the non-violent, non-cooperation could last if all the students were withdrawn from schools and colleges.”11. KHILAFAT MOVEMENT & ITS FAILURE: According to W. J. Waston, “In terms of sheer physical proportion it was one of the greatest movements of the world.”According to Jawaharlal Nehru’s ‘An Autobiography’, “It is estimated that during the months of December, 1921 and January, 1922 about 30,000 people belonging to both the communities went to jail.12. THE HIJRAT OR THE MASS EXODUS (August 1920): it was the outcome of the suggestion by certain Muslim religious leaders and it was reported that it was Maulana Abu-al-Kalam Azad who was the first to prescribe this remedy of mass migration to Afghanistan vis-à-vis Jamiyat-al-Ulema-i-Hind – they issues a fatwa that India was a Dar-ul-Harb. Around 925 eminent Muslims signed this fatwa. Acting upon this advice some 18000 Muslims, mostly from Sindh and NWFP, marched towards Afghanistan. But the Afghan authorities declined to admit these intending emigrants and they were turned back with hundreds dying on the roadside due to the difficulties of the journey.T. Morrison writes, “Leaving behind them the roads doted with graves of old men, women and children, when the unhappy Muhajarin returned, they found themselves homeless and penniless; their property which they had sold for a tithe of its value was in the hands of others.”13. MOPLAH UPRISING (1921): Along the Malabar coast of India in the Province of Madras, there lived a fearless, fanatical and poverty-stricken group of Muslim people known as the Moplahs. In mid of August 1921, agrarian riots broke out in Nilambur. They rose first against the British authorities and then against their Hindu lords. Four thousand Moplahs were killed in action and tens of thousands were injured. Martial law was proclaimed and order was restored after a great deal of bloodshed.W. C. Smith writes in ‘Modern Islam in India’, “The bitter; Moplahs were bitterly anti-Hindu, bitterly anti-British, bitter against the world that gave them only misery. According to a conservative estimate, the total loss of life was 10,000.”14. MOPLAH TRAIN TRAGEDY:Around a hundred prisoners, confined in a closed and almost airtight goods van, were transported by rail. When the door was opened, 66 Moplahs were found suffocated to death and the remaining 34 were on the verge of collapse. 15. ARREST OF ALI BROTHERS (Sept. 1921):Besides other events, the arrest of the Ali brothers in September 1921 gave a severe blow to the Khilafat Movement.

16. INCIDENT OF CHAURI CHAURA (FEB. 1922): On 5th Feb. 1922, the non-cooperation movement was called off by Mr. Gandhi after the tragic incident at Chauri Chaura – small town of district Farkh-a-bad - where 22 policemen who interfered with a procession were burnt alive by the frenzied crowd.17. ROLE OF GANDHI: Mr. Gandhi said, “I claim that with us both the Khilafat is the central fact, with Maulana Muhammad Ali, because it is his religion, with me because, in laying down my life for the Khilafat, I ensure the safety of the cow, that is, my religion from the Mussalman knife. This may seem a lower ideal. But there is no concealment in it.”“Gandhi the so called “Prophet of Revolution” appeared to turn pale. He admitted that he had blundered. He undertook a fast like a penitent sinner. He had not the courage to face the natural consequences of his plans.”18. DIVISIONS B/W HINDUS & MUSLIMS: I. All this was followed by Hindu-Muslim communal clashes, particularly in Multan and Bengal in September 1922. The Sanghattan and Shuddi movements were offshoots of these communal rioting, which were anti-Muslim and aimed at Hindu revivalism.II. Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “There were frequent occasions when Hindus and Muslims drank water from the same cup. On one occasion the Muslims even invited Swami Shardhanand, a Hindu religious leader, to address a Muslim gathering in a Delhi mosque. But these fits of sanity were so few and this phase of the Indian communal problem was so short-lived that nothing constructive was achieved. It did appear at the same time that the traditional hostility had been composed, but in fact the cracks were only papered over and no filled. It was an unreal alliance of strange bed-fellows in common misery and not an enduring unity which springs from purity of hearts and thorough understanding.” III. He further writes, “Even in the prisons, the division b/w the Hindus and Muslims persisted. The situation in the Punjab seemed to have been specially severe. The Muslims were confined as C class prisoners were obliged to line up at a distance from the Hindu cooks who threw them their loaves of bread. Every care was taken to avoid ‘pollution’. The Muslim political workers had to put the iron cups in a row and retire. The non-Muslim cooks never put cooked vegetables or pulses if the cup was in the hands of the Muslim, because there was the danger of his pollution touch.”19. HINDU MOVEMENTS:I. Ariya Samaj: To spread hatred against the Muslims and establish the Hindu Temple of Learning.II. Swami Shardanada Shudi Movement: To purify the subcontinent from the Muslims. Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami Shardanada were amongst the leaders.III. Sanghatan movement: started by Dr. Moonje from Lahore. To spread hatred against the Muslims and trained the Hindus. IV. Tabligh and Tanzeem: started by the Muslims to counter the Hindus’ aggression and intimidation.20. CONCLUSION & RESULTS OF THE KHILAFACT MOVEMENT: I. In 1924, Turks under Mustafa Kamal were consolidating their position in Turkey. They announced an end to the Khilafat. It was a great blow to Indian Khilafatists who had been campaigning on behalf of Turkey and Khilafat. Gradually the enthusiasm of the people died down and the Khilafat Conference and Committee developed new interests and in a short time nothing but their name remained.II. Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “It can safely be said that if the lack of political unity b/w the Hindus and the Muslims had been the only obstacle in the way of freedom. India had surmounted it during the Khilafat agitation days. But mush more important than the presence of political unity was the absence of social unity which had always stood like the Great Wall of China b/w the two communities.”He further writes, “This was, in sum, the Khilafat Movement of India. Although it lingered on even after the instigation of the Caliphate was officially abolished by the Turks themselves in March 1924, the movement lost such effectiveness, as it had ever possessed when the non-cooperation agitation was suspended by Mr. Gandhi. As a reaction to the short-lived unity during the agitation days, a rich crop of communal riots followed all over

India.”

III. “The Khilafat Movement was an asset for the struggle of Pakistan. It made clear to the Indian Muslims to trust neither the British nor the Hindus, but to look to their own strengths for self-preservation.”IV. In the words of T. Walter Wallbank, “It could be argued that the seeds of Pakistan were sown by this one event.”

TOPIC # 13NEHRU REPORT (AUGUST 1928)

A. BACKGROUND:1) Delhi Muslim Proposals:A group of prominent Muslims met at Delhi on March 20, 1927, to find a way out of the existing political impasse. Mr. Jinnah presided in this meeting. The following formula was evolved: Sindh should be separated from Bombay; Reforms should be introduced in NWFP; In Punjab and Bengal, the proportion of representation should be in accordance with population etc.2) The Government of India Act 1919:was essentially transitional in character. Under Section 84 of the said Act, a statutory Commission was to be appointed at the end of ten years to determine the next stage in the realization of self-rule in India. 3) Simon Commission:Accordingly, the Simon Commission was sent to the Sub-continent under the command of Sir John Simon. All members of the commission were British. This was regarded as highly insulting to the Indians and immediate protest was raised from all the important political parties against the “all whites”. When the Simon Commission arrived, the local masses welcomed it by with slogans of "Go back Simon!” All the major political parties of Sub-continent, except the Shafi League of Punjab, boycotted the Simon Commission (All India Muslim League was split into two wings in Dec. 1927.Shafi and Jinnah League.) 4) After the failure of Simon Commission, there was no alternative for the British government but to ask the local people to frame a constitution for themselves. They knew that the Congress and Muslim League were the two main parties and that they both had serious difference of opinions. “Birkenhead, Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, threw the ball in the Indian politicians' court, and asked them to draw a draft of the forthcoming Act on which both Hindus and Muslims could agree.”

B. ALL PARTIES CONFERENCES:1. First Meeting (Feb. 1928): The Indian leaders accepted the challenge and for this purpose, the All Parties Conference was held at Delhi in February 12, 1928. More than a hundred delegates of almost all the parties of the Sub-continent assembled and participated in the conference. Unfortunately, the leaders were not able to come to any conclusion. The biggest hindrance was the issue of the rights of minorities. Shafi League did not attend the meeting.2. The Second Meeting of the All Parties Conference was held in March the same year in Delhi, but the leaders still had their differences and again were not able to reach a conclusion. The only work done in this conference was the appointment of two subcommittees. But due to the mutual differences between Muslims and Hindus, the committees failed to produce any positive result. 3. Third Meeting: When the All Parties Conference met for the third time in Bombay on May 19 1928, there was hardly any prospect of an agreed constitution. It was then decided that a small committee should be appointed to work out the details of the constitution. This third meeting was presided over by Dr. Ansari.

Motilal Nehru headed this committee. There were nine other members in this committee including two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Qureshi. 4. Appointment of Committee: I. Pandit Motilal Nehru (Chairman)II. Sir Ali Imam (Muslim)III. Mr. Shoaib Qureshi (Muslim)IV. Mr. M. S. Aney (Hindu Mahasabha)V. Mr. M. R. Jayakar (Hindu Mahasabha)VI. Mr. G. R. Pradhan (Non.Brahmin)VII. Sardar Mangal Singh (Sikh League)VIII. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru (Liberals)IX. Mr. N. M. Joshi (Labour)Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was to act as the Secretary. Three members of the Committee took little or no interest in its proceedings; Mr. Jayakar; Mr. Joshi and Sir Ali Imam.The committee worked for three months at Allahabad and its memorandum was called the "Nehru Report". The chairman joined hands with the Hindu Mahasabha and unceremoniously quashed the recent Congress acceptance of the Delhi Proposals. The Nehru Report recommended that a Declaration of Rights should be inserted in the constitution assuring the fullest liberty of conscience and religion.C. RECOMMENDATIONS:With regard to separate electorate it said, “Everybody knows that separate electorates are bad for the growth of national spirit and are still worse for a minority community. They make the majority wholly independent of the minority and its votes are usually hostile to it.”1. India should be given the status of a dominion. 2. There should be federal form of government with residuary powers vested in the center. 3. India should have a parliamentary form of government headed by a Prime Minister and six ministers appointed by the Governor General. 4. There should be bi-cameral legislature. 5. There should be no separate electorate for any community. 6. System of weightage for minorities was as bad as that of separate electorates. 7. Reservation of Muslim seats could be possible in the provinces where Muslim population was at least ten percent, but this was to be in strict proportion to the size of the community. 8. Muslims should enjoy one-fourth representation in the Central Legislature. 9. Sindh should be separated from Bombay only if the Committee certified that it was financially self-sufficient.

10. The N. W. F. P. should be given full provincial status. 11. A new Kanarese-speaking province Karnatic should be established in South India. 12. Hindi should be made the official language of India.

D. CONCLUSION: Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “The recommendations of the Nehru Report went against the interests of the Muslim community. It was an attempt to serve Hindu predominance over Muslims. The Nehru Committee's greatest blow was the rejection of separate electorates.”“Of the two Muslim members of the Nehru Committee, Syed Ali Imam could attend only one meeting due to his illness and Shoaib Qureshi did not endorse views of the Committee on the issue of Muslim representation in legislature. Thus the Nehru Report was nothing else than a Congress document and thus totally opposed by Muslims of the Sub-continent. The Hindus under Congress threatened the government with a disobedience

movement if the Nehru report was not implemented into the Act by December 31, 1929.”

E. MUSLIMS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS NEHRU REPORT:I. Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “The reaction of the Muslims to the Nehru Report was distinctly unfavourable. Their objections were on points which they regarded as fundamental in the future constitution of India. The gulf b/w the two parties was at once revealed; separate electorates and the reservation of seats which the leaders of the Congress regarded as obstacles to the growth of Indian nationality, were insisted upon by the Muslims as the absolute minimum which they would accept.”II. Maulana Shaukat Ali said, “As a young man I never seen greyhounds deal with a hare as the Hindus proposed to deal with the Moslems.”III. This Hindu attitude proved to be a milestone in the freedom movement of the Muslims. It also proved to be a turning point in the life of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was in Europe during these hectic days of political activity. After reading the Nehru Report, Jinnah announced, “This is the parting of the ways.”IV. “The Nehru Report reflected the inner prejudice and narrow-minded approach of the Hindus.”V. “The people belong to one God, the country belongs to the Britishers, the order is from the Mahasabah Bahadur.”VI. “One immediate and important result of the Nehru Report was that it gave a powerful impetus to unity among the hitherto divided Muslims.”

F. QUAID’S THREE POINTS:I. One-third Muslim representation in the central legislature.II. Muslim representation in Punjab and Bengal should be on the basis of population.III. Residuary powers should be vested in the provinces. Sir T. B. Sapru said about Quaid, “If he is a spoilt child, a naughty child I am prepared to say, give him what he wants and be finished with it.”

