child and adolescent learner and learning principles
TRANSCRIPT
Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles
Emelyn U. Napiza
Table of Contents
Module 5: Infancy and Toddlerhood Stage
Introduction 56 Learning Objectives 57
Lesson 1. Physical Development 58 Lesson 2. Cognitive Development 69
Lesson 3. Social and Emotional Development 72 Assessment Tasks 76 Summary 78
References 79
Module 6: Early Childhood Stage (Pre-school Age)
Introduction 81 Learning Objectives 82
Lesson 1. Physical Development 82 Lesson 2. Cognitive Development 87
Lesson 3. Social and Emotional Development 93 Assessment Tasks 100
Summary 100 References 101
Module 7: Middle Childhood Stage (Primary school Age)
Introduction 104 Learning Objectives 105
Lesson 1. Physical Development 105 Lesson 2. Social and Emotional Development 111 Assessment Tasks 123
Summary 125 References 126
Module 8: Late Childhood Stage (Intermediate school Age)
Introduction 129 Learning Objectives 130 Lesson 1. Physical Development 130
Lesson 2. Cognitive Development 134 Lesson 3. Social and Emotional Development 138
Assessment Tasks 145 Summary 147
References 148
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MODULE 5
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD STAGE
Introduction
This module tells about development from infancy through toddlerhood; from birth
until about 2 years of age. As cited in, Infancy: Lifespan Development (2020), researchers
have given this part if the life span more attention than any other period because changes
during this time are so dramatic and so noticeable and that we assumed that what
happens during these years provides a foundation for one’s life to come.
Rapid changes in the baby’s body and brain support learning, motor skills
development and perceptual capacities (Infancy and Toddlerhood-Stages of Human
Development, 2020).
From birth, infants want to explore their world. While each child has their own
schedule for development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager early on to
move their mouths, eyes and bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest
them. They continue to practice skills that let them move closer to desired objects.
Ongoing observation and frequent conversations with their families can help you learn
what infants and toddlers are able to do, what they are learning to do, and in what areas
they could use your support (Physical Developmental Milestones: Infants and Toddlers,
2015).
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The amount of development that happens to a baby in the first few years of life is
astonishing. We will discover how babies learn to walk and how they learn to use their
hands to hold and then manipulate objects. We will examine changes in infants’ sensory
abilities that allow them to comprehend their world. As children begin to explore their
world and learn more about it, they also learn more about themselves. They learn to
recognize themselves and begin to understand more about their thoughts and others’
thoughts.
We will trace the origins of social relationships among human beings. We begin
with the first social relationship—between an infant and a parent. We will see how this
relationship emerges over the first years of life. Interactions with parents and others are
often full of emotions—happiness, satisfaction, anger, and guilt, to name just a few. You
will also discover how children’s social horizons expand beyond parents to include peers
and how children play and how they help others in distress.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, the learners should be able to:
• Identify the factors that enhance and impede the physical development of infants
and toddlers.
• Describe the major changes during infancy in gross and fine motor development.
• Draw implications of the cognitive, social and emotional development concepts to
childcare, education and parenting.
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Lesson 1. Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Physical development refers to biological changes that children undergo as they
age. Important aspects that determine the progress of physical development in infancy
and toddlerhood include physical and brain changes; development of reflexes, motor
skills, sensations, perceptions, and learning skills; and health issues (Zgourides, 2000).
As described by Zgourides (2000), infants and toddlers grow quickly. Bodily
changes are rapid and profound. The first 4 weeks of life are termed the neonatal period.
Most babies weigh between 5 1/2 and 10 pounds and are between 18 and 22 inches
long. Male babies are generally slightly heavier and longer than female babies. Neonates
born weighing less than 5 1/2 pounds are of low birthweight. Infants who arrive before
their due date are preterm or premature, and these babies may or may not have a low
birthweight. Babies who arrive on or shortly after their due date are full-term. Infants who
arrive 2 or more weeks after their due date are postmature. Both premature and
postmature babies are at higher risk of complications such as sickness, brain damage,
or death, than are full-term babies. Physical growth is especially rapid during the first 2
years. An infant’s birthweight generally doubles by 6 months and triples by the infant’s
first birthday. Similarly, a baby grows between 10 and 12 inches in length (or height), and
the baby’s proportions change during the first 2 years. The size of an infant’s head
decreases in proportion from 1/3 of the entire body at birth, to 1/4 at age 2, to 1/8 by
adulthood (Zgourides, 2000).
Fetal and neonatal brain developments are also rapid. The lower, or subcortical,
areas of the brain (responsible for basic life functions, like breathing) develop first,
followed by the higher areas, or cortical areas (responsible for thinking and planning).
Most brain changes occur prenatally and soon after birth. At birth, the neonate’s brain
weighs only 25 percent of that of an adult brain. By the end of the second year, the brain
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weighs about 80 percent; by puberty, it weighs nearly 100 percent of that of an adult brain
(Zgourides, 2000).
The newborns are much better prepared for life than many doctors, parents, and
developmentalists had initially assumed. All a newborn’s senses are in good working
order and she sees and hears well enough to detect what is happening around her and
respond adaptively to many of these sensations. Young infants are also quite capable of
learning and can even remember some of the particularly vivid experiences they have
had. Two other indications that neonates are quite adapted for life are their repertoire of
inborn reflexes and their predictable patterns, or cycles, of daily activity (Shaffer & Kipp,
2010).
The Newborn’s Reflexes ( Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010)
Most newborns are well prepared to begin interacting with their world. The
newborn is endowed with a rich set of reflexes, unlearned responses that are triggered
by a specific form of stimulation ( Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010)
Table 5.1 shows the variety of reflexes commonly found in newborn babies. You
can see that some reflexes are designed to pave the way for newborns to get the nutrients
they need to grow: The rooting and sucking reflexes ensure that the newborn is well
prepared to begin a new diet of life-sustaining milk. Other reflexes seem designed to
protect the newborn from danger in the environment. The eye blink, for example, helps
newborns avoid unpleasant stimulation. Still other reflexes serve as the foundation for
larger, voluntary patterns of motor activity. Reflexes are also important because they can
be a useful way to determine whether the newborn’s nervous system is working properly.
For example, infants with damage to the sciatic nerve, which is found in the spinal cord,
do not show the withdrawal reflex. Infants who have problems with the lower part of the
spine do not show the Babinski reflex. If these or other reflexes are weak or missing
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altogether, a thorough physical and behavioral assessment is called for. Similarly, many
of these reflexes normally vanish during infancy; if they linger then this, too, indicates the
need for a thorough physical examination.
Table 5.1 Some Major Reflexes found in Newborns
Name
Response
Age when
reflexes
disappears
Significance
Babinski A baby’s toes fan out when the sole of
the foot is stroked from heel to toe
8-12 months Perhaps a remnant of
evolution
Blink A baby’s eyes close in response to
bright light or loud noise
permanent Protects the eyes
Moro reflex A baby throws its arms out and then
inward (as if embracing) in response to
loud noise or when its head falls
6 months May help a baby cling
to its mother
Palmar
Reflex
A baby grasps an object placed in the
palm of his hand
3 to 4 months Precursor to voluntary
walking
Rooting When a baby’s cheek is stroked, it turns
its head toward the stroking and opens
its mouth
3 to 4 weeks
(replaced by
voluntary head
turning)
Helps a baby find the
nipple
Stepping A baby who is held upright by an adult
and is then moved forward begins to
step rhythmically
3-4 months Precursor to voluntary
walking
Sucking
reflex
A baby sucks when an object is placed
in its mouth
4 months
(replaced by
voluntary
sucking)
Permits feeding
Source: Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010
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Changes in height and weight
Babies grow at a faster rate in their first year than at any later time of life. Birth
weight doubles by the time the infant is 5 months old, and triples by the end of the first
year, to about 10 kilos (22 lbs) on average. If this rate of growth continued for the next 3
years, the average 4-year old would weigh 600 pounds. But the rate of weight gain
decreases steeply after the first year. Babies especially accumulate fat in the early
months, which helps them maintain a constant body temperature. At 6 months, a well-
nourished baby looks on the plump side, but by 1 year, children lose much of their “baby
fat,” and the trend toward a lower ratio of fat to body weight continues until puberty. Height
also increases dramatically in the first year, from about 50 centimeters (20 in.) to about
75 centimeters (30 in.), at the rate of about 2 cm per month. Unlike weight, growth in
height in the first year is uneven, occurring in spurts rather than steadily. Studies that
have monitored height closely have found that infants may grow little for several days or
even weeks, then spurt a half inch in just a day or two Girls tend to be shorter and lighter
than boys, at birth and throughout childhood, until puberty when they briefly surpass boys
in height (Geary, 2010).
Another way growth is uneven in infancy is that it tends to begin at the top, with
the head, and then proceed downward to the rest of the This is called the cephalocaudal
principle (cephalocaudal is Latin for “head to tail”). So, for example, the head is one-
quarter of the neonate’s body length, but only one-eighth of an adult’s In addition, growth
proceeds from the middle of the body outward, which is the proximodistal principle
(proximodistal is Latin for “near to far”). So, for example, the trunk and arms grow faster
than the hands and fingers (Arnett, 2012).
