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Chemistry of the environment
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Chemistry of the environmentthird edition
thomas G. spiro
Kathleen L. Purvis-roberts
William m. stigliani
University sCienCe BooKs
www.uscibooks.com
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spiro, Thomas G., 1935– Chemistry of the environment / Thomas G. Spiro, Kathleen Purvis-Roberts, William M. Stigliani ; foreword by Harry Gray. — 3rd ed. p. cm. ISBN 978-1-891389-70-2 (alk. paper) 1. Environmental chemistry. I. Purvis-Roberts, Kathleen. II. Stigliani, William M. III. Title. TD193.S7 2012 540—dc23 2011013139
Printed in North America10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Dedicated to our children and grandchildren, and their generations.
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Contents in Brief
Foreword xviiPreface xix
Part i. sustainaBility and Green Chemistry 1
Chapter 1. Sustainability and Chemistry 3Chapter 2. Green Chemistry 11
Part ii. atmosPhere 21
Chapter 3. Air Pollution 23Chapter 4. Nitrogen Oxides, Ozone, and Gasoline 49Chapter 5. Stratospheric Ozone Shield 77Chapter 6. Climate Change 105
Part iii. enerGy and materials 155
Chapter 7. Energy Flows and Supplies 157Chapter 8. Fossil Fuels 169Chapter 9. Nuclear Energy 205Chapter 10. Renewable Energy 245Chapter 11. Energy Utilization 279
Part iV. hydrosPhere and lithosPhere 329
Chapter 12. Water Resources 331Chapter 13. Water as Solvent: Acids and Bases 349Chapter 14. Water and Lithosphere 369
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viii Contents in Brief
Chapter 15. Oxygen and Life 399Chapter 16. Water Pollution and Treatment 435
Part V. BiosPhere 457
Chapter 17. Nitrogen and Food Production 459Chapter 18. Pest Control 491Chapter 19. Toxicity of Chemicals 523
Appendix A: Organic Structures 579Appendix B: Mathematical Fundamentals 589Index 595
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Contents
Foreword xviiPreface xix
Part i. sustainaBility and Green
Chemistry 1
Chapter 1. sustainability and Chemistry 3
1.1 What Is Sustainability? 31.2 From Environmentalism to Sustainability 41.3 Sustainability Connections among
Environmental Spheres 61.4 Applying Sustainability 7Additional Reading 8
Chapter 2. Green Chemistry 11
2.1 Sustainable Living through Chemistry 112.2 Green Chemistry Principles 122.3 Green Chemistry Examples 13
2.3a Eliminating Chlorofluorocarbons 132.3b Greener Solvents: Liquid and
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 132.3b.i Dry Cleaning 142.3b.ii Cleaning Computer Chips 14
2.3c Biomass Plastics 142.3c.i Polylactic Acid 152.3c.ii Cellulose 152.3c.iii Paint 16
2.3d Replacing Chlorine 162.3e Biodegradable Chelating Agent 17
2.3f Reducing Toxic Metals 172.3f.i Yttrium Replaces Lead in
Automobile Coatings 172.3f.ii Removing Arsenic and
Chromium from Pressure-Treated Wood 18
2.3g Atom Economy: Reducing Waste in Ibuprofen Manufacture 18
2.3h Materials Substitution: Recyclable Carpet 18
2.3i Environmentally Benign Pesticides 19Problems 20Additional Reading 20
Part ii. atmosPhere 21
Chapter 3. air Pollution 23
3.1 Pollutants and Their Effects 233.2 Carbon Monoxide 243.3 Sulfur Dioxide 27
3.3a Sulfur Dioxide Emission Controls 283.4 Toxic Organics 29
3.4a Formaldehyde and Acetaldehyde 293.4b Benzene 313.4c Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 32
3.5 Particulate Matter 323.6 Nitrogen Oxides and Volatile Organics 363.7 Ozone and Other Oxidants 37
3.7a Control of Ozone Precursors 38
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x Contents
3.8 Indoor Air Pollution 42Problems 45Additional Reading 46
Chapter 4. nitrogen oxides, ozone, and
Gasoline 49
4.1 Aerobic Earth 494.2 Nitrogen Oxides: Free Energy 50
4.2a Free Energy and Equilibrium 50Worked Problem 4.1: Atmospheric NO Concentration 52
4.2b Free Energy and Temperature 52Worked Problem 4.2: High-Temperature NO 53
4.3 Nitrogen Oxides: Kinetics 534.4 Free Radical Chain Reactions 564.5 Photochemistry 574.6 Photochemical Smog 59