G. ALL PARTIES MUSLIM CONFERENCE:The immediate result of the publication of the Nehru Report was that Muslims of all shades of opinion united in opposition to it. The two wings of the Muslim League that had been split since 1924 came closer. On January 21, 1929, the All Parties Muslim Conference convened in Delhi under Aga Khan. Nearly every shade of opinion was represented. The Conference laid down the Muslims demands in the clearest possible terms: 1. The only form of government suitable to Indian conditions was a federal system with complete autonomy and residuary powers vested in the constituent states. 2. Muslims should not be deprived of the right to elect their representatives through separate electorates without their consent. 3. Muslims should continue to have weightage in the Hindu majority provinces and they were willing to accord the same privilege to non-Muslim minorities in Sindh, the N. W. F. P. and Balochistan. 4. Muslims should have their due share in the central and provincial cabinets. 5. Muslim majority in all Muslim majority provinces (with particular reference to Bengal and Punjab) should in no way be disturbed.

TOPIC # 14QUAID’S 14 POINTS (MARCH 28 1929)Or IRREDUCIBLE MINIMUM POLITICAL DEMANDS OF THE MUSLIMS

A. INTRODUCTION: A positive aspect of Nehru Report was that it resulted in the unity of divided Muslim groups. In a meeting of the council of All India Muslim League on March 28, 1929, members of both the Shafi League and Jinnah League

participated. Quaid-e-Azam termed the Nehru Report as a Hindu document, but considered simply rejecting the report as insufficient. He decided to give an alternative Muslim agenda. It was in this meeting that Quaid-e-Azam presented his famous Fourteen Points.

B. POINTS:These points were as follows: 1. The form of the future constitution should be federal with the residuary powers vested in the provinces. 2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces. 3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality. 4. In the Central Legislative, Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third. 5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by means of separate electorate as at present, provided it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favor of a joint electorate. 6. Any territorial distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the North West Frontier Province. 7. Full religious liberty, i.e. liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education, shall be guaranteed to all communities. 8. No bill or any resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three-fourth of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill resolution or part thereof on the ground that it would be injurious to the interests of that community or in the alternative, such other method is devised as may be found feasible and practicable to deal with such cases. 9. Sindh should be separated from the Bombay presidency. 10. Reforms should be introduced in the North West Frontier Province and Balochistan on the same footing as in the other provinces. 11. Provision should be made in the constitution giving Muslims an adequate share, along with the other Indians, in all the services of the state and in local self-governing bodies having due regard to the requirements of efficiency. 12. The constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture and for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws and Muslim charitable institution and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the state and by local self-governing bodies. 13. No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of at least one-third Muslim ministers. 14. No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence of the State's contribution of the Indian Federation.

C. IMPACT:The council of the All India Muslim League accepted fourteen points of the Quaid. A resolution was passed according to which no scheme for the future constitution of the Government of India would be acceptable to the Muslims unless and until it included the demands of the Quaid presented in the fourteen points.

TOPIC # 15IQBAL’S ADDRESS OF ALLAHABAD (1930)

A. BACKGROUND:Several Muslim leaders and thinkers having insight into the Muslim-Hindu situation proposed the separation of Muslim India. However, Allama Muhammad Iqbal gave the most lucid explanation of the inner feelings of Muslim community in his presidential address to the All India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was a poet, philosopher and thinker who had gained countrywide fame and recognition by 1930. “Political events had taken an ominous turn. There was a two-pronged attack on the Muslim interests. On one hand, the Hindus offered a tough opposition by proposing the Nehru Report as the ultimate constitution for India. On the other, the British government in India had totally ignored the Muslim demands in the Simon Commission report.”

B. ADDRESS:Iqbal addressed as President of the annual session of Muslim League:“To base a constitution on the conception of a homogenous India or to apply to India the principles dictated by British Democratic sentiments is unwittingly to prepare her for a civil war…self-government with the British Empire or in about it, the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of Muslims, at least of North West India… I therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim State in the best interests of India and Islam. For India it means security and peace resulting form an internal balance of power; for Islam an opportunity to rid itself of the stamp that Arabian Imperialism was forced to give it, to mobilize its laws, its education, its culture and to bring them into close contact with its own original spirit and with the spirit of modern times.”He further stated, “I would go further than the demands embodied in it. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state, self-government within the British empire or without the British empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.”

C. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE:“That was a bombshell for the British as well as the Hindus.”“The greatest historical significance of Allama Iqbal's Allahabad address was that it cleared all political confusion from the minds of the Muslims, thus enabling them to determine their new destination. The national spirit that Iqbal fused amongst the Muslims of India later on developed into the ideological basis of Pakistan.”

TOPIC # 16ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES

A. SIGNIFICANCE:1. Simon Commission: The Indian political community received the Simon Commission Report issued in June 1930 with great resentment. Different political parties gave vent to their feelings in different ways. The Muslims reserved their opinion on the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India. 2. Civil Disobedience Movement: The Congress started a Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhi's command. 3. The Indian political situation seemed deadlocked. The British government refused to contemplate any form of self-government for the people of India. This caused frustration amongst the masses, who often expressed their anger in violent clashes. 4. The Labour Government returned to power in Britain in 1931, and a glimmer of hope ran through Indian hearts. Labour leaders had always been sympathetic to the Indian cause. The government decided to hold a Round Table Conference in London to consider new constitutional reforms. All Indian politicians; Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians were summoned to London for the conference. B. FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (Nov 1930-Jan 1931): 1. The first session of the conference opened in London on November 12, 1930. All parties were present except for the Congress, whose leaders were in jail due to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress leaders stated that they would have nothing to do with further constitutional discussion unless the Nehru Report was enforced in its entirety as the constitution of India. 2. Almost 89 members attended the conference, 16 from the UK, 16 from the Indian states and 57 were chosen from various communities and interests in British India. The prominent among the Muslim delegates invited by the British government were Sir Aga Khan, Quaid-e-Azam, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jouhar, Sir Muhammad Shafi and Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq. Sir Taj Bahadur Sapru, Mr. Jaikar and Dr. Moonje were outstanding amongst the Hindu leaders. 3. The Muslim-Hindu differences overcastted the conference as the Hindus were pushing for a powerful central government while the Muslims stood for a loose federation of completely autonomous provinces. The Muslims demanded maintenance of weightage and separate electorates, the Hindus their abolition. The Muslims claimed statutory majority in Punjab and Bengal, while Hindus resisted their imposition. In Punjab, the situation was complicated by inflated Sikh claims. 4. Maulana Muhammad Ali’s speech at the Fourth Plenary Session of the Round Table Conference in London on 19th Nov. 1930. “Freedom or death”:“Mr. Chairman… we belong to the Army of India! I tell you this is the fact, God’s own truth, about the India Army. You take a plebiscite of the Indian Army, God Almighty being present, and the British spies, of course,

being also present, but some of us also being present, and you will find that we know more than anybody else on that subject. India will defend herself today if you honestly want her to do so.”5. Mr. Jinnah stood for full self-government, but added, “The first and foremost thing that we have to provide is that the various interests are safeguarded and you cannot possibly frame any constitution unless you have provided safeguards for the rights and the interests which exist in India.” 6. Eight subcommittees were set up to deal with the details. These committees dealt with the federal structure, provincial constitution, franchise, Sindh, the North West Frontier Province, defense services and minorities. 7. The conference broke up on January 19, 1931, and what emerged from it was a general agreement to write safeguards for minorities into the constitution and a vague desire to devise a federal system for the country. C. GANDHI-IRWIN PACT: Lord Irwin, the Viceroy extended an invitation to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement without laying down any preconditions. The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 19311. The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement. 2. The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference. 3. The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress. 4. The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses not involving violence. 5. The Government would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement.

D. SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (Sept 1931 to Dec. 1 1931):1. The second session of the conference opened in London on September 7, 1931. The main task of the conference was done through the two committees on federal structure and minorities. 2. Gandhi’s Stubborn attitude: Gandhi was a member of both but he adopted a very unreasonable attitude. He claimed that he represented all India and dismissed all other Indian delegates as non-representative because they did not belong to the Congress.3. The Muslim delegation was much the same as in the first session with the addition of Allama Iqbal.4. The communal problem represented the most difficult issue for the delegates. Gandhi again tabled the Congress scheme for a settlement, a mere reproduction of the Nehru Report, but all the minorities rejected it. 5. As a counter to the Congress scheme, the Muslims, the depressed classes, the Indian Christians, the Anglo-Indians, and the Europeans presented a joint statement of claims which they said must stand as an interdependent whole. As their main demands were not acceptable to Gandhi, the communal issue was postponed for future discussion. 6. Three important committees drafted their reports; the Franchise Committee, the Federal Finance Committee and States Inquiry Committee. 7. On the concluding day, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed to the Indian leaders to reach a communal settlement. Failing to do so, he said, would force the British government would take a unilateral decision. 8. Quaid-e-Azam did not participate in the session of the Second Round Table Conference as he had decided to keep himself aloof from the Indian politics and to practice as a professional lawyer in England. 9. On his return to India, Gandhi once again started Civil Disobedience Movement and was duly arrested.

E. COMMUNAL AWARD (August 16, 1932):Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, “not only as the PM but as the friend of India,” announced a provisional scheme for communal representation, known as Communal Award. The Muslims who constituted 56% of the population in Punjab were given 86 seats out of a total membership of 175. Similarly, in Bengal where they were 54.8%, they

were allotted 199 seats out of a total of 250. The award thus did not give the Muslims a clear majority in the two provinces where the problem was the most difficult, as there was a very heavy weightage in favour of the Sikhs in Punjab and the Europeans in Bengal. At this time, Ch. Rehmat Ali coined the word ‘PAKISTAN’, who was studying in London.According to Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada, “Though the decision falls far short of the Muslim demands, the Muslim have accepted it in the best interest of the country reserving to themselves the right to press for the acceptance of all their demands.” The Hindus, on the other hand, protested violently and at once organized a campaign against the award.

F. THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (Nov. 17 to Dec. 24, 1932):The third session began on November 17, 1932. This session is officially known as joint select committee appointed by Parliament with the Marquees of Linlithgow as its chairman, to draw up the Indian Constitution. The Conference was short and unimportant. The Congress was once again absent, so was the Labour opposition in the British Parliament. Reports of the various committees were scrutinized. The conference ended on December 25, 1932.

G. CONCLUSION:The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were embodied in a White Paper. It was published in March 1933, and debated in parliament directly afterwards, analyzed by the Joint Select Committee and after the final reading and loyal assent, the bill reached the Statute Book on July 24, 1935.

TOPIC # 17THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1935A. Allama Iqbal’s press statement on the constitution (26th February, 1933):“Whatever else one may say about the results of the Round Table Conferences, nobody can deny that they have given birth to a people who are at once new and ancient. I believe it to be one of the most remarkable facts of modern history. Not even a farsighted historian can realize the full consequences of the birth of this new – ancient people. I only hope that their leaders will remain alert and not allow the growth of self-consciousness among their people to be arrested by external forces, social or political.”B. BACKGROUND:After the failure of the Third Round Table Conference, the British government gave the Joint Select Committee the task of formulating the new Act for India. The Committee comprised of 16 members each from the House of Commons and House of Lords, 20 representatives from British India and seven from the princely states. Lord Linlithgow was appointed as the president of the Committee. After a year and a half of deliberations, the Committee finally came out with a draft Bill on February 5, 1935. The Bill was discussed in the House of Commons for 43 days and in the House of Lords for 13 days and finally, after being signed by the King, was enforced as the Government of India Act, 1935, in July 1935.C. MAIN FEATURES:1. A Federation of India was promised for, comprising both provinces and states. The provisions of the Act establishing the federal central government were not to go into operation until a specified number of rulers of states had signed Instruments of Accession. Since, this did not happen, the central government continued to

function in accordance with the 1919 Act and only the part of the 1935 Act dealing with the provincial governments went into operation. 2. The Governor General remained the head of the central administration and enjoyed wide powers concerning administration, legislation and finance. 3. No finance bill could be placed in the Central Legislature without the consent of the Governor General. 4. The Federal Legislature was to consist of two houses, the Council of State (Upper House) and the Federal Assembly (Lower House). 5. The Council of State was to consist of 260 members, out of whom 156 were to be elected from the British India and 104 to be nominated by the rulers of princely states. 6. The Federal Assembly was to consist of 375 members; out of which 250 were to be elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the British Indian provinces while 125 were to be nominated by the rulers of princely states. 7. The Central Legislature had the right to pass any bill, but the bill required the approval of the Governor General before it became Law. On the other hand Governor General had the power to frame ordinances. 8. The Indian Council was abolished. In its place, few advisers were nominated to help the Secretary of State for India. 9. The Secretary of State was not expected to interfere in matters that the Governor dealt with, with the help of Indian Ministers. 10. The provinces were given autonomy with respect to subjects delegated to them. 11. Diarchy, which had been established in the provinces by the Act of 1919, was to be established at the Center. However it came to an end in the provinces. 12. Two new provinces Sindh and Orissa were created. 13. Reforms were introduced in N. W. F. P. as were in the other provinces. 14. Separate electorates were continued as before. 15. One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature was guaranteed. 16. Autonomous provincial governments in 11 provinces, under ministries responsible to legislatures, would be setup. 17. Burma and Aden were separated from India. 18. The Federal Court was established in the Center. 19. The Reserve Bank of India was established.D. CONCLUSION:Both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League opposed the Act, but participated in the provincial elections of winter 1936-37, conducted under stipulations of the Act. At the time of independence, the two dominions of India and Pakistan accepted the Act of 1935, with few amendments, as their provisional constitution.Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “The Govt. of India Act was a voluminous document but, speaking broadly, the content of the new constitution was two-fold. Firstly, it set up a federation in India. Secondly, it established in eleven provinces autonomous governments under ministers wholly responsible to elect legislators. The most important provisions of the Act, for the Muslims, were the creation of Sindh as a separate province; the introduction of provincial autonomy; 1/3 Muslim representation in the central legislature; the continuation of the separate electorates and the reservation to the Governor General of authority to assign the residuary powers at his discretion.”