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Motor Development
Gross Motor Skills
Gross Motor (physical) skills are those which require whole body movement and
which involve the large muscles of the body to perform everyday functions, such as
standing, walking, running, and sitting upright (Rathus, 2006).
Infant reflexes begin to fade as babies use their senses to learn to interact with
the environment around them and as their bodies grow stronger and mature. One way
babies learn to use their bodies is by learning to achieve large physical tasks, or gross
motor skills, such as crawling and walking. Once again, it is important to remember that
while this module will discuss gross motor development milestones in general terms,
every child is unique. Children will develop at their own speed and pace, and there is a
wide range of healthy ages at which they can achieve these milestones. Milestones help
organize and summarize this information easily and clearly (Oswalt, 2016).
Scientists have observed that motor skills generally develop from the center of
the body outward and from head to tail. These developments do not just occur by instinct.
The more chances babies must practice these skills, the more they will be able to grow
and strengthen (Oswalt, 2016).
Oswalt (2016) stressed the following points on the gross motor development of
infants and toddlers:
• That babies need time and space to explore and manipulate objects in
their environment and use their muscles, having "tummy time."
• By around age 2 months, infants' backs continue to strengthen, and they
are able to raise their head and chest up off the ground and rest their body
on their elbows when they're lying on their stomachs. Around this time,
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they will also kick and bend their legs while lying on their stomachs; this
helps prepare babies for crawling later.
• By around 3 months, babies continue to mature as they can hold
themselves up for longer periods, up to several minutes, and begin to hold
their bodies in symmetry. That means that the tonic neck reflex
disappears, and they are able to hold each arm in the same position on
both sides of their body while on their backs (Oswalt, 2016).
• Around age 4 months, they can maintain control of their head and hold it
steady while they're sitting up with help or lying on their belly. They begin
to roll their body from their belly to their back on their own
• Around age 5 months, babies will wiggle all their limbs while they lie on
their belly; this strengthens their crawling muscles. As with all physical
development, skills build one on top of another.
• Around age 6 months, most infants can sit up by themselves for brief
periods and can begin to put some weight on their legs as they're held
upright with some support.
• As babies enter the second half of their first year, they become more
mobile and can move themselves around their environment on their own.
Caregivers need to be prepared to be more active as they follow the
babies and to baby proof their home so that dangerous situations and
substances can be avoided. Babies are eager to explore their newly
expanded environment (Oswalt, 2016).
• Babies may begin to crawl around age 7 months.
• At around 8 months, babies can sit up by themselves for extended periods
and can pull themselves to their feet while they hold onto something for
leverage and support, such as a table or the edge of a couch.
• By 9 months, babies can not only sit independently for a long time, but
also reach and play with toys while maintaining their balance. At this time,
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babies can pull themselves up into a stand without support. This is a
critical time for exercising these muscle groups.
• Around age 10 months, they can stand on their own for extended periods.
They are making progress toward walking, picking up and putting down
their feet while they stand. They may make their first hesitant steps as they
walk while holding onto something such as a crib rail (Oswalt, 2016).
• The ability to walk improves as infants walk while holding onto caregivers'
hands around age 11 months,
• Babies begin making their own first toddling steps around age 12 months.
• Around age 15 months, babies begin to climb stairs, high chairs, and
furniture, but they will not yet be able to get back down once they reach
the top. They begin to transition more smoothly from one position to
another, such as from lying down to sitting up and from sitting up to
standing up (Oswalt, 2016).
• By age 18 months, toddlers' balance becomes more stable as they can
move more easily on their feet around objects and begin walking
backwards, sideways, in circles, and even running. At this point, they can
also begin walking up stairs using their feet and using their hands to hold
onto a handrail (Oswalt, 2016).
• Near the end of their second year, toddlers begin to develop complex
gross motor skills such as throwing objects for distance and kicking. They
continue to refine and to become more fluid in their movements.
• By age 24 months, they can jump in place and balance on one foot for a
short period and may begin peddling their first tricycle. They can go up
stairs easily on their own, even though they may need some help climbing
back down (Oswalt, 2016).
• At the end of the second year, toddlers are very mobile and can run and
walk quickly from one place to another; however, they are still refining their
ability to stop themselves once they get started. Around this time, they
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may run into a few walls or unintentionally walk into a dangerous situation,
such as off the sidewalk curb and into the street, simply because their
brain can't get the message to their feet fast enough to stop moving. It's
even more important at this time that caregivers monitor their environment
for safety and urge rules such as holding an adult's hand while crossing
the street (Oswalt, 2016).
Fine Motor Skills
Rathus (2016) defined fine motor skills as the ability to make movements using
the small muscles in the hands and wrists.
Fine motor skills develop alongside gross motor skills. Beyond just learning how
to use and manipulate their bodies in large movements, babies are learning how to use
their hands and how to coordinate smaller movements with their senses, such as sight.
Like the gross motor skill development, fine motor development comes gradually as
infants build one skill on top of previous skills (Mentalhelp.net, 2006).
We will discuss fine motor development in terms of age-related milestones. Once
again, it is important to remember that children are unique and grow at their own rate and
speed. There is a wide range of healthy ages at which babies can acquire these abilities.
Theoretically, babies could develop ahead of the average on their gross motor skills and
behind average with their fine motor skills, or babies could develop one milestone later
than average but develop the next milestone before the average age (Oswalt, 2016).
During the first year of life the ability for fine motor movements makes remarkable
progress. The principal milestones of fine motor development in infancy are reaching and
grasping. Oddly, infants are better at reaching during the first month of life than they are
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at 2 months of age (Rathus, 2006). Neonates will extend their arms awkwardly toward an
interesting object, an action called pre-reaching, although it is more like a swipe or a
swing than a well-coordinated reach.
Mentalhelp.net (2006) pointed out that from birth to around 2 months, babies are
"pre-reaching." They will extend their arm and hand toward an object that interests them,
but they will rarely be able to make hand contact with that object. It is important to
remember that in those two early months, baby's vision is beginning to develop the acuity
and focus needed to grab an object they see.
Mentalhelp.net (2006) pointed out the following developmental milestones in fine
motor skills of infants and toddlers:
• As babies eyesight matures, they can reach with more accuracy and make contact
with objects, usually around age 3 months.
• Between the ages of 3 and 4 months, babies begin holding objects between their
palm and their enclosed fingers in a clumsy ulnar grasp.
• By age 4 months, they will want to practice that hold, and will reach for anything
in their line of sight (Mentalhelp.net, 2006).
• At 5 months, babies will be able to transfer objects from one hand to the other, as
they are now able to sit up and play. Babies are able to handle and pick up larger
objects, but they will still only be able to touch and scratch at smaller objects such
as a piece of cereal (Mentalhelp.net, 2006).
• By around age 6 months, babies are refining their ability to manipulate objects as
they learn by using their hands and mouths.
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• Around age 7 months, they can grasp pellet-sized objects crudely between their
thumbs and the side of their forefingers (Mentalhelp.net, 2006).
• Between ages 7 to 9 months, most babies can pick up and drink from a cup.
• By around age 9 months, babies refine their ability to grasp tiny objects as they
hold them between their thumb and forefinger in a pincer grasp. Another
refinement around age 9 months is that babies can now set down larger objects
gently where they want to place them rather than just flinging them down when
they are finished with them (Mentalhelp.net, 2006)
• Around age 10 or 11 months, they can also place smaller pellet-sized objects,
like bite-sized cereal, where they want to, such as in a bowl or cup.
• By age 12 months, babies can now use their hands independently of one another
in play. This will enable them to manipulate tools in the next year
• By around age 15 months, toddlers begin to use tools such as cups, spoons,
and crayons. They can begin feeding themselves with utensils. They can also
open cabinets and drawers, so parents need to be sure that their homes are
baby proofed in ways such as putting hazardous chemicals and cleaning
supplies in high cabinets and putting locks on cabinets and drawers that are not
safe for young children (Babyproofing)
• By 18 months, toddlers are refining their ability to use tools such as crayons, and
they can now draw lines and rough circles rather than just scribbling on a page.
• By age 21 months, they also have the ability to undress themselves and help
dress themselves, as they may be able to manipulate larger buttons or zippers.
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• By age 24 months, toddlers can use their hands with more dexterity as they can
unwrap birthday presents or do simple puzzles. Their fine motor skills will
continue to improve in the coming years (Mentalhelp.net, 2006).
Sensation and Perception (Zgourides, 2000)
Normal infants are capable of sensation, or the ability to respond to sensory
information in the external world. These infants are born with functioning sensory
organs, specialized structures of the body containing sensory receptors, which receive
stimuli from the environment. Sensory receptors convert environmental energy into
nervous system signals that the brain can understand and interpret. For example, the
sensory receptors can convert light waves into visual images. The human senses include
seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting (Zgourides, 2000).
Newborns are very nearsighted, but visual acuity, or ability, develops quickly.