4.6a Smog Photochemistry 594.6b The C H Bond Strengths and
Photochemical Activity 614.6c Role of Olefins 644.6d Atmospheric Reactions of Organic
Radicals 644.6e Additional Smog Contributions 66
4.7 Gasoline and Its Formulations 674.7a Knocking and Octane 674.7b Diesels and Cetane 694.7c Lead in Gasoline 704.7d Reformulated Gasoline 71
Problems 73Additional Reading 74
Chapter 5. stratospheric ozone shield 77
5.1 Overview 775.2 Structure of the Atmosphere 79
Worked Problem 5.1: How Much Ozone? 825.3 Ultraviolet Radiation Damage 83
5.3a Transmission of UV Light through Ozone 85
5.4 Reactions that Create and Destroy Stratospheric Ozone 865.4a Calculating the Ozone Steady State 87
5.5 Catalytic Destruction of Ozone 905.5a Hydroxyl Radical 915.5b Chlorine and Bromine 915.5c Nitric Oxide 935.5d Summary of Ozone Destruction
Chemistry 945.6 Polar Ozone Destruction 955.7 Ozone Projections 985.8 The Chlorofluorocarbon Substitutes 98Problems 101Additional Reading 102
Chapter 6. Climate Change 105
6.1 Overview 1056.2 Energy Flows 1056.3 Radiation Balance and the Greenhouse
Effect 107Worked Problem 6.1: Human Energy and Earth’s Temperature 110
6.4 Infrared Absorption by Greenhouse Gases: Molecular Vibrations 111Worked Problem 6.2: Beer–Lambert Law and CO2 Saturation 114
6.5 Water: Positive Feedback, Latent Heat, and Energy Flows 115Worked Problem 6.3: Energy in Rain 116
6.6 Greenhouse Computations: Radiative Forcing 117
6.7 Carbon Dioxide and the Carbon Cycle 1206.8 Reservoirs, Flows, and Residence Times 125
Worked Problem 6.4: Carbon Residence Time 125
6.9 Other Greenhouse Gases 1266.10 Albedo, Particles, and Clouds 129
6.10a Raindrops and Condensation Nuclei 131Worked Problem 6.5: Cloud Seeding 133
6.10b Aerosol Particles 133Worked Problem 6.6: Volcanic Cooling 135
6.10c Sulfur Cycle 1366.10d Black Carbon 138
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6.11 Geoengineering to Raise the Albedo 1406.12 Climate Modeling 1406.13 Global Warming Impacts 1456.14 International Agreements 146Problems 150Additional Reading 152
Part iii. enerGy and materials 155
Chapter 7. energy flows and supplies 157
7.1 Human Energy Consumption 1577.2 Exponential Growth 160
Worked Problem 7.1: World Energy Consumption 162
7.3 Human Energy Sources 163Problems 167Additional Reading 167
Chapter 8. fossil fuels 169
8.1 Closing the Carbon Cycle 169Worked Problem 8.1: Will We Run Out of Oxygen? 171
8.2 Origins of Fossil Fuels 1728.2a Petroleum and Natural Gas 1728.2b Coal 174
8.3 Fuel Energy 1748.3a Hydrogen Combustion and Bond
Enthalpies 1748.3b Comparison of Fuel Energies 177
Worked Problem 8.2: Methane Combustion 179
8.4 Petroleum 1808.4a Composition and Refining 1808.4b Advantages 1828.4c Disadvantages 182
8.4c.i Oil Spills 1828.4c.ii Carbon Dioxide Emissions 188
8.4d When Will the Oil Run Out? 1888.5 Gas 190
8.5a Advantages 1918.5b Disadvantages 1918.5c When Will the Gas Run Out? 192
8.6 Coal 1938.6a Advantages 194
8.6b Disadvantages 1958.6c When Will the Coal Run Out? 197
8.7 Coal-Derived Fuels 1978.8 Carbon Capture and Storage 199
8.8a Capture 1998.8b Geological Storage 2008.8c Biological Storage 202
Problems 203Additional Reading 204
Chapter 9. nuclear energy 205
9.1 Curve of Binding Energy 2059.2 Nuclei, Isotopes, and Radioactivity 2069.3 Half-Lives and Naturally Occurring
Radioisotopes 209Worked Problem 9.1: Radiocarbon Dating 210
9.4 Decay Chains: The Radon Problem 2119.5 Radioactivity: Biological Effects of Ionizing
Radiation 2139.5a Alpha Rays 2149.5b Beta and Gamma Rays, and Neutrons 215
9.6 Radiation Exposure 215Worked Problem 9.2: Radon Exposure 219
9.7 Power from Fission 2199.7a Fission Reactors 2219.7b Isotope Separation 2239.7c Breeder Reactor 2249.7d Reprocessing 225
9.8 Hazards of Nuclear Power 2269.8a Reactor Safety 2269.8b Weapons Proliferation 2299.8c Nuclear Waste Disposal 2319.8d New Reactor Designs and the Thorium
Fuel Cycle 2339.9 The Future of Nuclear Power 2369.10 Fusion 237
9.10a Fusion Reactions 2379.10b Inertial Confinement 2399.10c Magnetic Confinement 2409.10d Is Fusion the Energy Source of the