TOPIC # 18HINDU MINISTRIES (1937-39)

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:The Government of India Act of 1935 was practically implemented in 1937. The provincial elections were held in the winter of 1936-37. There were two major political parties in the Sub-continent at that time, the Congress and the Muslim League. Both parties did their best to persuade the masses before these elections and put before them their manifesto.

2. THE POLITICAL MANIFESTO OF MUSLIM LEAGUE & CONGRESS:The political manifestos of both parties were almost identical, although there were two major differences. Congress stood for joint electorate and the League for separate electorates; Congress wanted Hindi as official language with Deva Nagri script of writing while the League wanted Urdu with Persian script.

3. ELECTION RESULTS: Congress captured 704 out of 1585 seats in lower houses of all the provinces taken together, and in five (Madras, the United Provinces, Bihar, the Central Provinces, and Orissa) it was returned with clear majority. It obtained 19 out of 50 seats in NWFP, in Punjab 18 out of 175, in Sindh 7 out of 60, in Bengal 51 out of 250. Yet it failed to secure even 40 percent of the total number of seats. Out of the 1,771 total seats in the 11 provinces.Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “Mr. Gandhi’s assertion at the Round Table Conference that the Congress represented and spoke for 95 per cent of the population of India had by no means been confirmed by the election results.”

4. THE LEAGUE’S FAILURE: In the words of R. Symonds, “In 1937 it was still a middle-class organisation which had made little effort to obtain a mass following.” The League fared particularly poorly in Punjab, Sindh and NWFP. In Punjab, the Nationalist Unionist Party swept the Muslim seats. The overall results of the League’s achievement were that it won 106 out of total 491 Muslim seats.Thus directly or indirectly, Congress was in power in nine out of eleven provinces. The Unionist Party of Sir Fazl-i-Hussain and Praja Krishak Party of Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq were able to form governments in Punjab and Bengal respectively, without the interference of Congress. Muslim League failed to form government in any province. Quaid-i-Azam offered Congress to form a coalition government with the League but the Congress rejected his offer.

5. THE HINDU MINISTRIES: The final results of the elections were known in February 1937. Since the governors were unable to give the required undertaking as demanded by Congress, the Congress refused to accept office. The non-Congress majority provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Bengal and Assam) started functioning as autonomous provinces and ministries went into office on April 1. With the deadlock ended, Congress entered its official career in July 1937.Congress had clear majorities in five provinces, namely, Madras, the United Provinces, Bihar, the Central provinces and Orissa. In other two provinces – Bombay and NWFP – it was also able to form Ministries with the help of small minority groups. “The Congress showed little or no disposition to cooperate with the League or to work for the removal of the differences which divided the two organisations. 6. QUAID’S REACTION:“Mr. Jinnah was still ready to seek compromise. Even before the Congress ministries came into power, he expressed his belief that the conflict b/w the two parties was not irreconcilable and his readiness to cooperate with Congress in working for unity and independence.”

7. PARLIAMENTARY SUBCOMMITTEE: A parliamentary subcommittee was established by Congress consisting of three leaders, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Badu Rajendra Prasad. The committee was entrusted with the task of supervising the formation of Ministries in several provinces. The test case was that of the United Provinces which was placed under the charge of Maulana Azad. The Muslims constituted 16% population and got 66 seats in the elections, 26 out of which had been won by Muslim League. The Congress, which had a clear majority over all other groups, was able to form a ministry without regard to the League. Nevertheless, the League members expected a share in the Ministry. The Congress leaders categorically rejected to consider a coalition Ministry with League in the province. With a view to detaching members from the League and drawing them into the fold of Congress, an important statement was issued. Maulana Azad states, “The Moslem League group in the United Provinces Legislature shall cease to function as a separate group. The existing members of the Moslem League Party in the united Provinces Assembly shall become part of the Congress Party, and will fully share with other members of the Congress. Moslem League Parliamentary Board in the United Provinces will be dissolved, and no candidate will thereafter be set up by the said Board at any by-election.”

8. MUSLIM MASS CONTACT MOVEMENT: P. J. Nehru announced in March 1937 that the Congress would soon start a Muslim mass contact movement. “IT was an attempt to weaken and demoralize the League and to discredit its leadership. The problem, in Nehru’s opinion, was economic and not communal.” His suggestion was “to leave top fringe, which is continually talking of percentage of seats in the legislatures and state jobs and reach the masses.”

“Twenty-seven months of the Congress rule were like a nightmare for the Muslims of South Asia. Some of the Congress leaders even stated that they would take revenge from the Muslims for the last 700 years of their slavery. Even before the formation of government, the Congress started a Muslim Mass Contact Movement, with the aim to convince Muslims that there were only two political parties in India, i.e. the British and the Congress. The aim was to decrease the importance of the Muslim League for the Muslims.”

9. LUCKNOW SESSION OF LEAGUE (Oct. 1937): Quaid appealed Muslims to rally around the League. The most significant moment of the session was that Unionist Part joined the League. An agreement to that effect known as the Jinnah-Sikandar Pact (1937) was concluded.“Within 2 or 3 months after the Lucknow Conference, over 170 new branches of the League had been established, 90 of them in the United Provinces and 40 in the Punjab.”

10. JINNAH-NEHRU CORRESPONDENCE (Jan. 1938- Dec.1939):11. PIRPUR & SHAREEF REPORTS: the reports were presented at Muslim Leagues Patna Session in December 1938. In order to strengthen its case, the Muslim League Council had appointed a Committee in March, 1938, under the chairmanship of Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur to inquire into the numerous complaints of hardships, ill treatment and injustice that is meted out to the Muslims in various congress government provinces. The report of this committee was published at the end of 1938 and became known as Pirpur report. This was followed by the Shareef Report, published in March 1939, after an investigation by a special committee of the Provincial Branch of the Muslim League in Bihar. Over and above these two came a lengthy statement in December 1939, by Mr. Fazl-e-Huq, the Premier of Bengal. It was also published as “Muslim Sufferings under Congress Rule”.

12. BISWA MURDER CASE (1939): in Chandur Biswa, a small village in Berar, a Hindu-Muslim riot took place in Mach 1939, in which both Hindus and Muslims were injured. One of the Hindus named Jagdev Patel

latter succumbed to his injuries. The local administration took action and Muslims numbering about 150 men, women, and children were collectively accused of murder although only 43 of these were ultimately prosecuted. A penal tax was, however, imposed on the entire Muslim population of the village. When the case went to the Session Court, Nagpur, 6 Muslims were sentenced to death and 24 to transportation for life. On an appeal Nagpur High Court found that the entire evidence was false and acquitted them all.

13. HINDUS’ ATROCITIES AGAINST THE MUSLIMS:I. Wardha Scheme: it was prepared by a committee headed by a Congressite Muslim, Dr. Zakir hussain, but it was inspired, guided and supervised by Mr. Gandhi himself.II. Vidya Mandirs (Temples of Learning): the two main objectives of the scheme were to inculcate the spirit of ahimsa (non-violence) and territorial nationalism. The insistence of ahimsa is only meant to root out from the Muslim youths their martial spirit and tradition.III. Trunga (Tri-colour) flag was adopted as a National Flag.IV. Bande Mataram was adopted as a national anthem.V. Cow Slaughter was officially banned.VI. Economic deterioration:VII. Extermination of Urdu:VIII. Communal riots:

14. QUAID’S ATTACK ON CONGRESS: “The Congress wanted the Mussalmans to be a mere understudy of the Congress, more foot pages of the Congress leaders, to be used, governed and brought under the heels when they had served the purpose of the Congress. The Congress has now killed every hope of Hindu Muslim settlement in the right royal fashion of fascism.” 15. RESIGNATION OF HINDU MINISTRIES: on September 3, 1939, war was declared in Europe, and on the same time the Viceroy of India proclaimed the country to be at war with Germany. On October 22, the Congress Working Committee refused to give any support in the war. The civil Disobedience Campaign was launched by Gandhi and the Congress in the following year did nothing to resolve the deadlock. Acting under the direct orders from the Working Committee, 8 Congress Ministries went out of office b/w October 27 and November 15, 1939.16. DELIVERANCE DAY (DECEMBER 22): Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “soon after their exit Mr. Jinnah a skillful tactician and a hard hitting opponent, with the intention of dramatizing the event, appealed to the Muslims to unite in the observance of a ‘Deliverance Day’ on December 22.”17. CONCLUSION:The Marquees of Lothian in April 1938 termed the Congress rule as a "rising tide of Hindu rule". Sir William Barton writing in the "National Review" in June 1939 also termed the Congress rule as "the rising tide of political Hinduism".

TOPIC # 19THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION (1940)

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:“The history of the subcontinent show that the Muslim League, an organisation representing the Muslims, had always tried to secure the interests of the Muslim by bringing change in its creed. The Muslim League up to 1937 had been demanding such safeguards as federal form of government with maximum provincial autonomy. Separate electorate to enable the Muslims to elect their own representative, 1/3 representation in the central assembly and executive. The dream of political unity however was so badly shattered during the last few years of the 4th decade of the 20th century that the Muslim League had to adopt radical changes in its creed. Thus by the beginning of 1940, Muslim politics had decidedly taken a new turn regarding the future of the Muslims in the subcontinent. During the period of Congress ministries, the Congress had tried to impose the worst type of fascist autocracy upon the Muslims. The Muslim League had reacted sharply against the Congress ministries; political, social, economic and cultural exploitations of the Muslims. The people were flocking around Jinnah. The League was lightening up its organisation by winning all by – elections. So the political stage of the subcontinent was ready for action by the Muslims.”2. THE RESOLUTION:From March 22 to March 24, 1940, the All India Muslim League held its annual session at Minto Park, Lahore.

This session proved to be historical. On the first day of the session, March 22, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah narrated the events of the last few months. In an extempore speech he presented his own solution of the Muslim problem. He declared, “The problem of India is not of an inter-communal nature, but manifestly an international one and must be treated as such.” To him the differences between Hindus and the Muslims were so great and so sharp that their union under one central government was full of serious risks. “They belonged to two separate and distinct nations and therefore the only chance open is to allow them to have separate states.” In the words of Quaid-I-Azam: “The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs literatures. They neither inter-marry nor inter-dine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other, and likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state”.He further said, “Mussalmans are a nation according to any definition of nation. We wish our people to develop to the fullest spiritual, cultural, economic, social and political life in a way that we think best and in consonance with our own ideals and according to the genius of our people”.

On the basis of the above mentioned ideas of the Quaid, A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq, the then Chief Minister of Bengal, moved the historical resolution which has since come to be known as Lahore Resolution or Pakistan Resolution.

The Resolution declared: “No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of I should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign”.It further reads, “That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority”.The Resolution repudiated the concept of United India and recommended the creation of an independent Muslim state consisting of Punjab, N. W. F. P., Sindh and Baluchistan in the northwest, and Bengal and Assam in the northeast. The Resolution was seconded by Maulana Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Sardar Aurangzeb from the N. W. F. P., Sir Abdullah Haroon from Sindh, and Qazi Esa from Baluchistan, along with many others.

The Resolution was passed on March 24. It laid down only the principles, with the details left to be worked out at a future date. It was made a part of the All I Muslim League’s constitution in 1941. It was on the basis of this resolution that in 1946 the Muslim League decided to go for one state for the Muslims, instead of two.Having passed the Pakistan Resolution, the Muslims of India changed their ultimate goal. Instead of seeking alliance with the Hindu community, they set out on a path whose destination was a separate homeland for the Muslims of India.