Although infant vision is not as good as adult vision, babies may respond visually to their
surroundings from birth. Infants are particularly attracted to objects of light‐and‐dark
contrasts, such as the human face. Depth perception also comes within a few months.
Newborns may also respond to tastes, smells, and sounds, especially the sound of the
human voice. In fact, newborns may almost immediately distinguish between the primary
caregiver and others on the basis of sight, sound, and smell. Infant sensory abilities
improve considerably during the first year (Zgourides, 2000).
Perception is the psychological process by which the human brain processes the
sensory data collected by the sensory organs. Visually, infants are aware of depth (the
relationship between foreground and background) and size and shape constancy (the
consistent size and shape of objects). This latter ability is necessary for infants to learn
about events and objects (Zgourides, 2000).
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Lesson 2. Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Much of modern cognitive developmental theory stems from the work of the Swiss
psychologist, Jean Piaget. In the 1920s, Piaget observed that children’s reasoning and
understanding capabilities differed depending on their age. Piaget proposed that all
children progress through a series of cognitive stages of development, just as they
progress through a series of physical stages of development. According to Piaget, the
rate at which children pass through these cognitive stages may vary, but boys and girls
eventually pass through all the stages, in the same order. (Corpuz, Lucas, Borabo, &
Lucido, 2018).
During Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), infants and toddlers learn by
doing: looking, hearing, touching, grasping, and sucking. The learning process appears
to begin with coordinating movements of the body with incoming sensory data. As infants
intentionally attempt to interact with the environment, infants learn that certain actions
lead to specific consequences. These experiences are the beginning of the infants’
understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.
Shaffer & Kipp (2010) described the sub-stages of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage:
Reflex Activity (Birth to 1 Month)
Piaget characterized the first month of life as a stage of reflex activity—a period
when an infant’s actions are pretty much confined to exercising innate reflexes,
assimilating new objects into these reflexive schemes (e.g., sucking on blankets and toys
as well as on nipples), and accommodating their reflexes to these novel objects. Granted,
this is not high intellect, but these primitive adaptations represent the beginning of
cognitive growth.
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Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 Months)
The first non-reflexive schemes emerge at 1 to 4 months of age as infants
discover by chance that various responses that they can emit and control (e.g., sucking
their thumbs, making cooing sounds) are satisfying and, thus, worth repeating. These
simple repetitive acts, called primary circular reactions, are always centered on the
infant’s own body. They are called “primary” because they are the first motor habits to
appear and “circular” because they are repetitive.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 Months)
Between 4 and 8 months of age, infants are discovering (again by chance) that
they can make interesting things happen to objects beyond their own bodies, such as
making a rubber duck quack by squeezing it. These new schemes, called secondary
circular reactions, are also repeated for the pleasure they bring. According to Piaget, 4-
to 8-month-olds’ sudden interest in external objects indicates that they have begun to
differentiate themselves from objects they can control in the surrounding environment. Is
an infant who delights in such repetitive actions as swatting a brightly colored mobile or
making a toy duck quack engaging in planful or intentional behavior? Piaget said no: The
secondary circular reaction is not a fully intentional response, because the interesting
result it produces was discovered by chance and was not a purposeful goal the first time
the action was performed.
Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8 to 12 Months)
Truly planful responding first appears between 8 and 12 months of age, during
the substage of the coordination of secondary circular reactions, as infants begin to
coordinate two or more actions to achieve simple objectives. For example, if you were to
place an attractive toy under a cushion, a 9-month-old might lift the cushion with one hand
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while using the other to grab the toy. In this case, the act of lifting the cushion is not a
pleasurable response in itself, nor is it executed by chance. Rather, it is part of a larger
intentional scheme in which two initially unrelated responses—lifting and grasping—are
coordinated as a means to an end. Piaget believed that these simple coordinations of
secondary schemes represent the earliest form of goal-directed behavior, and thus true
problem solving.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 Months)
Between 12 and 18 months of age, infants begin to actively experiment with
objects and try to invent new methods of solving problems or reproducing interesting
results. For example, an infant who had originally squeezed a rubber duck to make it
quack may now decide to drop it, step on it, and crush it with a pillow to see whether
these actions will have the same or different effects on the toy. Or she may learn from
her explorations that flinging is more efficient than spitting as a means of getting food to
stick to the wall. Although parents may be less than thrilled by such exciting new cognitive
advances, these trial-and-error exploratory schemes, called tertiary circular reactions,
reflect an infant’s active curiosity—her strong motivation to learn about the way things
work.
Symbolic Problem Solving (18 to 24 Months)
The crowning achievement of the sensorimotor stage occurs as infants begin to
internalize their behavioral schemes to construct mental symbols, or images, that they
can then use to guide future conduct. Now the infant can experiment mentally and may
show a kind of “insight” in how to solve a problem.
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Lesson 3. Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and
Toddlerhood
The two most influential theories of infants’ social development are by Erik Erikson
and John Bowlby. As introduced in Module 2, Erikson proposed an eight-stage theory of
the life span, with a specific developmental challenge or “crisis” for each stage. For
infancy, the central crisis in Erikson’ theory is trust versus mistrust. Erikson recognized
how dependent infants are on others for their survival, and this dependence is at the heart
of the idea of trust versus mistrust. Because they require others to provide for their needs,
they must have someone who can be trusted to care for them and to be a reliable source
of nourishment, warmth, love, and protection. Usually this caregiver is the mother., in
most cultures, but it could also be a father, grandmother, older sister, or anyone else who
provided love and care on a consistent basis. It is not the biological tie that is important
but the emotional and social bond. When infants have a caregiver, who provides for them
in these ways, they develop a basic trust in their social world. They come to believe that
others will be trustworthy, and to believe that they themselves are worthy of love.
However, if adequate love and care are lacking in the first year, infants may come to
mistrust not only their first caregiver but others in their social world. They learn that they
cannot count on the goodwill of others, and they may shrink from social relations in a
world that seems harsh and unfriendly. This basic trust or mistrust lasts long beyond
infancy. Remember, in Erikson’s theory each stage builds on previous stages, for better
or worse. Developing trust in infancy provides a strong foundation for all future social
development, whereas developing mistrust is likely to be problematic not only in infancy
but in future life stages (Corpuz et al., 2018).
A similar theory of infant social development was proposed by John Bowlby. Like
Erikson’s theory, Bowlby’s attachment theory focused on the crucial importance of the
infant’s relationship with the primary caregiver. Like Erikson, Bowlby believed that the
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quality of this first important social relationship influenced emotional and social
development not only in infancy but in later stages of development as well. Like Erikson,
Bowlby viewed trust as the key issue in the infant’s first attachment to another person. In
Bowlby’s terms, if the primary caregiver is sensitive and responsive in caring for the infant,
the infant will learn that others, too, can be trusted in social relationships. However, if
these qualities are lacking in the primary caregiver, the infant will come to expect—in
infancy and in later development—that others, too, may not be reliable social partners
(Rathus, 2006).
Steps Toward Attachment
An evolutionary perspective of early human relationships comes from John
Bowlby. As cited by Kail & Cavanaugh (2010), Bowlby holds that children who form an
attachment to an adult—that is, an enduring socioemotional relationship—are more likely
to survive. This person is usually the mother but need not be; the key is a strong emotional
relationship with a responsive, caring person. Attachments can form with fathers,
grandparents, or someone else. Bowlby described four phases in the growth of
attachment:
■ Pre-attachment (birth to 6–8 weeks). During prenatal development and soon after birth,
infants rapidly learn to recognize their mothers by smell and sound, which sets the stage
for forging an attachment relationship (Hofer, 2006). What is more, evolution has
endowed infants with many behaviors that elicit caregiving from an adult. When babies
cry, smile, or gaze intently at a parent’s face, the parent usually smiles back or holds the
baby. The infant’s behaviors and the responses they evoke in adults create an interactive
system that is the first step in the formation of attachment relationships (Kail &
Cavanaugh, 2010).
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■ Attachment in the making (6–8 weeks to 6–8 months). During these months, babies
begin to behave differently in the presence of familiar caregivers and unfamiliar adults.
Babies now smile and laugh more often with the primary caregiver. And when babies are
upset, they are more easily consoled by the primary caregiver. Babies are gradually
identifying the primary caregiver as the person they can depend on when they are
anxious or distressed (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010).
■ True attachment (6–8 months to 18 months). By approximately 7 or 8 months, most
infants have singled out the attachment figure—usually the mother—as a special
individual. The attachment figure is now the infant’s stable socioemotional base. For
example, a 7-month-old will explore a novel environment but periodically look toward his
mother, as if seeking reassurance that all is well. The behavior suggests that the infant
trusts his mother and indicates that the attachment relationship has been established. In
addition, this behavior reflects important cognitive growth: It means that the infant has a
mental representation of the mother, an understanding that she will be there to meet the
infant’s needs (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010).
■ Reciprocal relationships (18 months on). Infants’ growing cognitive and language skills
and their accumulated experience with their primary caregivers make infants better able
to act as true partners in the attachment relationship. They often take the initiative in
interactions and negotiate with parents (“Please read me another story!”). They begin to
understand parents’ feelings and goals and sometimes use this knowledge to guide their
own behavior. In addition, they cope with separation more effectively because they can
anticipate that parents will return (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010).