Future? 242Problems 242Additional Reading 243
Contents xi
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xii Contents
Chapter 10. renewable energy 245
10.1 Forms of Renewable Energy 24510.2 Solar Heating 24710.3 Solar Electricity 248
10.3a Solar Thermal Electricity and Solar Chemical Processing 248
10.3b Photovoltaic Electricity 25110.4 Principles of the Photovoltaic Cell 25210.5 Photosynthesis and
Photoelectrochemistry 25610.6 Biomass 258
10.6a Ethanol from Biomass 26010.6b Ethanol from Starch or Cellulose? 26110.6c Biodiesel 26310.6d Methane from Biomass 264
10.7 Hydroelectricity 265Worked Problem 10.1 267
10.8 Wind Power 26710.9 Ocean Energy 270
10.9a Tides 27010.9b Waves 27110.9c Salt Gradient 27110.9d Thermal Gradients 27110.9e Deep Ocean Current 272
10.10 Geothermal Energy 272Problems 276Additional Reading 277
Chapter 11. energy utilization 279
11.1 Efficiency and Heat: The Role of Entropy 27911.1a Heat Engine Efficiencies 280
Worked Problem 11.1: Power Plant Efficiency 282
11.1b Energy to Heat: The Heat Pump 28311.2 Chemical Energy: Fuel Cells 285
Worked Problem 11.2: Fuel Cell Efficiency 28611.2a A PEM Fuel Cell 28811.2b Other Fuel Cells 29111.2c Microbial Fuel Cell 292
11.3 Space Heating, Cogeneration 29311.4 Electricity Storage 294
11.4a Batteries 295
11.4b Hydrogen Storage 29711.5 The Materials Connection 299
11.5a Materials Properties: Paper versus Plastics 300
11.5b Recycling 30211.5b.i Energy of Refining Al versus
Fe 30411.5c Concrete 30511.5d Dematerialization 306
11.6 Systems Efficiency 30711.6a Industrial Ecology 30911.6b Transportation 31111.6c Energy Efficiency in Automobiles 31411.6d The “Smart Grid” 31611.6e Hydrogen Economy 317
11.7 Connecting Energy Use and Climate Change: Stabilization Wedges and Cost Curves 319
Problems 324Additional Reading 326
Part iV. hydrosPhere and
lithosPhere 329
Chapter 12. Water resources 331
12.1 Global Perspective 33112.2 Irrigation 33412.3 “Virtual” Water and the Issue of Meat
Production 33712.4 Groundwater 33812.5 United States Water Resources 34012.6 The Oceans 34112.7 Water as Solvent and as a Biological
Medium 344Problems 345Additional Reading 346
Chapter 13. Water as solvent: acids and
Bases 349
13.1 Unique Properties of Water 34913.1a Hydrogen Bonding 34913.1b Clathrates and Water Miscibility 352
13.2 Ions, Autoionization, and pH 35413.2a The pH Scale 355
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13.3 Weak Acids and Bases: Buffers 35713.3a Weak Acids 35713.3b The pH of a Weak Acid 357
Worked Problem 13.1: The pH of a Weak Acid 358
13.3c Weak Bases 35813.3d The pH of a Weak Base 359
Worked Problem 13.2: The pH of a Weak Base 359
13.3e Conjugate Acids and Bases: Buffers 359
13.4 Water in the Atmosphere: Acid Rain 36113.5 Polyprotic Acids 362
Worked Problem 13.3: Phosphate Protonation 365Worked Problem 13.4: Ocean Carbonate 366
13.6 Alkalinity 366Problems 367Additional Reading 368
Chapter 14. Water and the lithosphere 369
14.1 The Earth as an Acid–Base Reactor 36914.2 Organic and Inorganic Carbon Cycles 372
14.2a The Carbonate Control 37314.2b Carbonate Sequestration 37514.2c Carbon Dioxide, Water, and Earth’s
Planetary Neighbors 37714.3 Weathering and Solubilization
Mechanisms 37714.3a Ionic Solids and the Solubility
Product 377Worked Problem 14.1: Barium Sulfate Solubility 378
14.3b Solubility and Basicity 379Worked Problem 14.2: Calcium Carbonate Solubility in Equilibrium with the Atmosphere 379
14.3c Ocean Acidification 38014.4 Ion Exchange: Clays and Humic
Substances 38214.5 Effects of Freshwater Acidification 386
14.5a Soil Neutralization 38614.5b Hardness and Detergents 388
14.5c Acid Deposition and Watershed Buffering 390
14.5d Ecosystem Effects of Acid Rain 39314.5e Acid Mine Drainage 39414.5f Global Acidification 395
Problems 396Additional Reading 397
Chapter 15. oxygen and life 399
15.1 Redox Reactions and Energy 39915.2 Biological Oxygen Demand 400
Worked Problem 15.1: Biological Oxygen Demand 401
15.3 Oxidation Levels and Water 401Worked Problem 15.2: Calculating the Oxidation State and Balancing Redox Equations 402