3. REACTION TO THE RESOLUTION:

I. Mr. Gandhi comments, “It is a morally wrong and a sin to which India would never be a party.”II. Rajgopal Acharia expressed his feelings, “Jinnah’s demand of the partition is just like a quarrel between the two brothers on one cow who want to slaughter it into two pieces to divide amongst them.”III. According to Nehru, “It would not last for more than 24 hours.”IV. Tara Singh said, “If the Muslim League want to establish Pakistan, they will have to pass through the ocean of Sikh blood.”V. Patrick Lacky wrote in his book “Two India”, “This was the least fissiparous of several efforts by different authors to redraw the map.” VI. Manchester Guardian accusing Jinnah’s role in the Lahore Resolution, “Jinnah was reestablishing the reign of chaos in Indian politics.”VII. Stanley Wolpert writes in Jinnah of Pakistan, “Few individuals significantly alter the course of history. Fewer still modify the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation-state. M. A. Jinnah did all the three.”VIII. The Hindu-Congress reaction against the resolution came as a two-fold blessing in disguise. “It gave its proper name to it, i.e. the Pakistan Resolution, thus helping to crystallize the cause and channel the Pakistan Movement.”IX. “The Muslims of India were made thirstier by the drop of liberty that fell on their parched lips.”

TOPIC # 20CRIPPS MISSION (March, 1942)

A. INTRODUCTION:“The 2nd WW by the end of the winter of 1941-42 had taken a very dangerous turn, for the GB and I. Japanese advanced in Burma was not only bringing war close to I but also causing a grave threat to the integration of I. The British who were relying on Indian resources and manpower could not bear the subjugation of I by Japan. Thus I had become an absolute necessity for the British. On the contrary, Indian leaders were not only indifferent in their attitude towards the British government but were also expressing openly its hostility towards the British govt. and its war efforts. The Congress was interested in putting the pressures on the British govt. to capture the rule of I for the Hindus. The Muslim League although did not rejoice over the misfortunes of the British but had made it clear that the British govt. should not expect from the Muslim League and its representatives full cooperation without conceding the Muslim demand of a separate homeland. There was a section of opinion, which was not hesitating in expressing its sympathy with Japan against the British. As Gandhi said, “Hitler was a divine chastisement for the evil deeds of the British imperialism.”

“In this context, Sir Stafford Cripps was sent to India to satisfy himself upon the spot by personal consultation that the conclusion upon which the war cabinet had agreed and which it believed represents a just and final solution would achieve their objectives.” On March 22, 1942, Britain sent Sir Stafford Cripps with constitutional proposals.

B. DRAFT DECLARATION ‘CRIPPS PROPOSALS”:The Draft Declaration was published on 29th March 1942.1. Immediately upon the cessation of hostilities, steps shall be taken to set up in I, in the manner described hereafter, an elected body charged with the task of framing a new constitution for I.2. Provision shall be made for the participation of the Indian states in the constitution making body.3. His majesty’s government undertake to accept and implement forthwith the constitution so framed subject only to;I. The right of any province of British I that is not prepared to accept the new constitution to retain its present constitutional position, provision being made for its subsequent accession if it so decides.II. The signing of a treaty which shall be negotiated b/w His majesty’s government and the constitution making body. This treaty will cover all necessary matters arising out of the complete transfer of responsibility from British to Indian hands; it will make provision, in accordance with the undertakings given by his majesty’s government for the protection of racial and religious minorities.4. The constitution making body shall be composed as follows, unless the leaders of Indian opinion in the principal communities agree upon some other form before the end of hostilities: Indian states shall be invited to appoint representatives in the same proportion to their total population as in the case of the representatives of British I as a whole, and with the same powers as the British Indian members.5. During the critical period which now faces I until the new constitution can be framed His Majesty’s Government must inevitably bear the responsibility for and retain control and direction of the defense of India as part of their world war effort, but the task of organizing to the full the military, moral and material resources of India must be the responsibility of the government of India with the cooperation of the people of India.

C. INDIAN REACTION:I. Muslims were not satisfied by the non-accession clause, granting the provinces right to refuse to join itself with the central govt. In fact, the non-accession clause was not in harmony with the Lahore resolution.II. Hindus were also hostile to the non-accession clause; they saw in this clause the seeds of Indian disintegration.III. Gandhi criticizing Cripps scheme said, “Why did you come, if this is what you have to offer. If this is your entire proposals to India.. I would advise you to take the next plan home.”IV. Quit India Movement: Gandhi said, after the departure of Sir Stafford Cripps on 12th April,: “Cripps contemplated Pakistan and yet not the Pakistan of the Muslim League’s conception.” Congress demanded the immediate withdrawal of the British from India. When British govt. rejected their demand, their started ‘Quit India Movement’ to put pressure upon the British government. Quaid forbade the Muslims to participate in this movement because it was purely for the destruction of Pakistan.

D. CONCLUSION:However, both the Congress and the Muslim League rejected these proposals. Jinnah opposed the plan, as it did not concede Pakistan. Thus the plan came to nothing.

TOPIC # 21GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS (1944)1. SIGNIFICANCE:The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks have eminent significance with regard to the political problems of India and the Pakistan Movement. The talks between the two great leaders of the Sub-continent began in response to the general public's desire for a settlement of Hindu-Muslim differences. On July 17, 1944, Gandhi wrote a letter to Quaid-e-Azam in which he expressed his desire to meet him. Quaid-e-Azam asked the Muslim League for permission for this meeting. The League readily acquiesced. 2. The Gandhi-Jinnah talks began in Bombay on September 19, 1944, and lasted till the 24th of the month. The talks were held directly and via correspondence. Gandhi told Quaid-i-Azam that he had come in his personal capacity and was representing neither the Hindus nor the Congress.“Gandhi's real purpose behind these talks was to extract from Jinnah an admission that the whole proposition of Pakistan was absurd.”Quaid-e-Azam painstakingly explained the basis of the demand of Pakistan. "We maintain", he wrote to Gandhi, "that Muslims and Hindus are two major nations by any definition or test of a nation. We are a nation of a 100 million. We have our distinctive outlook on life and of life. By all the cannons of international law, we are a nation". He added that he was "convinced that the true welfare not only of the Muslims but of the rest of India lies in the division of India as proposed in the Lahore Resolution". Gandhi on the other hand maintained that India was one nation and saw in the Pakistan Resolution "Nothing but ruin for the whole of India". "If, however, Pakistan had to be conceded, the areas in which the Muslims are in an absolute majority should be demarcated by a commission approved by both the Congress and the Muslim League. The wishes of the people of these areas will be obtained through referendum. These areas shall form a separate state as soon as possible after India is free from foreign domination. There shall be a treaty of separation which should also provide for the efficient and satisfactory administration of foreign affairs, defense, internal communication, custom and the like which must necessarily continue to be the matters of common interest between the contracting countries". This meant, in effect, that power over the whole of India should first be transferred to Congress, which thereafter would allow Muslim majority areas that voted for separation to be constituted, not as independent sovereign state but as part of an Indian federation. Gandhi contended that his offer gave the substance of the Lahore Resolution. Quaid-e-Azam did not agree to the proposal and the talks ended.

Imp Desai Liaquat Pact was formed in 1945)

TOPIC # 22WAVELL PLAN (JUNE 1945)Or SIMLA CONFERENCE

INTRODUCTION:

Ever since the failure of the so called Liaquat Desai Pact, Lord Wavell had been insisting that he be allowed to vsit England in order to personally discuss matters with the Secretary of State. In May, he went to London, finally, the talks resulted in the formulation of the plan of action that was made public in June 1945.SUGGESTIONS:1) The executive council shall be constituted to have a proportionate and balanced representation of the main communities including equal proportions for the Muslims and the high caste Hindus. The council would have 14 seats of ministers.2) The viceroy would appoint members to the council after having consulted the leading political figures.3) All the members of the executive council shall be the Indians except the viceroy and C-I-C of army.4) The relation b/w the Crown and the Indian states shall not be affected by these proposals.5) If this plan succeeds at the centre, it would definitely be introduced at the provincial level as well.6) The foreign affairs of India would be placed in the charge of an Indian member.SIMLA CONFERENCE:In order to place his plan before the Indian leaders, the Viceroy called a conference at Simla on 25th June 1945. among the 21 representatives that attended the conference, the Muslims leaders were; Jinnah as President of Muslim League, Liaquat Ali Khan as Deputy leader of League, Khawaja Nazimudin,; and the Congress representatives include Maulana Azad, Khizar Hayat Tiwana, Dr. Khan Sahib and others.FAILURE OF SIMLA CONFERENCE:The Muslim league was pledged to the formation of separate homeland for the Indian Muslims, whereas ‘Wavell Plan’ envisaged a united India. On 14th July 1945, Lord Wavell announced that Wavell Plan had failed. After that elections were held in subcontinent.

TOPIC # 23ELECTIONS OF 1945-46

1. INTRODUCTION:With the failure of the Simla Conference, Lord Wavell announced that the Central and Provincial Legislature elections would be held in the winter of 1945, after which a constitution-making body would be set up. He also announced that after the elections, the Viceroy would set an Executive Council that would have the support of the main Indian political parties. Both the Muslim League and the Congress opposed the proposal. 2. REACTION OF THE MUSLIMS:Quaid-I-Azam declared that Muslims were not ready to accept any settlement less than a separate homeland for them and the All India Congress Committee characterized the proposal as vague, inadequate and unsatisfactory because it had not addressed the issue of independence. Despite this, the two parties launched huge election campaigns. They knew that the elections would be crucial for the future of I, as the results were to play an important role in determining their standing. The League wanted to sweep the Muslim constituencies so as to prove that they were the sole representatives of the Muslims of Sub-continent, while Congress wanted to prove that, irrespective of religion, they represent all the Indians.

3. ELECTION CAMPAIGN:I. Both the Muslim League and the Congress promulgated opposite slogans during their campaigns. The Muslim League presented a one-point manifesto “if you want Pakistan, vote for the Muslim League”. Quaid-I-Azam himself toured the length and breadth of India and tried to unite the Muslim community under the banner of the Muslim League. Ian Talbot writes in “Provincial Politics and the Pakistan Movement”, “The Press was an important weapon in the Muslim League’s struggle for Pakistan.”II. The Congress on the other hand stood for United India. To counter the Muslim League, the Congress press

abused the Quaid and termed his demand for Pakistan as the “vivisection of Mother India”, “reactionary primitivism” and “religious barbarism”. Congress tried to brand Muslim League as an ultra-conservative clique of knights, Khan Bahadurs, toadies and government pensioners. The Congress also tried to get the support of all the provincial and central Muslim parties who had some differences with the League, and backed them in the elections.

4. RESULT OF THE ELECTIONS OF THE CENTRAL LEGISLATURE:Elections for the Central Legislature were held in December 1945. Though the franchise was limited, the turnover was extraordinary.The Congress was able to sweep the polls for the non-Muslim seats. They managed to win more then 80 percent of the general seats and about 91.3 percent of the total general votes. The Leagues performance, however, was even more impressive: it managed to win all the 30 seats reserved for the Muslims.

5. RESULTS OF THE PROVINCIAL ELECTION:The results of the provincial election held in early 1946 were not different. Congress won most of the non-Muslim seats while Muslim League captured approximately 95 percent of the Muslim seats.

6. OVERALL PERFORMANCE OF LEAGUE & CONGRESS:In a bulletin issued on January 6, 1946, the Central Election Board of the Congress claimed that the election results had vindicated the party as the biggest, strongest and the most representative organization in the country. On the other hand, the League celebrated January 11, 1946, as the Day of Victory and declared that the election results were enough to prove that Muslim League, under the leadership of Quaid-I-Azam, was the sole representative of the Muslims of the region.

TOPIC # 24CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)

1. BACKGROUND:“The first half of the 4th decade of the 20th century witnessed the several efforts made by the Britsh, Hindus, congressmen and Muslim Leaguers to find a solution of the constitutional problem of India besides bridging the gulf b/w Hindus and Muslims. All these efforts proved too insignificant to change the complexion of the Indian politics. The failure of Simla Conference and the election results had not only illustrated the strength of the Muslim League and Congress but also forced the British govt. to take such concrete steps which would be acceptable to the major communities of India; Hindus and Muslims. Realizing the critical situation in India, the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethic Lawrence announced on 19th of Feb. 1946 in the HOL stating that the British govt. had decided to send a special mission, consisting of war cabinet members. It would include Lord Pethic, Sir Stafford Cripps, the President of board of trade and A. V. Alexander, and the first lord of the Admirally. The mission was entrusted with the following tasks:I. To pursue the Indians by discussion and consultation regarding the method of framing the future constitution of India.II. Setting up a constitution making body.III. Establishment of the executive council with the support and participation of major political parties.The announcement of the Cabinet Mission had injected a new enthusiasm in Indian politics. Congress and the Muslim League were ready to propagate their viewpoints, and to convince the mission about their proposals regarding the constitutional development in India. At this moment Quaid said, “I want to reiterate that the Muslims of India are not a minority bat a nation and self-determination is their right.”

The mission arrived on March 24, 1946.

2. CONGRESS MEETINGS:On the behalf of Congress, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad met the mission on 3rd April 1946. He told them that Congress wanted a federal form of government and it could not accept the Muslim demand of the partition of India. Mr. Gandhi too urged the holding of the negotiation on the basis of C R formula but rejected the idea of partition.