Forms of Attachment
All infants behave in ways that elicit caregiving from adults, and because of this
behavior attachment almost always develops between infant and caregiver by 8 or 9
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months of age. However, attachment can take different forms, and environmental factors
help determine the quality of attachment between infants and caregivers (Kail &
Cavanaugh, 2010).
Mary Ainsworth pioneered the study of attachment relationships. Ainsworth
followed Bowlby’s theory in viewing the child’s attachment as being most evident in the
response to separation from the primary attachment figure. She had observed that along
with stranger anxiety, infants, and toddlers experience separation anxiety when apart
from attachment figures, especially if a stranger is present. To evoke children’s
attachment behavior, Ainsworth devised a laboratory procedure called “Strange
Situation.” The Strange Situation is a series of introductions, separations, and reunions
involving the child, the mother, and an unfamiliar person. It was devised for toddlers, ages
12 to 24 months, because this is an age that is old enough so that attachment has
developed to a point where it can be assessed (Arnett, 2012).
Based on toddlers’ responses to Strange Situation, Arnett (2012) enumerated
Ainsworth’s four primary types of attachment relationships:
Secure attachment- Toddlers in this category use the mother as a secure base from
which to explore, in the first part of the strange situation when only the mother and the
toddler are present. Upon separation, securely attached toddlers usually cry or vocalize
protest. When the mother returns, the baby wants to be with her, and if the toddler is
crying it stops. Babies in this group seem to be saying, “I missed you terribly, I’m delighted
to see you, but now that all is well, I’ll get back to what I was doing.”
Insecure -avoidant attachment- The baby is not upset when the mother leaves and, when
she returns, may ignore her by looking or turning away.
Insecure-resistant attachment- Toddlers classified as insecure–resistant are less likely
than others to explore the toys when the mother is present, and they show greater
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distress when she leaves the room. When she returns, they show ambivalence, running
to greet the mother in seeming relief but then pushing her away when she attempts to
comfort or pick them up.
Disorganized-disoriented attachment- Toddlers in this category show extremely unusual
behavior in response to the Strange. They may seem dazed and detached when the
mother leaves the room, but with outbursts of anger, and when the mother returns, they
may seem fearful. Some freeze their movements suddenly in odd postures.
Consequences of Attachment
Erikson believed that infant–parent attachment, the first social relationship, lays
the foundation for all of the infant’s later social relationships. In this view, infants who
experience the trust and compassion of a secure attachment should develop into
preschool children who interact confidently and successfully with their peers. In contrast,
infants who do not experience a successful, satisfying first relationship should be more
prone to problems in their social interactions as preschoolers (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010).
Assessment Task
1. Look for toys which are appropriate for infants and toddlers. You may go to toy
stores online or you may choose from the toys available at home or in your
neighborhood.
Focus on toys that will assist children as they develop gross and fine motor skills.
Choose 2 toys and capture images of the toys
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Describe the toy, its purpose and developmental benefits that support the
appropriateness of the toy for children 0-2 years of age.
2. What two qualities did Bowlby identify as important for the primary caregiver to
have? Do you believe that these qualities are important? Why / why not?
a.____________________________________________________________________________
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b.____________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
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3. What behaviors (of caregivers) foster a sense of trust in infants and toddlers?
(give 5).
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Summary
We have studied the dramatic story of the first two years of life. Fast physical
growth, neurological development, language acquisition, the movement from hands-on
to mental learning, an expanding emotional range, and the initial conceptions of self and
others make this period of life very exciting. These abilities are shaped into more
complicated mental processes, self-concepts, and social relationships during the years
of early childhood.
Babies begin to learn about the world around them at a very early age. Children’s
early experiences --the bonds they form with their parents and their first learning
experiences, affect their future physical, cognitive, emotional and social
development. Having a safe and loving home and spending time with family―playing,
singing, reading, and talking―-are very important. Proper nutrition, exercise, and sleep
can also make a big difference; and effective parenting practices are key to supporting
healthy development.
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References
Arnett, J. J. (2012). Human Development: A Cultural Approach. Pearson Education Inc.
Corpuz, B. B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H. G., & Lucido, P. I. (2018). The Child and
Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing.
Geary, D. (2010). Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences ( 2nd ed).
Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Hofer, M. A. (2006). Psycholobiological Roots of Early Attachment. SAGE Journals, 15,
84-88.
Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). Human Development: A Lifespan View, 5th ed. CA:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Mentalhelp.net. (2006, July 25). Retrieved from Infancy Physical Development: Fine
Motor Skills: https://www.mentalhelp.net/infancy/physical-development-fine-
motor-skills/
Oswalt, A. (2016, May 12). Infancy Physical Development: Gross Motor Skills.
Retrieved from gracepointwellness.org: https://www.gracepointwellness.org/461-
child-development-parenting-infants-0-2/article/10109-infancy-physical-
development-gross-motor-skills
Physical Developmental Milestones: Infants and Toddlers. (2015, February 4).
Retrieved from VLS: https://www.virtuallabschool.org/fcc/physical-
development/lesson-2
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Rathus, S. A. (2006). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 2nd Ed.
Thomson Wadsworth.
Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence.
CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Zgourides, G. (2000). Cliff's Quick Review: Developmental Psychology. CA: IDG Books
Worldwide.
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MODULE 6
EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE
(The Preschooler)
Introduction
Ages 3 through 5 are the early childhood years, or preschool years. Like infants
and toddlers, preschoolers grow quickly—both physically and cognitively. A short chubby
toddler who can barely talk suddenly becomes a taller, leaner child who talks incessantly.
Especially evident during early childhood is the fact that development is truly integrated:
The biological, psychological and social changes occurring at this time (as well as
throughout the rest of the life span) are interrelated (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Preschoolers are more than a lump of clay ready for a teacher to shape into a
scholar. What any child has done in the first five years of life is a miracle. In five short
years, a child has doubled and doubled again in size. He has learned how to talk. She
has learned how to get along in her family. Every child knows a lot about the world around
them. Based on how things feel and look, the child has made sense of their world and
the people in it. Development has been going on in mind, body, emotions, and spirit.
Teachers and even parents often think of children entering school in terms of what they
do not know. But think how much a child already knows (Corpuz et al., 2018).
The preschool years are years of enormous accomplishment. When we really
understand what each little child has already accomplished, our attitude should be one
of profound respect and appreciation. A second thing that teachers who understand child
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development know, is that the ways of knowing what a child has mastered are different
than what schools will offer.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, the learners should be able to:
• Recognize the interconnected nature of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social
elements of development for young children
• Explain how schema, assimilation, and accommodation provide the foundation
for cognitive development throughout the life span
• Discuss the development of preschoolers’ sense of self and self esteem
• Analyze how significant relationships with parents, siblings and peers affect
preschoolers.
Lesson 1. Physical Development in Early Childhood
Physical development in preschoolers is dramatic but slower and more stable
than during infancy. Some important influences on physical development during the
preschool period include changes in the child’s brain, gross and fine motor skills, and
health.
Physical changes
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Zgourides (2000) named the physical changes taking place among preschoolers.
These are:
• Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon
acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood.
• The child’s trunk and limbs grow longer, and the abdominal muscles form, tightening
the appearance of the stomach.
• At this early stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls.
• The preschoolers’ physical proportions also continue to change, with their heads still
being disproportionately large, but less so than in toddlerhood.
• Three-year-old preschoolers may grow to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about 32
pounds.
• For the next 3 years, healthy preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3 inches and gain
from 4 to 6 pounds per year. By age 5, children reach a height of about 46 inches and
weigh about 46 pounds.
It is important to note that these figures are averages and may differ from child to
child, depending on socioeconomic status, nourishment, health, and heredity factors
(Zgourides, 2000).
Brain development
As cited by Arnett (2012), brain and nervous system developments during early
childhood also continue to be dramatic. The better developed the brain and nervous
systems are, the more complex behavioral and cognitive abilities children are capable of.
The brain is comprised of two halves, the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
Lateralization refers to the localization of assorted functions, competencies, and skills in
either or both hemispheres. Specifically, language, writing, logic, and mathematical skills
seem to be located in the left hemisphere, while creativity, fantasy, artistic, and musical
skills seem to be located in the right hemisphere. Although the hemispheres may have
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separate functions, these brain masses almost always coordinate their functions and
work together.
The two cerebral hemispheres develop at different rates, with the left hemisphere
developing more fully in early childhood (ages 2 to 6), and the right hemisphere
developing more fully in middle childhood (ages 7 to 11). The left hemisphere
predominates earlier and longer, which may explain why children acquire language so
early and quickly. Another aspect of brain development is handedness, or preference for
using one hand over the other. Handedness appears to be strongly established by middle
childhood. About 90 percent of the general population is right-handed, while the rest of
the population is left-handed and/or ambidextrous. A person is ambidextrous if he or she
shows no preference for one hand over the other. Typically, right-handedness is
associated with left-cerebral dominance and left-handedness with right-cerebral
dominance (Rathus, 2006).