15.4 Reduction Potentials 40315.5 Natural Sequence of Biological
Reductions 40515.6 Concentration Dependence of the Potential:
pH and Eh 408Worked Problem 15.3: Eh and Ksp of Fe(OH)3 409Worked Problem 15.4: Effective Oxygen Potential 409
15.7 Electron and Proton Affinities Are Linked: pE versus pH 410
15.8 Biological Oxidations 41315.9 Aerobic Earth 41315.10 Water as an Ecological Medium 416
15.10a The Euphotic Zone and the Biological Pump 416
15.10b Eutrophication in Freshwater Lakes 418
15.10c Nitrogen and Phosphorus: The Limiting Nutrients 420
15.10d Anoxia and Its Effects on Coastal Marine Waters 423
15.10e Wetlands as Chemical Sinks 42715.10f Redox Effects on Metals
Pollution 42915.10g Fertilizing the Ocean with Iron 430
Contents xiii
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xiv Contents
Problems 431Additional Reading 433
Chapter 16. Water Pollution and Water
treatment 435
16.1 Water Use and Water Quality: Point and Nonpoint Sources of Pollution 435
16.2 Regulation of Water Quality 43916.3 Water and Sewage Treatment 44116.4 Desalinization of Seawater 44316.5 Health Hazards 445
16.5a Pathogens and Disinfection 44516.5b Organic and Inorganic Contaminants 448
16.5b.i Waste Sites 44816.5b.ii Agriculture 449
16.6 Low-Cost Water Technology for Developing Countries 450
16.7 Trace Pollutants 45116.8 Perchlorate Pollution 45216.9 Summary of Hydrosphere–Lithosphere
Interactions 452Problems 453Additional Reading 454
Part V. BiosPhere 457
Chapter 17. nitrogen and food Production 459
17.1 Nitrogen Cycle 45917.2 Agriculture 463
17.2a Fertilizer and the Green Revolution 463
17.2b Environmental Degradation 46817.2c Confined Animal Feeding
Operations 46917.2d Organic Farming and Sustainable
Agriculture 47017.3 Nutrition 472
17.3a Energy and Calories 47217.3b Protein 47317.3c Minerals and Vitamins 47817.3d Antioxidants 48317.3e Antioxidant Mechanisms 484
Problems 486Additional Reading 487
Chapter 18. Pest Control 491
18.1 Insecticides 49118.1a Persistent Insecticides:
Organochlorines 49218.1b Molecular Shape and Biological
Activity 49418.1c Ecosystem Effects:
Bioaccumulation 49518.1d Bioaccumulation and the Partition
Coefficient 49818.1e Nonpersistent Insecticides:
Organophosphates and Carbamates 49918.1f Molecular Mechanism of
Cholinesterase Inhibitors 50118.1g Natural Insecticides 50318.1h Integrated Pest Management 504
18.2 Herbicides 50618.2a Molecular Mechanism of Glyphosate
Inhibition; Genetic Engineering 50918.3 Genetically Modified Organisms 511
18.3a Genetically Modified Plants: Actualities and Potential 511
18.3b Resistance to Genetically Modified Foods 51418.3b.i Moral Issues 51418.3b.ii Political Issues 51618.3b.iii Health and Environment
Issues 516Problems 519Additional Reading 520
Chapter 19. toxicity of Chemicals 523
19.1 Acute and Chronic Toxicity 52319.2 Cancer 526
19.2a Mechanisms 52719.2b Cancer Incidence and Testing 532
19.3 Hormonal Effects 53619.3a Bisphenol A 539
19.4 Persistent Organic Pollutants: Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls 54119.4a Dioxins and Furans 542
19.4a.i Toxicity 53419.4a.ii Paper Bleaching and
Combustion Sources 544
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19.4a.iii Natural Sources? 54619.4a.iv Exposure 548
19.4b Polychlorinated Biphenyls 54919.4c Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers 55219.4d Perflouroctanoic Sulfonate 55219.4e Global Transport 553
19.5 Toxic Metals 55419.5a Mercury 55719.5b Cadmium 56219.5c Arsenic 56519.5d Lead 567
19.5d.i Exposure 56719.5d.ii Bioavailability 57119.5d.iii Toxicity 571
Problems 574Additional Reading 575
aPPendiCes
appendix a: organic structures 579
appendix B: mathematical fundamentals 589
Index 595
Contents xv
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foreWord
Chemistry of the Environment by Spiro, Purvis-Roberts, and Stigliani fills a critical need by providing a coherent chemical account of the environmental issues we face. From air pollution and climate change, to acid rain and oil spills, to food security and genetically modified plants, to carcinogens and lead poisoning, Chemistry of the Environment puts the environmental story in chemical context, showing how the problems arise, and pointing ways to their solutions.