3. JINNAH MISSION TALKS:Quaid met with Viceroy on 4th April. In this meeting, Quaid adopted a straightforward viewpoint and tried to convince the mission about the desirability and practicability of the Muslims’ demand of a separate homeland.Jinnah Mission meeting was followed by the exchange of view by the mission with various political parties. On 16th April Jinnah was again approached by the cabinet mission. In this meeting, the Viceroy insisted that Pakistan as demanded by the Muslim League was neither acceptable nor practicable. Then Mission gave Jinnah offer to accept a smaller sovereign Pakistan or larger non-sovereign Pakistan. Quaid rejected the Mission’s offer.One final effort for the reconciliation b/w Congress and Muslim League was made at Simla Conference on 5th to 12th May. A Scheme was offered in order to settle down the Hindu-Muslim differences:I. There would be a union govt. to deal with foreign affairs, defense and communication.II. Provinces would be divided into two groups; one consisting of the Muslims’ majority provinces and the other Hindu majority provinces.III. The provincial govt. would deal not only with the provincial matters but also would be entrusted with the residuary powers.4. CABINET MISSION PLAN:After extensive discussions with Congress and the Muslim League, the Cabinet Mission put forward its own proposals on May 16, 1946. The main points of the plan were: 1) There would be a union of India comprising both British India and the Indian States that would deal with foreign affairs, defense and communications. The union would have an Executive and a Legislature. 2) All residuary powers would belong to the provinces. 3) All provinces would be divided into three sections. Provinces could opt out of any group after the first general elections. 4) There would also be an interim government having the support of the major political parties.

5. INDIAN REACTION:I. The National Herald triumphly wrote, “Pakistan, Pakistan of Mr. Jinnah conception receive a state burial in a document submitted by the Cabinet Mission.”II. Quaid said, “A separate homeland we still hold is the only solution of the constitutional problem of India.”III. The Council of Muslim League met in Delhi on 6th June to consider the Cabinet Mission Plan. Finally, Muslim League declared its consent for the Cabinet Mission Plan.IV. The Muslim League accepted the plan on June 6 1946. Earlier, the Congress had accepted the plan on May 24, 1946, though it rejected the interim setup.

6. CONCLUSION:I. The Viceroy should now have invited the Muslim League to form Government as it had accepted the interim setup; but he did not do so.

II. Meanwhile Jawaharlal Nehru, addressing a press conference on July 10, said that the Congress had agreed to join the constituent assembly, but saying it would be free to make changes in the Cabinet Mission Plan. Under these circumstances, the Muslim League disassociated itself from the Cabinet Plan and resorted to "Direct Action" to achieve Pakistan. As a result, Viceroy Wavell invited the Congress to join the interim government, although it had practically rejected the plan. III. However, the Viceroy soon realized the futility of the scheme without the participation of the League. Therefore, on October 14, 1946, he extended an invitation to them as well. IV. Jinnah nominated Liaquat Ali Khan, I. I. Chundrigar, Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar, Ghazanfar Ali Khan and Jogandra Nath Mandal to the cabinet. V. Congress allocated the Finance Ministry to the League. This in effect placed the whole governmental setup under the Muslim League. As Minister of Finance, the budget Liaquat Ali Khan presented was called a "poor man's budget" as it adversely affected the Hindu capitalists. VI. The deadlock between the Congress and the League further worsened in this setup. VII. On March 22, 1947, Lord Mountbatten arrived as the last Viceroy. It was announced that power would be transferred from British to Indian hands by June 1948. VIII. Lord Mountbatten entered into a series of talks with the Congress and the Muslim League leaders. Quaid-i-Azam made it clear that the demand for Pakistan had the support of all the Muslims of India and that he could not withdraw from it. With staunch extremists as Patel agreeing to the Muslim demand for a separate homeland, Mountbatten now prepared for the partition of the Sub-continent and announced it on June 3, 1947.

TOPIC # 253RD JUNE PLAN

Announcement of His Majesty’s government based on the following statement:

1. INTRODUCTION:I. On Feb 20th, 1947, His Majesty’s govt. announced their attention of transferring power in British India to Indian hands by June 1948. His Majesty’s govt. hoped that it would be possible for the major parties to cooperate in the working out of the Cabinet Mission’s Plan of May 16th, 1946, and evolve for India a constitution acceptable for all concerned. This hope has not been fulfilled.II. The majority of the representatives of the provinces of Madras, Bombay, the United Provinces, Bihar, Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, Orissa and the NWFP, and the representative of Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara and Coorg had already made progress in the task of evolving a new constitution. On the other hand, the Muslim League Party, including in it a majority of the representatives of Bengal, the Punjab and Sindh as also the representative of British Balochistan, had decided not to participate in the Constituent assembly. III. “As it had always been the desire of His Majesty’s government that power should be transferred in accordance with the wishes of the Indian people themselves, therefore, it decided to make it clear that they have no intention of attempting to frame any ultimate constitution for India; this is a matter for the Indians themselves.”

2. THE ISSUES TO BE DECIDED:“His Majesty’s govt. are satisfied that the procedure outlined below embodies the best practical method of ascertaining the wishes of the people of such areas on the issue whether their constitution is to be framed:a) In the existing Constituent Assembly; orb) In a new and separate Constituent Assembly consisting of the representatives of those areas which decide not to participate in the existing Constituent Assembly.”

3. BENGAL & PUNJAB:I. The provincial legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab will each be asked to meet in two parts, one representing the Muslim majority and the other the rest of the province.II. The members of the two parts of each legislative assembly sitting separately will empowered to vote whether or not the province should be partitioned.III. For the immediate purpose of deciding on the issue of partitin, the members of the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab will sit in two parts according to Muslim majority districts [(In the Punjab Province: Gujranwala, Gurdaspur, Lahore, Sheikhupura, Sialkot in the Province of Punjab, and Attock, Gujrat, Jhelum, Mianwali, Rawalpindia and Shahpur in Rawalpindia division, and DG Khan, Jhang, Lyallpur, Montgomery, Multan and Muzaffargarh in Multan division) and (In the Bengal Province: Chittagong, Noakhali, Tippera in Chittagong division, Bakerganj, Dacca, Faridpur, Mymensingh in Dacca division, and Bogra, Dinajpur, Malda, Pabna, Rajshahi, Rangpur in Rajshahi division)] and non-Muslim majority districts.

4. SINDH:The legislative Assembly of Sindh will at a special meeting also take its own decision.

5. NWFP:The position of NWFP is exceptional. 2 of the 3 representatives of this province are already participating in the existing Constituent Assembly. In view of its geographical position, and other considerations, that if the whole or any part of the Punjab decides not to join the existing Constituent Assembly, it will be necessary to give NWFP an opportunity to reconsider its position. In such an event, a referendum will be made to the electors of the present legislative assembly in NWFP.

6. BRITISH BALOCHISTAN:

British Balochistan has elected a member but he has not taken his seat in the existing Constituent Assembly. In view of its geographical situation, this province will also be given an opportunity to reconsider its position.

7. ASSAM:Though Assam is predominantly a non-Muslim province, the district of Sylhet which is contiguous to Bengal is predominantly Muslim. There has been a demand that, in the event of partition of Bengal, Sylhet should be amalgamated with the Muslim part of Bengal. Accordingly, if it is decided that Bengal should be partitioned, a referendum will be held in Sylhet district.

8. REPRESENTATION IN CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLIES:If it is decided that Bengal and Punjab should choose their representatives on the scale of every million of population according to the principle contained in the Cabinet Mission’s Plan of May 16th, 1946, similar elections will also have be held for Sylhet in the event of it being decided that this district should form part of East Bengal. The number or representatives to which each area would be entitled is as follows:Province General Muslims Sikhs TotalSylhet Dist. 1 2 nil 3West Bengal 15 4 nil 19East Bengal 12 29 nil 41East Punjab 6 4 2 12West Punjab 3 12 2 17

QUAID-E-AZAM’S TALK ON 3RD JUNE PLAN BROADCAST FROM ALL-INDIA RADIO, NEW DELHI: (G. Allana Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents)“Grave responsibility lies particularly on the shoulders of India leaders. Therefore, we must galvanize and concentrate all our energy to see that the transfer of power is effected in a peaceful and orderly manner. I most earnestly appeal to every community and particularly to Muslim India to maintain peace and order. We must examine the plan, in its letter and in its spirit, and come to our conclusions and take our decisions.”“It is clear that the Plan does not meet in some important respects our points of view and we cannot say or feel that we are satisfied or that we agree with some of the matters dealt with by the Plan it is for us now to consider whether the Plan as presented to us by His Majesty’s Government should be accepted by us as a compromise or settlement.”

TOPIC # 26RADCLIFFE AWARD (12th August 1947)

1. BACKGROUND:1) “India’s territorial division is significant on multiple levels. As an episode in imperial history, it marked the beginning of a global trend towards decolonialization. For South Asian history, it meant independence of India and Pakistan. Unfortunately, it also inaugurated Indo-Pak tensions.”2) As there was a serious disagreement b/w the leaders of Congress and Muslim League in regard to areas of Bengal and Punjab, a boundary commission was set up to demarcate the boundary in these area to take into

account contiguity of Muslim and non-Muslim areas with Pakistan or India.

2. FORMATION OF BOUNDARY COMMISSIONS:The members of the Punjab Boundary Commission were following:Cyril Radcliffe as ChairmanMr. Justice Din Mohammad from Pakistan.Mr. Justice Mohammad Munir also from Pakistan.Mr. Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan from India.Mr. Justice Teja Singh from India.

Cyril Radcliffe, “The boundary commission is instructed to demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims.”

The members of the Bengal Boundary Commission were following:Mr. Justice Abu Saleh on behalf of Pakistan.Mr. Justice S. A. Rahman from Pakistan.Mr. Justice C. C. Biswas from India.Mr. Justice B. K. Muherji on behalf of India.

The commission was set up by the end of June 1947, before the arrival of Radcliffe to India on July 8 1947.

3. CONTROVERSY OF PUNJAB & BENGAL DIVISION:Punjab: Punjab’s population division was such that there was no line that could neatly divide Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. Radcliffe’s line was far from perfect.Bengal: For Bengal controversy came on the question of Calcutta city to make it a part of Pakistan or India. Calcutta, who was the capital city, the major port and the center of industry, commerce and education sucked the entire wealth of the countryside.

4. RADCLIFFE REPORT OF INJUSTICE:1) “Radcliffe although was given the responsibility for boundary commission yet he had never visited India before not did he possess the basic understanding of Indian demography or culture. Radcliffe Award delimited the boundaries of the provinces further, crippled Pakistan physically.” 2) The boundary commission appointed under the Indian Independence Act 1947, submitted its report on 12th August.3) The boundary ran from the border of Kashmir state south along the Ujh River, leaving one Tehsil of Gurdaspur District of Pakistan and allotting the remainder to India. Where the Ujh met the Ravi River, the boundary followed the Ravi southwest, until it met the existing administrative line dividing Amritsar District from Lahore District. Radcliffe was careful to specify that the relevant administrative boundaries, not the course of the Ujh or Ravi, constituted the new international boundary. The boundary then ran through Lahore District, along Tehsil and village boundaries, leaving the district’s easternmost corner in India. When the Radcliffe boundary met the Ferozpur District line, it turned to follow the River Sutlej along the administrative boundary b/w Ferozpur and Montgomery Districts. The Radcliffe line ended where it met the border of bhawalpur, a princely state ruler he the choice of acceding to Pakistan or India.4) The primary feature of this line was that it divided Amritsar, now in India, from Lahore, which went to

Pakistan. By and large it followed major administrative divisions, although it did meander b/w villages in the Kasur region near Lahore. The two most controversial elements of this line involved Gurdaspur and Ferozpur.5) Pakistan lost many districts, and areas of Punjab and Bengal as well, which had Muslim majorities: Gurdaspur, Anjala, Hoshiarpur, Dasuya, Nakodar, Jullundur, Ferozpur, Bira and a part of Kasur.6) Radcliffe assigned Calcutta to India in spite of the string claims of Muslim League.

5. CONCLUSION:1) “Jinnah became aware of the Radcliffe decisions just few days before the formal transfer of power. He could do nothing because he as a disciplined leader of the honourable state abided by the Award.”2) “Many historians are convinced that the commissions were a sham and that Mountbatten himself had simply dictated the new divisions.”3) “Radcliffe was a barrister following a brief – and Mountbatten was his client.”

TOPIC # 27ROLE OF PROVINCES IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT

1. PUNJAB:2. SINDH:3. NWFP:4. BALOCHISTAN:5. BENGAL:6. MADRAS:7. THE UNITED PROVINCES:8. BIHAR:9. THE CENTRAL PROVINCES:10. ORISSA:11. BOMBAY:TOPIC # 28ROLE OF STUDENTS IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT

“The role played by the Muslim students in the freedom movement is of momentous significance in view of the invaluable services which they rendered to the cause of Pakistan.” Mukhtar Zaman writes in “Students Role in the Pakistan Movement”, “When Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari organized a medical mission to help the Turks in 1912, four students of Aligarh, Ch. Khaliq-uz-Zaman, Abdur Rehman Siddiqui, Shoab Qureshi and Abdul Rehman Peshawari joined it as volunteers.” ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS: Islamia college Peshawar, Deoband, Ali garh etc.