Motor skills (Acero, Javier, & Casto, 2004)
Motor skills are physical abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills, which include
running, jumping, hopping, turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and dancing, involve
the use of large bodily movements. Fine motor skills, which include drawing, writing, and
tying shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily movements. Both gross and fine motor
skills develop and are refined during early childhood; however, fine motor skills develop
more slowly in preschoolers. If you compare the running abilities of a 2-year-old and a 6-
year-old, for example, you may notice the limited running skills of the 2-year-old. But the
differences are even more striking when comparing a 2-yearold and 6-year-old who are
tying shoelaces. The 2-year-old has difficulty grasping the concept before ever attempting
or completing the task. Albert Bandura’s theory of observational learning is applicable to
preschoolers’ learning gross and fine motor skills. Bandura states that once children are
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biologically capable of learning certain behaviors, children must do the following in order
to develop new skills:
1. Observe the behavior in others.
2. Form a mental image of the behavior.
3. Imitate the behavior.
4. Practice the behavior.
5. Be motivated to repeat the behavior.
In other words, children must be ready, have adequate opportunities, and be
interested in developing motor skills to become competent at those skills (Acero et al.,
2004).
Handedness
Once children begin drawing or writing in early childhood, they show a clear
preference for using their right or left hand, but handedness appears long before early
childhood. In fact, even prenatally, fetuses show a definite preference for sucking the
thumb of their right or left hand, with 90% preferring the right thumb. The same 90%
proportion of right-handers continues into childhood and throughout adulthood in most
cultures. Preference for grasping with the right of left hand increases markedly between
ages of 7 to 11 months. Handedness becomes more strongly established during the early
childhood years (Hinojosa, C.F, & Michael, 2013).
Preschoolers' Artistic Development
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At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms
of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor
Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood:
Stage 1. Scribbling stage
This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later become circular markings.
Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to name his/her drawing towards
the end of this stage (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Stage 2. Pre-schematic stage
Children include early representations in their drawings. At this point adults may
be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the same names to
their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head with basic
elements. Later, arms, legs, hands, and even facial features are included (Corpuz et al.,
2018).
Stage 3. Schematic stage
More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually draw from experience and
exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun and sky and people. Initially, they
may appear floating in air but eventually drawings appear to follow a ground line (Corpuz
et al., 2018).
Everyone who observes a preschooler go through these stages of drawing would
surely say one thing: that the preschooler drew the same drawing maybe a hundred
times. Repetition is the hallmark of early drawing. One wonders if the supply of scratch
papers, crayons and pens. will ever be enough. Adults should remember to have a neat
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supply of these, or they will find the preschoolers' drawings on the furniture and walls!
This affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of the fine motor skills involved.
Also, important to remember is that the preschoolers' representations or drawings does
not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children's drawings allow us to
have a glimpse of how they understand themselves and the world around them (Arnett,
2012).
Lesson 2. Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Young children are not only growing physically during early childhood, but they
are also growing mentally. Preschoolers continue to advance their skills in observing and
interacting with their environment. They also make tremendous leaps in how they
process, store, and use information (Rathus, 2006).
Piaget believed that children are naturally curious. They constantly want to make
sense of their experience and, in the process, construct their understanding of the world.
For Piaget, children at all ages are like scientists in that they create theories about how
the world works. Of course, children’s theories are often incomplete. Nevertheless,
children’s theories are valuable to them because they make the world seem more
predictable. According to Piaget, children understand the world with schema,
psychological structures that organize experience. Schema are mental categories of
related events, objects, and knowledge. During infancy, most schemes are based on
actions. That is, infants group objects based on the actions they can perform on them.
For example, infants suck and grasp, and they use these actions to create categories of
objects that can be sucked and objects that can be grasped. Schemes are just as
important after infancy, but they are now based primarily on functional or conceptual
relationships, not action. For example, preschoolers learn that forks, knives, and spoons
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form a functional category of “things I use to eat.” Or they learn that dogs, cats, and
goldfish form a conceptual category of “pets.” Like preschoolers, older children and
adolescents have schemes based on functional and conceptual schemes. But they also
have schemes that are based on increasingly abstract properties. Thus, schemes of
related objects, events, and ideas are present throughout development. But as children
develop, their rules for creating schemes shift from physical activity to functional,
conceptual, and, later, abstract properties of objects, events, and ideas (Kail &
Cavanaugh, 2010).
Assimilation and accommodation schema change constantly, adapting to
children’s experiences. Intellectual adaptation involves two processes working together:
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new experiences are readily
incorporated into existing schemes. Imagine a baby who has the familiar grasping
scheme. She will soon discover that the grasping scheme also works well on blocks, toy
cars, and other small objects. Extending the existing grasping scheme to new objects
illustrates assimilation. Accommodation occurs when schemes are modified based on
experience. Assimilation and accommodation are often easier to understand when you
remember Piaget’s belief that infants, children, and adolescents create theories to try to
understand events and objects around them (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010).
Pre-operational Thinking of Preschoolers
According to Piaget, children in the Preoperational stage of development build on
skills learned and mastered during the sensorimotor stage. During the pre-operational
stage, young children's play becomes increasingly imaginary and filled with fantasies. As
children develop cognitively, their play will move from simple make-believe to plots
involving more characters and scenarios, games with sophisticated rules, etc. According
to Piaget, playing is just fun; it is an important part of brain development (Oswalt, 2015).
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Preschoolers provide remarkable examples of how children play an active role in
their own cognitive development, especially in their attempts to understand, explain,
organize, manipulate, construct, and predict. Young children also see patterns in objects
and events of the world and then attempt to organize those patterns to explain the world.
At the same time, preschoolers have cognitive limitations. Children have trouble
controlling their own attention and memory functions, confuse superficial appearances
with reality, and focus on a single aspect of an experience at a time (Oswalt, 2015).
Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 2 and 7 as
the preoperational stage. In this stage, children increase their use of language and other
symbols, their imitation of adult behaviors, and their play. Young children develop a
fascination with words—both good and bad language. Children also play games of make-
believe: using an empty box as a car, playing family with siblings, and nurturing imaginary
friendships (Corpuz et al., 2018).
The word operation refers to the use of logical rules, so sometimes this stage is
misinterpreted as implying that children are illogical. While it is true that children at the
beginning of the preoperational stage tend to answer questions intuitively as opposed to
logically, children in this stage are learning to use language and how to think about the
world symbolically. These skills help children develop the foundations they will need to
consistently use operations in the next stage (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Piaget also described the preoperational stage in terms of what children cannot
do. Piaget used the term operational to refer to reversible abilities that children had not
yet developed. By reversible, Piaget referred to mental or physical actions that can go
back and forth- meaning that they can occur in more than one way or direction. Adding
(3 + 3 = 6) and subtracting (6 – 3 = 3) are examples of reversible actions. Children at this
stage, according to Piaget, make use of magical thinking based on their own sensory and
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perceptual abilities and are easily misled. Children engage in magical thinking, for
instance, while speaking with their parents on the telephone and then asking for a gift,
expecting it to arrive via the telephone. Piaget believed that preschoolers’ cognitive
abilities are limited by egocentrism—the inability to distinguish between their own point
of view and the point of view of others. The capacity to be egocentric is apparent at all
stages of cognitive development, but egocentricity is particularly evident during the
preschool years. Young children eventually overcome this early form of egocentrism
when learning that others have differing views, feelings, and desires. Then children may
interpret others’ motives and use those interpretations to communicate mutually—and
therefore more effectively—with others. Preschoolers eventually learn to adjust their
vocal pitches, tones, and speeds to match those of the listener. Because mutual
communication requires effort and preschoolers are still egocentric, children may lapse
into egocentric (nonmutual) speech during times of frustration. In other words, children
(and adults) may regress to earlier behavioral patterns when their cognitive resources
are stressed and overwhelmed. Piaget indicated that young children have not mastered
classification, or the ability to group according to features. Neither have they mastered
serial ordering, or the ability to group according to logical progression. While possibly
inherent in young children, these abilities are not fully realized until later. Piaget also
believed that young children cannot comprehend conservation, or the concept that
physical properties remain constant even as appearance and form change. Young
children have trouble understanding that the same amount of liquid poured into
containers of different shapes remains the same. A preoperational child will tell you that
a handful of pennies is more money than a single five-dollar bill. According to Piaget,
when children develop the cognitive capacity to conserve (around age 7), children move
into the next stage of development, concrete operations (Arnett, 2012).
Centration is another characteristic of preoperational thinking. Children seem to
have the psychological equivalent of tunnel vision: They often concentrate on one aspect
of a problem but totally ignore other, equally relevant aspects. Centration is Piaget’s term
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for this narrowly focused thought that characterizes preoperational youngsters (Oswalt,
Early Childhood Cognitive, 2015).
Language and Social Interaction
Perhaps the most amazing development at this age is the growth in children’s
vocabulary. The average 3-year-old has a vocabulary of about 1,000 words; by age 6,
the average vocabulary has increased to over 2,500 words. This means they are adding
words nearly every day (Arnett, 2012).