I am particularly pleased that the authors have devoted an entire unit of their book to Energy and Materials, as I firmly believe that energy production and utilization are key to human welfare as well as the source of most envi-ronmental problems. The Energy and Materials unit sets out the challenges we face, and points to the many opportunities to develop new chemistry for effi-cient energy production and use. It will be especially helpful to young inves-tigators entering the field.
Spiro, Purvis-Roberts, and Stigliani write in a clear and engaging style. They organize the material in a logical and compelling manner, emphasizing the many cross-connections among environmental topics.
The bottom line is that this is the book on environmental chemistry that we all have been waiting for! It is a must read for young and old alike.
Harry Gray
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PrefaCe
environmental Chemistry lessons
“Here’s a short chemistry lesson”, wrote Bill McKibben in a 1995 New York Times Magazine feature story.a “Grasp it and you will grasp the reason the environmental era has barely begun. . . .” McKibben’s lesson is about the dif-ference between two molecules, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Today’s automobiles release half a pound of carbon as CO per gallon of gasoline burned, around half as much as they did a generation ago, and the rate is going down with continuing improvements in technology. As a result, the air is now cleaner than it used to be in Los Angeles and in many other c ities. But the same gallon of gasoline releases almost five and one-half pounds of carbon as CO2, and this rate cannot be decreased. The atmospheric concentration of CO2 is increasing worldwide, and bringing global warming with it. The two molecules capture two sides of the environmental coin, local versus global effects of human activity. Environmental quality has improved in many localities, thanks to environmental controls and new technologies, but the global problems are just beginning to be addressed, and they are much more difficult to solve. Carbon monoxide is a side product of combustion, and is subject to emission controls, but CO2 is the end product of combustion and is the inevitable accompaniment of our reliance on fossil fuels. “Carbon mon-oxide versus carbon dioxide,” says McKibben, “one damn oxygen atom, and all the difference in the world”.
McKibben’s story is a wonderful illustration of the power of chemistry to illuminate environmental issues. Chemistry is all around us, and it really does make a difference. The chemical cycles of the planet are increasingly dis-turbed by human activities. These disturbances can degrade the quality of life, as when auto emissions overwhelm the atmosphere’s capacity to clean the air over our cities. We are capable of ameliorating these effects, as the experience
a B. McKibben, “Not So Fast”, New York Times Magazine, July 23, 1995, pp. 24 –25.
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xx Preface
of Los Angeles demonstrates. But first we must understand the chemistry. In the case of Los Angeles, initial attempts to alleviate smog back in the 1960s actually made things worse. Standards were imposed on CO and hydrocarbon levels in auto emissions, and auto makers met those standards by increasing the air/fuel ratio to burn the fuel more completely. But smog levels increased because higher air/fuel ratios made combustion hotter, thereby increasing the nitrogen oxide ( NOx) emissions. Only then was it discovered that nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are both key players in smog formation and that both have to be controlled. This kind of surprise is not unusual in environmental affairs. The world is a marvelously complex place, chemically, as in other ways. We are just beginning to understand how it works.