TOPIC # 29EARLY PROBLEMS OF PAKISTAN

BACKGROUND:1) “A freedom movement initiated by people gained momentum and the small were about to rise when the big lost their head. The big did not want to pent up forces of hatred against them to be unleashed. They took strict measures to curb the freedom of the Muslims. This inhuman action proved the last nail in their own coffin and the stars favoured the Muslim freedom fighters.”2) “Pakistan was carved out in desperate urgency. It came into existence with horrible loss of life and property, and the migration of millions of dazed and destitute men, women, and children. The cost was heavy in terms of human suffering. But what the Muslims wanted and what they achieved was a homeland of their own. They now had the freedom to worship, practice their religious faith and develop their culture. Moreover, independence had opened up a bright future for the Muslims, who hoped for a better standard of living, economic development, prosperity and a fuller life.”3) In the words of Quaid, “We have been the victims of a deep-paid and well planned conspiracy, executed with utter disregard of the elementary principles of honesty, chivalry and honour.”The main problems were: 1. Refugees: 2. Indus Water:3. Accession of Princely States:4. Kashmir issue:5. Demarcation of boundaries:6. Division of military and financial assets:7. Constitutional problems:8. Controversy of language:9. Economic challenges:10. Challenges on International sphere:1. Refugees: It had been agreed between Jinnah and Nehru that a Boundary Commission should be setup to define the borders between India and Pakistan. The British Government immediately appointed a Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate permanent borders. The boundaries had to be defined as such that provinces, districts, and villages that were predominantly Muslim went to Pakistan, while Hindu majority areas went to India. Provinces like Baluchistan, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and East Bengal provided little difficulty. But deep problems arose when boundaries in Punjab had to be fixed; there were also a substantial number of Hindus and Sikhs residing in this region, other than the Muslims. However, the province was partitioned. When the boundaries were drawn between India and Pakistan, it resulted in many tragic events. In an almost frantic, cruel rush, the commission divided districts, villages, farmlands, water and property. Thousands of innocent men, women and children were caught unaware. The result was that many hastened across the border, leaving their homes, land and personal property to seek refuge. Panic, fear, revenge and reprisals followed. Both India and Pakistan were soaked in blood. It left on Pakistan's doorstep, seven million refugees who had to be rehabilitated, clothed, fed and sheltered.At the time of partition, the cash balances of undivided India stood at about Rupees 4,000 million. At the beginning of December 1947, India and Pakistan mutually came to an agreement that Pakistan would get Rupees 750 million as her share. Rupees 200 million had been already paid to Pakistan while Rupees 550

million were to be paid immediately. But this amount was withheld on the plea that Pakistan would use it in the war going on in Kashmir. However, as this stand was morally untenable, the remaining amount was later on released after Gandhi's fast and under world pressure on January 15, 1948.Soon afterwards, Sardar Patel threatened that the implementation of the agreement would depend upon the settlement of the Kashmir issue. But, it was upon Gandhi's request that the Reserved Bank of India paid Pakistan Rupees 500 million, retaining the balance of Rupees 50 million to adjust some trumped up claim against Pakistan

“Pakistan has come to stay and it shall stay.”

2. THE ACCESSION OF PRINCELY STATESKASHMIR PROBLEM VIS-À-VIS JUNAGARH STATES

The Indian princely states, numbering 562 comprised of 1/3 of the Indian Territory and quarter of population. These states were not the part of the administrative setup of British India. They were ruled by the Indian princes, who had agreed to come under the paramountcy of the British Empire.A. KASHMIR:“The story of Kashmir since the day of 3rd June Plan was announced forms an important and vital chapter in understanding causes that gave rise to estrangement b/w the two dominions, Pakistan and India ever since its birth.”Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 78 percent of the total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before August 15, 1947. The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the Indian and the Pakistani government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India refused. The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August 1947, they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The Maharaja panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire, and within a matter of seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir government and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had begun in earnest. The Pathan tribesmen from the North West Frontier Province, wanting to avenge the deaths of their brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the Maharaja's troops and reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital. The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to send troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India. On October 27, 1947, India began to airlift her troops to Srinagar, and launched a full-scale attack on the tribesmen. Pakistan was stunned. Despite her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to send in her troops but the British General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed an immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir. In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused Pakistan of aggression and demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had been brought about by force. The government requested the Security Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both the tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free and impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the wishes of the people of Kashmir.

While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border. Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948, called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under United Nations' supervision. Both the Indian and Pakistani governments accepted the resolution. In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit, and a great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the Tibet border. The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed and unresolved.“The brave Kashmiri Muslim continue to groan under the heels of the Indian army, oppressed by a government which is not prepared to give them their right of self-determination. The Indian atrocities and persecutions cannot intimidate or dishearten them to fight for their goal.”

B. HYDERABAD AFFAIRS:It had an area of 82,000 sq. miles, and a population of 16,000,000. Its annual revenues were Rs. 260 million, and it had its own army, police force, custom, postal service, currency and railway. Majority of 85% were Hindus, but its ruler, Nizam, named as Usman was a Muslim. He was reluctant to accede either for India or Pakistan but was dismissed by Mountbatten by adopting this course. Lord Mountbatten left India on June 21, 1948 without having achieved his ambition of securing Hyderabad accession to India. On the other hand, the Hindu subjects were incited to revolt against the Nizam’s desire to be independent. The whole province suffered turmoil and violence. Hyderabad filed a complaint with SC of the UN. Before the hearing could be started, Indian troops entered Hyderabad to ‘restore order’, and under the pretext of ‘police action’ Hyderabad was forced to join India. On 9th September, India committed naked and unabashed armed aggression when its troops marched into Hyderabad and shocked the Muslims and the world. The Hyderabad army surrendered on September 17, 1948, and finally Hyderabad was annexed into the Indian union forcibly and ruthlessly. C. JUNAGADH, MANAWADAR & JODHPUR STATES:It had an area of 3,337 sq. miles with a population of 7,00,000. The majority of its population was Hindu but the ruler was a Muslim named as Muhabat Khan. On September 15, 1947, all the states acceded to Pakistan. “Nothing was wrong in the accession.”, but India refused to acknowledge it and claimed the state by inheritance. In the mid of September, Indian cabinet persuaded Nawab to withdrew their accession to Pakistan. In November 7, 1947, an Azad Fauj or liberation army of 20,000 men with armoured cars and other modern weapons entered into state – fully supported by the Indian troops. Then Nawab left his state by plane for Karachi towards the end of October. All the resistance having collapsed, Indian troops and representatives of Provincial Government headed by Samaldas Gandhi and Dehbar entered Junagadh and took over the administration of the state. Two days later; control over the entire state was assumed by India. Militants paraded – all Hindus – the streets but the Muslim population remained indoors, terrorized and fearful for its future.

TOPIC # 30IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN (TWO NATION THEORY) + AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF INDEPENDENCE

1. INTRODUCTION:1) In the words of Allama Iqbal, “The vision of common nationhood for India is a beautiful ideal and has a poetic appeal, but looking to the present conditions and the unconscious trends of the two commodities, appears incapable of fulfillment.”2) “The ideology of Pakistan stems from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to maintain their individuality by resisting all attempts by the Hindu society to absorb it.” 3) Muslims of South Asia believe that Islam and Hinduism are not only two religions, but also two social orders that have given birth to two distinct cultures with no similarities. A deep study of the history of this land proves that the differences between Hindus and Muslims were not confined to the struggle for political supremacy, but were also manifested in the clash of two social orders. Despite living together for more than a thousand years, they continued to develop different cultures and traditions. Their eating habits, music, architecture and script, are all poles apart. Even the language they speak and the dresses they wear are entirely different.4) The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process. Historical experience provided the base; with Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began the period of Muslim self-awakening; Allama Iqbal provided the philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction.5) As early as in the beginning of the 11th century, Al-Biruni observed that Hindus differed from the Muslims in all matters and habits. He further elaborated his argument by writing that the Hindus considered Muslims "Mlachha", or impure. And they forbid having any connection with them, be it intermarriage or any other bond of relationship. They even avoid sitting, eating and drinking with them, because they feel "polluted".6) Quaid said, “You have carved territory, a vast territory, it is all yours, it does not belong to Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pathan or Bengali.”

2. IDEOLOGY & ITS MEANING:1) The word ideology has been derived from the French word “Ideologie”. Antoine Destull Tracy first used it during the French Revolution. 2) According to Sharif al Mujahid in ‘Ideology of Pakistan”, “Ideology may be defined as a cluster of beliefs, ideals and concepts that has become deeply ingrained in the social consciousness of a people over time. Ideology touches the hidden springs of emotions of the people.”3) “An ideology emerges when people feel strongly that they are being mistreated under an existing order, when their status is threatened by fundamental changes occurring in the society, and when the prevailing ideology no longer satisfies them.”4) In a broad and generic sense, the term ideology can be applied to a great variety of the moving ideas of ‘isms’ such as Nationalism, Unilateralism, Communism, Fascism, Nazism and Marxism etc. democracy in many respects an ideology. The same is true about the religions, notably the most proselytizing ones such as

Islam.5) Morgenthau discusses typical ideologies of foreign policies under three headings:I. Ideologies of status quoII. Ideologies of imperialism.III. Ideologies that appear to be somewhat ambiguous, such as the principle of national self-determination.

3. ISLAMIC IDEOLOGY IN CONTRAST TO WESTERN IDEOLOGY:Islamic Ideology is a set of immutable principles and pan cultural values given by Islam for the social, moral and spiritual guidance of mankind, and these are enshrined in the all embracing teachings of the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH). Islamic ideology is completely different from western ideology. In a world of Islam “loyalty to national ideal is replaced by spiritual loyalty” i.e. “loyalty to one God.”

4. ISLAM & PAKISTAN IDEOLOGY:1) In the words of Iqbal, “One lesson I have learnt from the history of the Muslims. At critical moments in their history, it is Islam that has saved Muslims and not vice versa.”2) Sharf al Mujahid writes in “Ideology of Pakistan”, “Apparently, the ideology of Pakistan seems to be a subject of recent history but, in the words of Quaid-e-Azam ‘Pakistan came into existence when the first Muslim put his feet on the soil of the subcontinent’.”3) Pakistan ka matlab kia “Lailaha illallah”5. THE IDEOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF PAKISTAN:1) Ideals of Islamic system:2) Muslims as separate nation:3) Two nation theory:4) Hindu fanaticism:

6. HISTORY OF TWO NATION THEORY:1) Advent if Islam and Muhammad Bin Qasim:2) Bhakti Movement:3) Role of Aurangzeb:4) Advent of British rule in India:

7. REASONS BEHIND THE EMERGENCE OF TWO NATION:1) Hindi-Urdu Controversy (1867):2) Formation of Congress (1885):3) Hindus’ antagonism after 1857 rebellion:4) Role of Sir Syed:5) Partition of Bengal (1906-11):6) Khilafat Movement:7) Nehru Report & Quaid’s 14 points:8) Iqbal’s Allahabad Address:9) Round Table Conferences (1930-32):10) Hindu Ministries (1937-39):11) The Lahore Resolution (1940):12) Elections of 1945-46: 13) Miscellaneous events during the period of 1858-1947:

8. TWO NATION THEORY IN THE LIGHTS OF THE SAYINGS OF LEADERS:1) SIR SYED AHMED KHAN:I. “After the Urdu Hindi controversy, now I am convinced that these two communities will not join whole heartedly in anything, he who lives will see.”II. “If the Hindus and Muslims cannot agree even on the choice of a National language, and if Hindus are so narrow minded as to subject to Urdu, which represented a linguistic compromise b/w Hindi and Persian, there is no possibility of a common nationhood in the subcontinent.”III. “In our right hand will be the Holy Quran and there will be philosophy in our left hand and then there will be Crown of Laelaha on our head.”IV. He once said, “I don’t agree with those who believe that political discursion would be conducive to our national progress. I regard progress of education as the only means of national progress.”V. Speech in Lord Ripon’s Council (1881): For socio-politico purposes, the whole of the population of England forms but one community. It is obvious that the same cannot be said of India. The system of representation by election means the representation of the views and interests of the majority of the population and the countries where the population is composed of one race and one creed, it is no doubt that this is the best system that can be adopted.”VI. “Each time has its own colour, and unless you adapt yourself according to the circumstances of the time, your work cannot prosper.”