How do they do it? Clearly children’s brains are built for learning language. Early
childhood is a sensitive period for language learning, when the capacity for learning new
words is especially pronounced (Pinker, 2002). Young children add new words to their
vocabulary through a process known as fast mapping (Ganger & Brent, 2004). This
means that as young children learn new words, they begin to form a mental map of
interconnected sets of word categories. When they hear a word the first time they instantly
connect it to one of these categories based on how the word is used in a sentence and
how it seems to be related to words they already know, to help discern its meaning. The
kinds of words children fast map earliest depend partly on the language (Arnett, 2012).
Language skills also continue to improve during early childhood. Language is an
outgrowth of a child’s ability to use symbols. Thus, as their brains develop and acquire
the capacity for representational thinking, children also acquire and refine language skills.
Some researchers, like Roger Brown, have measured language development by the
average number of words in a child’s sentences. The more words a child uses in
sentences, the more sophisticated the child’s language development. Brown suggested
that language develops in sequential stages: utterances, phrases with inflections, simple
sentences, and complex sentences. Basic syntax, according to Brown, is not fully realized
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until about age 10. Preschoolers learn many new words (Cognitive Development: Age 2-
6, 2015) .
Parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and the media provide opportunities for
preschoolers to increase their vocabulary. Consequently, the acquisition of language
occurs within a social and cultural context. Socializing agents provide more than just
words and their meanings, however. These agents teach children how to think and act in
socially acceptable ways. Children learn about society as they learn about language.
Society’s values, norms, folkways (informal rules of acceptable behavior), and mores
(formal rules of acceptable behavior) are transmitted by how parents and others
demonstrate the use of words. Some young children are bilingual, or able to speak more
than one language. These children learn two languages simultaneously, usually as a
result of growing up with bilingual parents who speak both languages at home. Many of
these bilingual children may fluently speak both languages by age 4 (Loop, 2017).
Vgotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially
and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion - called inner
speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002). For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and
immature, but for Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during early childhood. Full
cognitive development requires social interaction and language. Children must use
language to communicate with others before they can focus on their own thoughts
(Santrock, 2002)This implies the importance of interaction of preschoolers with
caregivers for language development. Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are
unable to achieve their highest cognitive development (language development included)
on their own and that they can improve their cognitive development through use of
scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults. He introduced the term Proximal
Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can be
mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock,
2002). In short, the ZPD captures the preschool children’s cognitive skills that are in the
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process of maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The lower limit of the
ZPD is "the level of cognitive development reached by the preschool child independently.
The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance
of an able instructor." (Santrock, 2002) closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and
language development is the concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing
support over the course of a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting
guidance to fit the child's current performance level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled
person is also called More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
Lesson 3. Socio-Emotional Development in Early Childhood
Socio-emotional development is critical in the preschool years. During the
preschool years, children learn about their ever-widening environment. Preschoolers now
discover their new rotes outside their home. They become interested to assert
themselves as they relate with other people. They will learn a lot of very important social
skills during the preschool years which will help them throughout life as adults. These
skills can even determine the individual's later social adjustment and consequent quality
of relationships in adult life (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Erik Erikson’s view of initiative portray the emotional and social changes that
happen during preschool years. Preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict of
initiative versus guilt.
Initiative Versus Guilt
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Most parents have their 3- and 4-year-olds take some responsibility for
themselves (by dressing themselves, for example). Youngsters also begin to identify with
adults and their parents; they begin to understand the opportunities that are available in
their culture. Play begins to have purpose as children explore adult roles, such as mother,
father, teacher, athlete, or writer. Youngsters start to explore the environment on their
own, ask innumerable questions about the world, and imagine possibilities for
themselves. This initiative is moderated by guilt as children realize that their initiative may
place them in conflict with others; they cannot pursue their ambitions with abandon.
Purpose is achieved with a balance between individual initiative and a willingness to
cooperate with others. One of the strengths of Erikson’s theory is its ability to tie together
important psychosocial developments across the entire life span (Corpuz et al., 2018).
The Growth of Attachment
Emotional learning begins at a young age, as children discover a wide range of
emotions, and evolves as they grow. Highlights of emotional development among
preschoolers, its impact and interrelated skills and the factor that influence emotional
competence will be explained in this section (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).
Emotional competence (EC) was defined in Emotions: Synthesis (2011) as a
developmental process that comprises three interrelated competencies: 1) emotion
expression; 2) emotion knowledge; and 3) emotion regulation (i.e., being aware of one’s
emotions and modifying them when necessary).
At a young age, children already display a range of emotions in social situations
through non-verbal messages (e.g., giving a hug, sulking). Then, advances in cognitive
development allow children to identify their own and others’ emotions, and the
circumstances that lead to their expression. This emotional understanding, in turn, allows
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children to monitor and to modify their emotions to cope with difficult situations (Emotions:
Synthesis, 2011)..
Emotional development in early childhood is important for several interrelated
skills. In comparison to children with deficits in emotional development, children with a
developed EC are more likely: 1) to sustain learning; 2) to engage in empathic and
prosocial behaviors; 3) to express appropriate emotions in various contexts; 4) to use
adaptive strategies to deal with negative/upsetting emotions (e.g., anger); and 5) to
reduce several risk factors associated with psychopathology. Taken together, these
abilities predict children’s early school success and positive interpersonal relationships
with peers and family members (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).
Emotions do not all emerge at the same time. Primary emotions (e.g., fear, anger,
sadness, interest, and joy) appear in the first year whereas secondary emotions (e.g.,
embarrassment, guilt, and shame) are usually expressed by the end of the 2nd year of
life. Children’s mental representation about the “self” is acquired around the age of two
and the standards, rules, and goals conveyed by their entourage set the stage for self-
conscious emotions, such as embarrassment (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).
Along with environmental factors, emotional competence is also influenced by
child factors including cognitive development, temperament, and approach/withdrawal
behaviors. Approach refers to behaviors and facial expressions that move a child towards
stimuli. Withdrawal refers to behaviors that move a child away from stimuli. Approach
emotions (i.e., interest, smiling, joy, and anger) are related to positive aspects of
behaviors, such as sustained efforts when minor difficulties are encountered, and they
predict emotional competence in children. In contrast, the expression of withdrawal
emotions (i.e., sadness and fear) in face of negative events is associated with behavioral
difficulties, poor emotion regulation, and helplessness. Withdrawal behaviors are also a
risk factor for childhood depression (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).
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Emotions play an important role in the onset of psychopathologies in childhood.
Children with a history of negative social experiences, such as maltreatment or insecurity
attachment, have a tendency to be hyper vigilant for signs of threats. Accordingly, they
display anxiety, and aggressive and fear behaviors as a mean of self-protection. Their
negative affectivity, poor emotion regulation, and imbalances in the different emotional
systems in the brain like fear, the care, the seeking systems) predict both internalizing
and externalizing disorders such as depression and aggression, respectively. (Emotions:
Synthesis, 2011)
In order to promote emotional competence in children, parents are encouraged to
model various emotional expressions. Given that the emotions displayed at home largely
influence those expressed by children with their peers and the larger school setting,
positive parent-child interactions are valued. Specifically, parents are encouraged to
engage in positive parenting practices and to play a supportive role when children
encounter challenges. Early interventions aimed at improving emotional control and the
goodness of fit between the parent’s and child’s emotional state are strongly encouraged
(Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).
Self-Concept and the Preschooler
By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they
are a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can
now think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees himself,
a general view about one's abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. The preschooler's self-
concept mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs, emotions,
and attitudes. An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers
to one's judgments about one's worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually they
will tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to
try again even if they fail with something. However, they may become negative because
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of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of patience and
encouragement from adults (Emotions: Synthesis, 2011).
Gender Development
Gender Identity and Gender Socialization
Early childhood is an especially important period with respect to gender
development. By age 3–4, children associate a variety of things with either males or
females, including toys, games, clothes, household items, occupations, and even colors
(Ruble & Martin, 2006). Furthermore, they are often adamant and rigid in their
perceptions of maleness and femaleness, denying, for example, that it would be possible
for a boy to wear a ponytail and still remain a boy, or for a girl to play roughly and still
remain a girl (Blakemore, 2003). One reason for their insistence on strict gender roles at
this age may be cognitive. It is not until age 6 or 7 that children attain gender constancy,
the understanding that maleness and femaleness are biological and cannot change
(Ruble & Martin, 2006). Earlier, children may be so insistent about maintaining gender
roles because they believe that changing external features like clothes or hair styles could
result in a change in gender. The similarity of children’s gender roles and gender behavior
across cultures is striking, However, children in virtually all cultures are also subject to
intense gender socialization.