This book tells the environmental story in the language of chemicals. It is grounded in the flows of chemicals and energy through nature on the one hand, and through our industrial civilization on the other. The parts of the book, Sustainability and Green Chemistry, Atmosphere, Energy and M aterials, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere, and Biosphere, reflect this holistic perspective. Environmental issues frequently cut across these divisions, and the resulting interconnections add richness to the story. For example, leaded gasoline is linked to the issue of auto emission controls, a subject that arises in Part II, the Atmosphere, but it is also a major health hazard, as discussed in Part V, the Biosphere.
Interconnections are even more numerous at the level of the underlying chemistry. For example, the reactivity of dioxygen (O2) is a leitmotif for all parts of the book. Thus energy flow through industrial civilization (as well as through the biosphere itself ) depends on the oxygen–oxygen bond being rela-tively weak, so that energy is released when O2 combines with organic mole-cules. Yet, because of its unusual electronic structure, O2 is quite unreactive until it encounters a free radical or a transition metal ion. These O2 activators determine most aspects of atmospheric chemistry, including how smog is formed. They are also vitally important for the biosphere, since O2 metabo-lism gone awry is a threat to the integrity of biological molecules and has been implicated as a factor in cancer and aging.
These interconnections provide a satisfying context for understanding the chemical world we live in and the environmental issues we face.
What this Book is about
This book is about the natural chemical cycles that form our world, and how humans are altering these cycles. Our world contains many chemical ele-ments, which combine into a much larger number of compounds. Under the influence of the energy flowing out of earth’s molten core and from the sun, these compounds are continually transformed into one another and back. These transformations occur in earth’s crust, in its waters, and in its atmo-sphere. The cycles are linked, one reaction depending on others, according to the laws of chemistry.
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Life evolved in harmony with these cycles, and has also altered them substantially. The rise of human civilizations has magnified this impact, first through the spread of agriculture, and then through the development of manu-facturing technologies. The modern industrial era accelerated the pace of chemical change, and now we see evidence everywhere of chemical imbal-ances that threaten human well-being, and even the continued existence of entire ecosystems. Increasingly, we are concerned whether our practices are sustainable.
What are the key threats to our environment, and how can they be averted? How can chemistry contribute to the sustainablility of our world? These are the questions that animate this book. It is organized around the environmental story, and it brings science in as needed to illuminate that story. Some famil-iarity with chemistry is assumed, but freshman chemistry, or a good high school course should be sufficient.
The book considers the following topics:
• Sustainability, and the role of “green chemistry” in reducing human impacts.
• The chemistry of the atmosphere, and how it determines the issues of climate change, protection from ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and air pollution.
• Energy, and how we obtain and use it, with emphasis on how we can reduce its environmental impact, particularly on climate.
• The chemistry of the hydrosphere, and the problems of acidification of fresh and ocean waters, and of water overfertilization and pollution.
• The biosphere, focusing on the role of agriculture and the spread of toxic compounds, both organic and inorganic.
Through these chapters, readers will learn about the critical role of chemistry in the great environmental issues of our time. This understanding can help to inform their actions as participants in our human enterprise.
acknowledgments
This book is a successor to Chemistry of the Environment, eds. 1 and 2 by Spiro and Stigliani (Prentice Hall, 1996, 2003). The material has been exten-sively revised, reflecting the rapid evolution of all areas of environmental sci-ence and of environmental concerns. Much of the text has been rewritten for clarity, and the organization has been simplified for smoother flow. Additional worked and end-of-chapter problems have been provided, and the lists of ad-ditional readings have been updated.
We are indebted to a number of individuals who helped us improve the book. Douglas Fox, John Perona, and Richard Treptow, read parts or all of the book, and provided extensive suggestions. Keith Kuwata tested several sec-tions of the book in class, and provided thoughtful feedback from his students.
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xxii Preface
Special thanks go to Kirk Smith, Jim Purvis, Alexandra Soldatova, and Robert Socolow, for help with the Air Pollution, Nuclear Energy, Renewable Energy and Energy Utilization chapters, and to Bruce Ames and Lois Gold for a help-ful critique of the material on carcinogens in Chapter 19, Toxicity of C hemicals.
We are especially grateful to Helen Spiro and Jon Roberts for reading and helping revise some of the material, and for their patient and loving support and advice during the long and arduous process of crafting the book.
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