2) ALLAMA IQBAL:I. “To base a constitution on the conception of a homogenous India or to apply to India the principles dictated by British Democratic sentiments is unwittingly to prepare her for a civil war…self-government with the British Empire or in about it, the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of Muslims, at least of North West India… I therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim State in the best interests of India and Islam. For India it means security and peace resulting form an internal balance of power; for Islam an opportunity to rid itself of the stamp that Arabian Imperialism was forced to give it, to mobilize its laws, its education, its culture and to bring them into close contact with its own original spirit and with the spirit of modern times.”II. He further stated, “I would go further than the demands embodied in it. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state, self-government within the British empire or without the British empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.”III. “The units of Indian society are not territorial as in European countries. India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages, and professing different religions. Their behavior is not at all determined by a common race consciousness. Even the Hindus do not form a homogenous group. The principle of European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognizing the fact of communal groups. The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India within India is, therefore, perfectly justified.”

3) QUAID-E-AZAM:I. Stanley Wolpert writes in his book “Jinnah of Pakistan”, “Few individuals significantly alter the course of history. Fewer still modify the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation state. Mohammad Ali Jinnah did all three.”II. M. C. Chagla writes in ‘Roses in December’, “Jinnah was the uncrowned King of Bombay.”III. “They belonged to two separate and distinct nations and therefore the only chance open is to allow them to have separate states.” IV. “The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs literatures. They

neither inter-marry nor inter-dine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other, and likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state”.V. “Mussalmans are a nation according to any definition of nation. We wish our people to develop to the fullest spiritual, cultural, economic, social and political life in a way that we think best and in consonance with our own ideals and according to the genius of our people”.VI. Address on March 8, 1944, “hindus and Muslims through living in the same town and villages never been blended into one nation. They were always two separate entities.”

9. AIMS & OBJECTIVES FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PAKISTAN:1) Historical factors:2) Political factors:3) Hindu nationalism:4) Religious factors:5) Cultural factors:6) Enforcement of the sovereignty of Allah:7) Establishment of Islamic democracy:8) Revival of Muslim Image & Identity:9) Protection of Muslim culture and society:10) Emancipation from the prejudice Hindu majority:11) Establishment of balanced economic system:

(Imp: Ruttie died on 20th February 1929)

TOPIC # 31 FIRST CONSTITUTIONAL ASSEMBLY + OBJECTIVES RESOLUTION

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:• “A freedom movement initiated by people gained momentum and the small were about to rise when the big lost their head. The big did not want to pent up forces of hatred against them to be unleashed. They took strict measures to curb the freedom of the Muslims. This inhuman action proved the last nail in their own coffin and the stars favoured the Muslim freedom fighters.”• The history of formulation of the constitution of Pakistan begins with the Lahore Resolution in 1940. It was here that the idea of Pakistan, a separate homeland for the Muslims of India, was first outlined. It came to be known as the Pakistan Resolution.

• On June 3, 1947, the British Government accepted in principle the partition of India in order to create two independent dominions of Pakistan and India. The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on July 18, 1947. Accordingly, the new state of Pakistan came into being on August 14, 1947. This new state was formed of East Bengal, a part of Assam (Sylhet), West Punjab, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and Balochistan provinces of undivided India. • Under Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act of 1947, the Government of India Act of 1935 became, with certain adaptations, the working constitution of Pakistan. • However, the Quaid's aim was the establishment of a truly Islamic society. As a result, a Constituent Assembly was set up under the Independence Act. The Constituent Assembly had a dual purpose; to draft the constitution of Pakistan and to act as a legislative body till the new constitution was passed and enforced

2. OBJECTIVES RESOLUTION:On March 12, 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted a resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan, the then Prime Minister of Pakistan. It was called the Objectives Resolution. It proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not be modeled on European pattern, but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam. The Objectives Resolution, which is considered to be the "Magna Carta" of Pakistan's constitutional history, proclaimed the following principles: I. Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone but He has delegated it to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him as a sacred trust. II. The State shall exercise its powers and authority through the chosen representatives of the people. III. The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam, shall be fully observed. IV. Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah. V. Adequate provision shall be made for the minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures. VI. Pakistan shall be a federation. VII. Fundamental rights shall be guaranteed. VIII. Judiciary shall be independent.

3. SIGNIFICANCE:I. Ideals of Islam:II. People oriented:III. True Islamic society:IV. As Magna Carta:V. As a basis for the future constitutions:VI. Rights of minorities were safeguarded:4. CONCLUSION:The Objectives Resolution is one of the most important and illuminating documents in the constitutional history of Pakistan. At the time it was passed, Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan called it "the most important occasion in the life of this country, next in importance only to the achievement of independence". The importance of this document lies in the fact that it combines the good features of Western and Islamic democracy. It is a happy blend of modernism and Islam. The Objectives Resolution became a part of the constitution of Pakistan in 1985 under the Eighth Amendment.TOPIC # 32 LIAQUAT-NEHRU PACT (1950)

1. BACKGROUND:• At the time of independence, many communal riots broke out in different areas of India and Pakistan. These riots had a great impact on the status of minorities in the two nations. Due to brutal killings by the majority community, a huge number of Muslims migrated from India, and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan. Yet, the mass migration failed to solve the minority problem. Even after the migration, almost half of the Muslims living in the Sub-continent were left in India and a sizable number of Hindus in Pakistan. Those who were left behind were unable to become an integral part of the societies they were living in. The people and government of their countries looked upon them as suspects. They were unable to assure their countrymen of their loyalty. • This problem escalated during the late 40's and early 50's. It seemed as if India and Pakistan were about to fight their second war in the first three years of their independence. At this critical juncture in the history of South Asia, Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan issued a statement emphasizing the need to reach a solution to the problem. He also proposed a meeting with his Indian counterpart to determine how to put an end to the communal riots and the fear of war.

2. LIAQUAT-NEHRU PACT:The two Prime Ministers met in Delhi on April 2, 1950, and discussed the matter in detail. The meeting lasted for six long days. On April 8, the two leaders signed an agreement, which was later entitled as Liaquat-Nehru Pact. This pact provided a 'bill of rights' for the minorities of India and Pakistan. Its aim was to address the following three issues: I. To alleviate the fears of the religious minorities on both sides. II. To elevate communal peace. III. To create an atmosphere in which the two countries could resolve their other differences. According to the agreement, the governments of India and Pakistan solemnly agreed that each shall ensure, to the minorities throughout its territories, complete equality of citizenship, irrespective of religion; a full sense of security in respect of life, culture, property and personal honor. “It also guaranteed fundamental human rights of the minorities, such as freedom of movement, speech, occupation and worship. The pact also provided for the minorities to participate in the public life of their country, to hold political or other offices and to serve in their country's civil and armed forces.”

3. CONCLUSION:“The Liaquat-Nehru Pact provided for the mechanism to deal with oppressive elements with an iron hand. Both the governments decided to set up minority commissions in their countries with the aim of observing and reporting on the implementation of the pact, to ensure that no one breaches the pact and to make recommendations to guarantee its enforcement. Both Minority Commissions were to be headed by a provincial minister and were to have Hindu and Muslim members among its ranks. India and Pakistan also agreed to include representatives of the minority community in the cabinet of the two Bengals, and decided to depute two central ministers, one from each government, to remain in the affected areas for such period as might be necessary. Both the leaders emphasized that the loyalty of the minorities should be reserved for the state in which they were living and for the solution of their problems they should look forward to the government of the country they were living in.” “This pact was broadly acknowledged as an optimistic beginning to improve relations between India and Pakistan.”

TOPIC # 33 M. ALI BOGRA FORMULA (Oct. 7 1953)

While taking charge as Prime Minister, Muhammad Ali Bogra declared that formulation of the Constitution was his primary target. He worked hard on this project and within six months of assuming power, came out with a constitutional formula. His constitutional proposal, known as the Bogra Formula, was presented before the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on October 7, 1953. The plan proposed for a Bicameral Legislature with equal representation for all the five provinces of the country in the Upper House. A total of 50 seats were reserved for the Upper House. The 300 seats for the Lower House were to be allocated to the provinces on the basis of proportionate representation. One hundred and sixty five seats were reserved for East Pakistan, 75 for Punjab, 19 for Sindh and Khairpur, 24 for N. W. F. P., tribal areas and the states located in N. W. F. P., and 17 for Baluchistan, Baluchistan States Union, Bhawalpur and Karachi. In this way East Pakistan was given more seats in the Lower House than the combined number of seats reserved for the federal capital, the four provinces and the princely states of the Western Wing. So in all, both the wings were to have 175 seats each in the two houses of the Legislative Assembly. Both the houses were given equal power, and in case of a conflict between the two houses, the issue was to be presented before a joint session. In order to prevent permanent domination by any wing, a provision was made that if the head of the state was from West Pakistan, the Prime Minister was to be from East Pakistan, and vice versa. The two houses of the Legislative Assembly formed the Electoral College for the presidential elections and the President was to be elected for a term of 5 years. In place of the Board of Ulema, the Supreme Court was given the power to decide if a law was in accordance with the basic teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah or not. Unlike the two reports of the Basic Principles Committee, the Bogra Formula was appreciated by different sections of the society. There was great enthusiasm amongst the masses as they considered it as a plan that could bridge the gulf between the two wings of Pakistan and would act as a source of unity for the country. The proposal was discussed in the Constituent Assembly for 13 days, and a committee was set to draft the constitution on November 14, 1953. However, before the constitution could be finalized, the Assembly was dissolved by Ghulam Muhammad, the then Governor General of Pakistan.

TOPIC # 34 ONE UNIT1. BACKGROUND:• Even after eight years of existence, Pakistan was without a constitution. The main reason was believed to be the fact that there were two unequal wings of Pakistan separated from each other by more than a thousand miles. To diminish the differences between the two regions, the Government of Pakistan decided that all the four provinces and states of West Pakistan should be merged into one unit. • To this end, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali made the first official announcement on November 22, 1954, enumerating the benefits of having one unit or province. On September 30, 1955, the Assembly passed the bill merging 310,000 square miles into a single province, with Lahore as its provincial capital. West Pakistan had formerly comprised three Governor's provinces, one Chief Commissioner's province, a number of states that

had acceded to Pakistan, and the tribal areas. Geographically, they formed a homogenous block with easy communication, but with marked linguistic and ethnic distinctions. The result of the new bill was to unify these various units into one province to be known as West Pakistan. 2. SYSTEM OF ONE UNIT:The Bill was hailed as a measure of administrative rationalization as it was likely to reduce the administrative expenditure. It was claimed that one unit of West Pakistan would eliminate the curse of provincial prejudices. The problem of representation of various units in the proposed Federal Legislature had been a big hurdle in the way of making a Constitution and it was said that with the removal of this hurdle, the formation of the Constitution would now speed up. Dr. Khan Sahib was appointed as the first Chief Minister of the One Unit, while Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani was appointed as the first Governor of West Pakistan. Dr. Khan Sahib's Ministry, however, came to an end when the President himself took over the administration. Subsequently, Sardar Abdur Rashid and Muzzaffar Ali Qazilbash were appointed Chief Ministers of that province in succession.

3. END OF ONE UNIT:While the One Unit scheme in West Pakistan could be supported on various grounds, the method of its establishment was not free from criticism. The government wanted to introduce the One Unit Scheme by an executive decree, which it could not do. So the Central Government dismissed the Ministry in Punjab, Sindh and N. W. F. P. One Unit continued until General Yahya Khan dissolved it on July 1, 1970.

TOPIC # 351962 CONSTITUTION & ITS FAILURE

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF CONSTITUTION:1. Unpopular Constitution:2. Dictatorial presidential system:3. Ignorance of Checks & balances:4. Lack of provincial autonomy:5. Indirect mode of election:6. Ignorance of fundamental rights:7. Political monopoly of single party:8. Encouragement of Secularism:

TOPIC # 36 LFO (1970)

1. INTRODUCTION:After the abrogation of the Constitution of 1962, Yahya Khan needed a legal framework to hold elections. In April and July 1969, he held discussions with prominent political party leaders to learn their point of view. Most of them asked for the revival of the Constitution of 1956 on the ground that its abrogation had been unlawful, and the country should return to the constitutional position prevailing on the eve of the 1958 coup. Yahya Khan initially agreed with this opinion, but had to change his stance due to opposition from the Awami League.