Gender socialization
Parents play an active role in delivering cultural gender messages to their children
(Ruble & Martin, 2006).They may give their children distinctively male or female names,
dress them in gender-specific colors and styles, and provide them with cars or dolls to
play with (Bandura & Bussey, 2004). Parents’ important role in gender socialization
continues in early childhood. They continue to give their children the clothes and toys
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they believe are gender appropriate. They express approval when their children behave
in gender-appropriate ways, and disapproval when their children violate gender
expectations (Gelman, Taylor, & Nguyen, 2004). In conversations, parents sometimes
communicate gender expectations directly (e.g., “Don’t cry, you’re not a little girl, are
you?”). They also communicate indirectly, by approving or not contradicting their
children’s gender statements. (“Only boys can be doctors, Mommy.”) Parents also
provide models, through their own behavior, language, and appearance, of how males
and females are supposed to be different in their culture (Bandura & Bussey, 2004).
Fathers become especially important to gender socialization in early childhood and
beyond. They are more insistent about conformity to gender roles than mothers are,
especially for boys. They may not want their daughters to play rough and tumble games,
but they are adamant that their boys not be “sissies” or “wimps.” Peers also become a
major source of gender socialization in early childhood. Once children learn gender roles
and expectations, they apply them not only to themselves but to each other. They
reinforce each other for gender-appropriate behavior and reject peers who violate gender
roles. Here, too, the expectations are stricter for boys than for. Boys who cry easily or
who like to play with girls and engage in girls’ games are likely to be ostracized by other
boys (Bandura & Bussey, 2004).
Gender Schemas and Self-Socialization
As a result of gender socialization, from early childhood onward children use
gender schemas as a way of understanding and interpreting the world around them.
Recall from cognitive development that schema is Piaget’s term for a cognitive structure
for organizing and processing information. A gender schema is a gender-based cognitive
structure for organizing and processing information (Martin & Ruble, 2004).
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Parten's Stages of PIay
Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As
the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred Parten, in
the 1930's did a study on children's play behavior which led to Parten's stages of play.
Since then, numerous studies have followed using these stages as framework. The
stages describe the play development of children and the gradual increase of social
interaction as they go through these stages. It begins with the very young child's
unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel play, associative and cooperative play.
Play becomes an important venue for the child's development of social skills like entering
or joining a play situation, taking-tums, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and working
together. Play is indeed the child's major business (Corpuz et al., 2018).
1. Unoccupied – The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on
anything that interests him
2. Onlooker- The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them
but does not enter play with them.
3. Solitary Play- The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them
but does not enter into play with them.
4. Parallel Play- The child plays with toys like those near him, but only plays
beside not with them. No interaction takes place.
5. Associative Play- The child plays with others. There is interaction among
them, but no task assignment, rules and organization are agreed upon.
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6. Cooperative Play- The child plays with others bound by some agreed upon
rules and roles. The goal is maybe to make something, play a game or act out
something.
Assessment Task
1. Observing children aged 3-5, what gender differences in gross motor
development appear in early childhood? What factors attributed to the
differences?
Illustrate the difference using pictures. Include captions.
2. Using a graphic organizer, illustrate Emotional Competence (EC),
emotion expression, emotion knowledge, emotion regulation and its (EC)
impact on learning.
3. Describe the roles that parents, and peers play in gender socialization,
and explain how gender schemas lead to self-socialization.
Summary
Early childhood is a time of great changes for children. While the child is still
obviously a child physically, in the span of early childhood they make great strides in
development—by the end of this period a child’s brain is nearly adult-sized. At the same
time, that nearly adult-sized brain is not ready to perform many adult tasks—there is much
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learning still to be done in terms of building relationships, moral decision making, and in
other cognitive realms.
Parents caring for children in early childhood contribute greatly to development in
direct and in indirect ways. Teaching new words, laying-down expectations for behavior
in different contexts, choosing daycare centers, helping to build self-confidence, and
providing general care for the child all contribute to the child’s healthy development
through early childhood. Parents and other caregivers should encourage healthy habits
in their young children, including making healthy food choices and exercising the body
and the brain. They should challenge children to think in new ways and create
opportunities for children to learn about themselves so that they can develop a healthy
and realistic self-concept.
The learning that happens for children in early childhood is the steppingstone for
the next stage, middle childhood. Many of the advances that began in early childhood will
continue to be refined in the next stages.
References
Acero, V., Javier, E., & Casto, H. (2004). Human Growth Development and Learning.
Manila: Rex Bookstore.
Arnett, J. J. (2012). Human Development: A Cultural Approach. Pearson Education Inc.
Bandura, A., & Bussey, K. (2004). On Broadening the cognitive, motivational and socio-
cultural scope of theorizing about gender development and functioning.
Psychological Bulletin, 691-701.
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Blakemore, J. E. (2003). Children's Belief about Violating Gender Norms: Boys should't
Look like Girls and Girls shouldn't Act like Boys. Sex Roles, 411-419.
Cognitive Development: Age 2-6. (2015, August 1). Retrieved from cliffsnotes.com:
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology/development-psychology/physical-
cognitive-development-age-26/cognitive-development
Corpuz, B. B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H. G., & Lucido, P. I. (2018). The Child and
Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing.
Emotions: Synthesis. (2011, December). Retrieved from child-encyclopedia.com:
http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/emotions/synthesis
Ganger, J., & Brent, M. (2004). Reexamining the Vocabulary Spurt. Developmental
Psychology, 621-632.
Gelman, S., Taylor, M., & Nguyen, S. (2004). Mother-child conversations about gender.
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1-127.
Hinojosa, T., C.F, S., & Michael, G. (2013). Infant Hand-use Preferences for Grasping
Objects Contribute to the Development of Hand-use preference for Manipulating
Object. Developmental Psychobiology, 328-334.
Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). Human Development: A Lifespan View, 5th ed. CA:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Loop, E. (2017, April 2007). Brown's Stages of Languange Development. Retrieved
from howtoadult.com: https://howtoadult.com/browns-stages-language-
development-7907581.html
Oswalt, A. (2015, Oct 7). Early Childhood Cognitive. Retrieved from
gracepointwellness.org: https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-
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development-parenting-early-3-7/article/12757-early-childhood-cognitive-
development-introduction
Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. NY: Penguin
Books .
Rathus, S. A. (2006). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 2nd Ed.
Thomson Wadsworth.
Ruble, D., & Martin, C. B. (2006). Gender Development. Handbook of Child
Psychology, 858-932.
Santrock, J. W. (2002). Life Span Development. New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Co.
Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence.
CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Zgourides, G. (2000). Cliff's Quick Review: Developmental Psychology. CA: IDG Books
Worldwide
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MODULE 7
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD STAGE
The Primary School Age
Introduction
Historically, middle childhood has not been considered an important stage in
human development. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory labeled this period of life
the latency stage, a time when sexual and aggressive urges are repressed. Freud
suggested that no significant contributions to personality development were made during
this period. However, more recent theorists have recognized the importance of middle
childhood for the development of cognitive skills, personality, motivation, and inter-
personal relationships. During middle childhood children learn the values of their
societies. Thus, the primary developmental task of middle childhood could be
called integration, both in terms of development within the individual and of the individual
within the social context (Stages of Growth Development, 2011).
Middle childhood is a time when children can gain enthusiasm for learning and
work, for achievement can become a motivating factor as children work toward building
competence and self-esteem (Rathus, 2006).
Middle childhood is also a time when children develop competence in
interpersonal and social relationships. Children have a growing peer orientation, yet they
are strongly influenced by their family. The social skills learned through peer and family
relationships, and children's increasing ability to participate in meaningful interpersonal
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communication, provide a necessary foundation for the challenges of adolescence. Best
friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these relationships may provide
the building blocks for healthy adult relationships (Child Development, Stages of Growth
, 2016).
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, the learners should be able to:
• Identify the patterns of physical and motor development during middle childhood
stage.
• Describe the new skills that demonstrate children’s advances in fine motor
development in middle childhood.
• Examine patterns of moral development during middle childhood.
• Discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional growth of the primary-
schoolers
• Evaluate the impact of labeling on self-concept and social relationships
Lesson 1. Physical Development
During this stage, physical development involves: (l) having good muscle control
and coordination, (2) developing eye-hand coordination, (3) having good personal
hygiene and (4) being aware of good safety habits.
Height and Weight
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In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades,
specifically their primary years - Grades I to 3. Physical growth in this period is slow but
steady. On average, children grow about 2 to 3 inches taller per year and gain about 5 to
7 pounds per year (Kliegman, Staton, & Schor, 2016).
These physical changes will introduce them to many different activities that they
can now do with greater accuracy. Most children will have slimmer appearance compared
to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and location of their body
fats. A child's legs are longer and more proportioned to the body than they were before.
(Physical Changes during Puberty, 2010).
While height and weight are largely determined by genetics, external factors may
also affect children’s growth and development. Nature and nurture both contribute to the
growth and development of children. Although what was endowed by nature is constant,
nurture tends to make a big difference too. Here are some factors affecting children’s
growth and development (Arora, 2019).
a. Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to
children through their genes. Heredity influences all aspects of physical
appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the color of the eye, the
texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes. Diseases and conditions
such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be passed through genes,
thereby affecting the growth and development of the child adversely (Arora,
2019).
b. Health and exercise
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The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline
or children deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it would help them
grow. Exercise here refers to the normal playtime and sports activities which help
the body gain an increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass.