2. LFO:

Not being well versed in constitutional affairs, he appointed a team to draft a new constitutional formula. He voiced his ideas about the constitutional issues in his broadcast address to the nation on November 28, 1969. The formula was officially issued on March 30, 1970, and is known as the Legal Framework Order of 1970. According to this order, One Unit was dissolved in West Pakistan and direct ballot replaced the principle of parity. I. Seats:The National Assembly was to consist of 313 seats, including 13 seats reserved for women. Women were also allowed to contest the elections from general seats. The distribution of seats was to be as follows: East Pakistan: 162 general and 7 reserved seats Punjab: 82 general and 3 reserved seats Sindh: 27 general and 1 reserved seat N. W. F. P.: 18 general and 1 reserved seat Balochistan: 4 general and 1 reserved seat Centrally Administered Tribal Areas: 7 general seats II. Qualification:The L. F. O. also defined the qualifications of people who would be allowed to contest in the elections. The Constituent Assembly was to stand dissolved if it was unable to frame the Constitution within 120 days. Actually, the Legal Framework Order was to act as an interim Constitution. III. Draft the future Constitution:The primary function of the L. F. O. was to provide a setup on which elections could be conducted. It was then the duty of the elected Constituent Assembly to draft the Constitution of Pakistan. However, the L. F. O. defined the directive principles of State policy and made it clear that the future Constitution should not violate these basic principles. The directive principles demanded an Islamic way of life, observation of Islamic moral standards, and teaching of the Quran and Sunnah to the Muslims. The Legal Framework Order also urged the Constituent Assembly to frame a Constitution in which Pakistan was to be a Federal Republic and should be named Islamic Republic of Pakistan. It also called for the preservation of Islamic Ideology and democratic values. The Constituent Assembly was also supposed to frame a Constitution in which all citizens of Pakistan were to enjoy fundamental human rights. Judiciary should remain independent from the Executive and provincial autonomy is protected. IV. Power of the President:The President was given the power to reject any Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly if the document did not fulfill the above-mentioned requirements. The President also had the power to interpret and amend the Constitution, and his decision could not be challenged in a court of law.

TOPIC # 37SHEIKH MUJIB’S SIX POINTS

In the 1970 National Assembly elections, the mandate of Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman's Awami League Party was based on a Six-Point Program of regional autonomy in a federal Pakistan. Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman had presented the Six-Point Program as the constitutional solution of East Pakistan's problems, in relation to West Pakistan. First enunciated on February 12, 1966, the six points are as below: 1. The Constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in the true sense on the basis of the Lahore Resolution and for a parliamentary form of government based on the supremacy of a directly elected legislature on the basis of universal adult franchise.

2. The Federal Government shall deal with only two subjects; Defense and Foreign Affairs. All residuary subjects will be vested in the federating states. 3. There should be either two separate, freely convertible currencies for the two Wings, or one currency with two separate reserve banks to prevent inter-Wing flight of capital. 4. The power of taxation and revenue collection shall be vested in the federating units. The Federal Government will receive a share to meet its financial obligations. 5. Economic disparities between the two Wings shall disappear through a series of economic, fiscal, and legal reforms. 6. A militia or paramilitary force must be created in East Pakistan, which at present has no defense of it own.

After the elections of 1970, differences arose between the Government and Awami League on the transfer of power on the basis of this Six-Point Program. There ensued a political deadlock with talks ending in failure and postponement of the first session of the National Assembly. The postponement of the National Assembly session triggered a chain of events that eventually led to the separation of East Pakistan.

TOPIC # 38DEBACLE OF EAST PAKISTAN

A. BACKGROUND:I. The separation of East Pakistan was a great setback to Pakistan. By 1970, sentiments for national unity had weakened in East Pakistan to the extent that constant conflict between the two Wings dramatically erupted into mass civil disorder. This tragically resulted in the brutal and violent amputation of Pakistan's Eastern Wing.II. J. Raston writes in The New York Times in an article “Who won in India?” “The Indo-Pak War on Bangladesh on 1971 was not merely a regional conflict b/w the two countries – it was not only another phase in the long religious conflict b/w the Muslims and the Hindus, not merely a moral conflict b/w Pakistan’s vicious suppression of the Bangladeshi rebels and India’s calculated military aggression to dismember the Pakistani state. Back of all this, there was a power struggle b/w China and the USSR, and a strategic struggle b/w

Moscow and Washington.”III. “The physical separation of a thousand miles between the two wings without a common border, and being surrounded by Indian Territory and influences, led to constant political, economic and social conflicts between the two wings; embittering relations bringing the country on the verge of collapse.”

B. CAUSES OF THE FALL OF EAST PAKISTAN:1. Geographical discontinuity:2. Lack of desire of union:3. Negative desire of autonomy:4. Desire of Federal Capital:5. Absence of common cultural and other interests:6. Inequality among the federating units:7. Selfish and inefficient leadership:8. Heavy floods in 1970:9. The animosity of Hindus:10. The Indian antagonistic attitude:11. Negative attitude of super powers:12. Weak diplomacy:13. Lack of ideological dedication:14. Role of Awami League & its leaders:15. Mujib-ur-Rehman’s Non-Cooperation Movement:16. Mukti Bahini & its terrorist activities:17. Resistance Day:Unfortunately, on March 23, the Republic Day of Pakistan, the Awami League declared "Resistance Day" and Bangladesh flags flew all over the Province.

C. DISINTEGRATION OF EAST PAKISTAN:On December 10, 1971, the first feeler for surrender in East Pakistan was conveyed to the United Nations. On December 17, 1971, a formal surrender was submitted and accepted. Forty five thousand troops and an almost equal number of civilians of West Pakistan were taken as prisoners of war. "INSTRUMENT OF SURRENDER" The PAKISTAN Eastern Command agree to surrender all PAKISTAN Armed Forces in BANGLA DESH to Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and BANGLA DESH forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all PAKISTAN land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA. 16 December 1971 The surrender led to the disintegration of East and West Pakistan and the establishment of Bangladesh. After 25 years, the East Pakistanis declared themselves independent and renamed their Province as Bangladesh. Pakistan finally recognized Bangladesh at the Islamic Conference in Lahore on February 22, 1974.

TOPIC # 39ISLAMIZATION IN PAKISTAN

A. INTRODUCTION:Quaid said, “We want to have a separate homeland where Islamic laws can be enforced. We want a separate homeland to prove that Islamic laws pronounced 1400 years ago are still practicable.”

B. ISLAMIZATION:

1. Objectives resolution:2. The Constitution of 1956:3. The Constitution of 1962:4. The Constitution of 1973: 5. Islamization Under General Zia-ul-Haq:When General Zia-ul-Haq took over as the Chief Martial Law Administrator on July 5, 1977, Islamization was given a new boost. General Zia-ul-Haq was a practicing Muslim who raised the slogan of Islam.1) Hudood Ordinance: it was promulgated in 1979.2) Qazf Ordinance: 3) Zakat & Usher Ordinance: it was promulgated on June 20, 1980.4) Establishment of Federal Shariat Court:5) Majlis-e-Shoora: in 1980.6) Nazam-I-Salat: 7) Ehtram-I-Ramzan:8) Ban on Nudity: display of nude scenes and moving films with nudity were also banned on the television.9) Islamic education:10) Financial system:11) Islamic laws for women: theory of “Chadar aur Char devari”.

TOPIC # 40NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources play an important and pivotal role in the economic welfare and betterment of the country. The natural resources play a stable base for erecting the formidable edifice of country’s economy. No one can deny the importance of the availability of natural resources. They are, in fact, the invaluable gift bestowed by the Almighty on His subjects for their happy life on the Earth.Pakistan is greatly endowed by the nature with vast quantity of natural resources. The govt. is trying hard to explore the hidden resources. Quaid-e-Azam said, “Pakistan has become a reality. It is endowed with natural resources. Now much depends on its people to exploit and make use of them by putting in incessant hard work and honest labour.” Pakistan’s natural resources are given below:A. MINERAL RESOURCES:1. Iron core: the total deposit is of 430 metric ton in Kalabagh, Mianwali, Sakesar, Harpur.2. Chromite: Zhob valley. The mines of Jang Toragarh and Khanozai are the huge source of chromite.3. Copper: Sanidak and Amuri in Chagi.4. Rock salt: Besides Khewra, Warcha mines are also producing salt.5. Gypsum: Jhelum, DG Khan, Mianwali, Quetta, Sibi, Kohat and DI Khan.

6. Sulphur: Koh-e-Saltan in Chagi, Kachi in Balochistan, Mardan and Khairpur.7. Lime stone: Daudkhel, Wah, Rohri and Karachi.8. Marble: Malleghori, Maneri, Gundai and Nowshera.B. POWER/ENERGY RESOURCES:1. Coal: Khushab, Khewra, Makarwal, Quetta, Sibi, Lakhra, etc.2. Natural gas & Oil: Dhullian oil field, Joya mir oil field, Balkassar, Karsal, Tut, Meya and Sarang oil fields.C. NATURAL GAS:1. Zin, Uch, Khairpur, Khankot, Mehal, Mari, Jacobabad and Dhullian:2. Sui Gas: It lies in the Sibbi district. It is producing 80% of the production.

D. FORESTS: 1. Chhanga Manga, Chichawatni, Wan bachran:2. Forests of Northern Areas:3. The Balochistan Hill forests:4. Tidal forests: from Karachi to Kutch.5. Bela Forests: along the banks of the big rivers.

TOPIC # 41LOCAL GOVERNMENT SETUP

1. INTRODUCTION:In order to establish democracy at grassroots level, the regime of General Pervez Musharaf, introduced the Local Government System. This was not a new experiment in Pakistan. Ayub Khan had undertaken a similar effort in this direction by introducing the Basic Democracy System. This new system of Local Government was installed on August 14, 2001, after holding of elections. Direct elections on non-party basis were held in five phases for members of Union Councils, Union Nazims, and Naib Union Nazims during 2000 thru to 2001. On the basis of these direct elections, indirect elections were held in July-August 2001 for Zila Nazims and Naib Zila Nazims and also for Tehsil-Town Nazims and Naib Nazims. In order to attract people towards electoral politics, the minimum age for local government elections was lowered from 21 to 18 years. One-third seats were reserved for women. 2. PURPOSE:The main purpose of introducing the Local Government System was to empower the people at the grassroots level and to transfer power from the elite to the masses. This system of grassroots democracy envisaged yielding new political leaders. It was also anticipated to solve people's problems at local level, allow public participation in decision-making and ensure the provision of speedy justice. The essence of this system was that the Local Governments would be accountable to the citizens for all their decisions. It would enable the proactive elements of society to participate in community work, development related activities and would remove rural-urban divide. The new Local Government plan was an effort on the part of the Military Government to lay the foundations of an authentic and enduring democracy. 3. LOCAL GOVT STRUCTURE:The new System provided a three-tier Local Government structure: 1) The District Government 2) The Tehsil Government 3) The Union Administration

1) The District Government:The District Government consisted of the Zila Nazim and District Administration. The District Administration consisted of district offices including sub-offices at Tehsil level, who were to be responsible to the District Nazim assisted by the District Coordination Officer. The District Coordination Officer was appointed by the Provincial Government and was the coordinating head of the District Administration. The Zila Nazim was accountable to the people through the elected members of the Zila Council. A Zila Council consisted of all Union Nazims in the District, which consisted of members elected on the reserved seats. These seats were reserved for women, peasants, workers, and minority community. The Zila Council had its Secretariat under the Naib Zila Nazim and had a separate budget allocation. Adequate checks and balances were introduced in the System. The new System also efficiently addressed the specific needs and problems of large cities. The District Government was responsible to the people and the Provincial Government for improvement of governance and delivery of services. 2) Tehsil Administration:The middle tier, the Tehsil, had Tehsil Municipal Administration headed by the Tehsil Nazim. Tehsil Municipal Administration consisted of a Tehsil Nazim, Tehsil Municipal Officer, Tehsil Officers, Chief Officers and other officials of the Local Council Service and officials of the offices entrusted to the Tehsil Municipal Administration. The Tehsil Municipal Administration was entrusted with the functions of administration, finances, and management of the offices of Local Government and Rural Development, and numerous other subjects at the regional, Divisional, District, Tehsil and lower levels. 3) Union Administration:The lowest tier, the Union Administration was a corporate body covering the rural as well as urban areas across the whole District. It consisted of Union Nazim, Naib Union Nazim and three Union Secretaries and other auxiliary staff. The Union Nazim was the head of the Union Administration and the Naib Union Nazim acted as deputy to the Union Nazim during his temporary absence. The Union Secretaries coordinated and facilitated in community development, functioning of the Union Committees and delivery of municipal services under the supervision of Union Nazim. The Government allocated Rupees 32 billion to the Local Government in 2002. The funds were deposited in the account of the District Government. The District Government further distributed these funds to Tehsil and Unions. In addition to the fiscal transfers from the Province, the Local Governments were authorized to generate money from their own sources by levying certain taxes, fees, user charges, etc.

It is, however, pertinent to make a special mention that it is only in the absence of elected assemblies that local governments are the popularly elected bodies and play important political and developmental roles. After the election of Senators and members of the provincial and national assemblies, its role has been again substantially marginalized. The elected representatives of National and Provincial Assemblies usually take over some functions, which local governments used to perform and as such in many ways they are prone to intervene in the evolution of proper and improved Local government. Local governments suffer from the fact that their existence is not constitutionally ordained and they are a mere extension of the provincial government. In the Constitution, the allocations of the functions of the federal and provincial governments are clearly specified whereas the existence of local government is not formally embodied in the Constitution. Moreover, financial, technical, and bureaucratic constraints plus limited revenue (merely 5 per cent of revenue generated by the government) cause the poor and almost non-existent local government for most of the time.