Proper exercise helps children grow well and reach milestones on time or sooner.
Exercise also keeps them healthy and fights off diseases by strengthening the
immune system, especially if they play outside (Arora, 2019).
c. Nutrition
Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to build
and repair itself comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can cause deficiency
diseases that adversely affect the growth and development of children. On the
other hand, overeating can lead to obesity and health problems in the long run,
such as diabetes and heart disease. A balanced diet that is rich in vitamins,
minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and fats is essential for the development of the
brain and body (Arora, 2019).
d. Familial Influence
Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and
determining the ways in which they develop psychologically and socially. Arora
(2019) cited that the most positive growth is seen when families invest time,
energy and love in the development of the child through activities, such as reading
to them, playing with them and having deep meaningful conversations (Arora,
2019).
e. Geographical Influences
Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out to
be. The schools they attend, the neighborhood they live in, the opportunities
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offered by the community and their peer circles are some of the social factors
affecting a child’s development (Arora, 2019).
f. Hormones
Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions
of our bodies. They are produced by different glands that are situated in specific parts of
the body to secrete hormones that control body functions. Their timely functioning is
critical for normal physical growth and development in children. Imbalances in the
functioning of hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioral
problems and other diseases. During puberty, the gonads produce sex hormones which
control the development of the sex organs and the appearance of secondary sexual
characteristics in boys and girls (Arora, 2019).
g. Socio-economic status
The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the opportunity a
child gets. Studying in better schools that are more expensive definitely has benefits in
the long run. Well-off families can also offer better learning resources for their children
and they afford special aid if the kids need it. Children from poorer families may not have
access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential. They may
also have working parents who work too many hours and cannot invest enough quality
time in their development (Arora, 2019).
h. Learning and reinforcement
Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned with building
the child up mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and socially so they operate as healthy
functional individuals in the society. This is where the development of the mind takes
place and the child can gain some maturity. Reinforcement is a component of learning
where an activity or exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned. An
example is playing a musical instrument; they get better at playing it as they practice
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playing the instrument. Therefore, any lesson that is taught has to be repeated until the
right results are obtained (Arora, 2019).
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the best time to teach
children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy bones
throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can
substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood. Because children's
bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and fewer. minerals
than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in strengthening
bones and muscles (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills. They enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities. They pretend and
fantasize less often because they are more attuned with everything that is happening
around them. Children in this stage love to move a lot - they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble,
roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can now
perform activities like catching a ball with one hand, tying their shoelaces, they can
manage zippers and buttons. Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and bi-
manual (require the use of two hands) activities becomes easier. Children's graphic
activities, such as writing and drawing, are now more controlled but are still developing.
They can print their names and copy simple designs, letters, and shapes. They hold
pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision. Motor development skills include
coordination, balance, speed, agility and power (Corpuz et al., 2018).
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Coordination
Coordination is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a way to
bring about a particular result. The more complex the movement is, the greater
coordination is required. Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when they
play games and sports (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Balance
Balance is the child's ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his4rer body
in different positions. Balance is a basic skill needed especially in this stage, when
children are very active. During this time, children have improved balancing skills. Static
balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one foot.
Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Speed
Speed is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time while
agility is one's ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are
extremely important in most sports (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Power
Power is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in
future endeavors of the child (Corpuz et al., 2018).
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Lesson 2. Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood
Children in middle childhood are starting to make friends in more sophisticated
ways. They are choosing friends for specific characteristics, including shared interests,
sense of humor, and being a good person. That is quite a departure from the earlier days
of playing with the people in your group just because they are there. Children in middle
childhood are starting to realize that there are benefits to friendships, and there are
sometimes difficulties as well (Emotional and Social development in Middle Childhood,
2019).
Now let us turn our attention to concerns related to social development, self-
concept, the world of friendships, and family life. During middle childhood, children are
likely to show more independence from their parents and family, think more about the
future, understand more about their place in the world, pay more attention to friendships,
and want to be accepted by their peers (Emotional and Social development in Middle
Childhood, 2019).
Caregiving Styles
As children mature, parent-child relationships naturally change. Primary school
children are more capable, have their own preferences, and sometimes refuse or seek to
compromise with parental expectations. This can lead to greater parent-child conflict, and
how conflict is managed by parents further shapes the quality of parent-child
relationships. In general, children develop greater competence and self-confidence when
parents have high (but reasonable) expectations for children’s behavior, communicate
well with them, are warm and responsive, and use reasoning (rather than coercion) as
preferred responses to children’s misbehavior. This kind of parenting style has been
described as authoritative. Authoritative parents are supportive and show interest in their
kids’ activities but are not overbearing and allow them to make constructive mistakes. By
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contrast, some less-constructive parent-child relationships result from authoritarian,
uninvolved, or permissive parenting styles (Rathus, 2006).
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children,
Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for
the child. Caregiving styles are determined by varying degrees of demandingness and
responsiveness (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of
affection and communication. It refers to how warm, caring, and respectful the adult is to
the child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain things in
ways that the child will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and
expectations. This involves discipline and confrontation strategies (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Authoritative High Demandingness – High Responsiveness
Authoritarian High Demandingness – Low Responsiveness
Permissive Low demandingness - High Responsiveness
Negligent Low Demandingness – Low Responsiveness
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development: Industry vs. Inferiority
According to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or
industrious. They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends,
and achieving. This is an active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how
they measure up when compared with friends. Erikson believed that if these industrious
children view themselves as successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of
competence for future challenges. If instead, a child feels that they are not measuring up
to their peers, feelings of inferiority and self-doubt will develop. These feelings of
inferiority can, according to Erikson, lead to an inferiority complex that lasts into adulthood
(Corpuz et al., 2018).
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To help children have a successful resolution in this stage, they should be
encouraged to explore their abilities. They should be given authentic feedback as well.
Failure is not necessarily a horrible thing according to Erikson. Indeed, failure is a type of
feedback which may help a child form a sense of modesty. A balance of competence and
modesty is ideal for creating a sense of competence in the child (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Self-Understanding
Five key changes characterize the increased complexity of children’s self-
understanding in middle childhood.
In middle and late childhood, children increasingly describe themselves in terms
of psychological characteristics and traits, in contrast with the more concrete self-
descriptions of younger children. Older children are more likely to describe themselves
as “popular, nice, helpful, mean, smart, and dumb” (Harter, 2003).
One's self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles. It also
involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of being
capable of doing good. Having a healthy self-concept does not mean that a child thinks
he is better than others. It means that he likes himself, feels accepted by his family and
friends and believes that he can do well (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Primary school children's self-concept is influenced not only by their parents, but
also by the growing number of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and
classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their place in the world. They
already know that they can please their parents and teachers. They are comfortable and
show confidence in doing things they are good at, but also show frustration in things that
they find difficult (Santrock, 2016).
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School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become
increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions. They are not
focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others.
The issues of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for
people who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and dependability are
being considered as well as responsibility and kindness (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Social description
Children begin to include social aspects such as references to social groups in
their self-descriptions (Harter, 2003). For example, a child might describe herself as a
Girl Scout, as a Catholic, or as someone who has two close friends. · This can be
attributed to greater experience in comparing one’s own performance with that of others
and to greater cognitive flexibility. A child’s self-concept can be influenced by peers,
family, teachers, and the messages they send about a child’s worth. Contemporary
children also receive messages from the media about how they should look and
act. Movies, music videos, the internet, and advertisers can all create cultural images of
what is desirable or undesirable and this too can influence a child’s self-concept
(Emotional and Social development in Middle Childhood, 2019).
Social comparison
Children’s self-understanding in middle and late childhood includes increasing
reference to social comparison (Harter, 2003). That is, elementary-school age children
increasingly think about what they can do in comparison with others. ·
Real self and ideal self
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Primary school children begin to distinguish between their real and ideal selves
(Harter, 2003). This change involves differentiating their actual competencies from those
they aspire to have and think are the most important.
Realistic.
Children’s self-evaluations become more realistic (Harter, 2003). This change
may occur because of increased social comparison and perspective taking.
Understanding Others
Perspective taking is especially thought to be important in whether children
develop prosocial or antisocial attitudes and behavior. In terms of prosocial behavior,
taking another’s perspective improves children’s likelihood of understanding and
sympathizing with others when they are distressed or in need. A recent study revealed
that in children who were characterized as being emotionally reactive, good perspective-
taking skills were linked to their ability to regain a neutral emotional state after being
emotionally aroused (Bengtsson, 2011).
Among the executive functions called on when young children engage in
perspective taking are cognition inhibition which means controlling one’s own thoughts
to consider the perspective of others, and cognitive flexibility which means seeing
situations in different ways (Santrock, 2016).
The Society of Children
Friendships during middle childhood take on new importance as judges of one’s
worth, competence, and attractiveness. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning
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social skills such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate
differences. Children get ideas from one another about how to perform certain tasks, how
to gain popularity, what to wear, what to say, what to listen to, and how to act. This society
of children marks a transition from a life focused on the family to a life concerned with
peers. In peer relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions
with other children. They learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn-taking,
compromise, and bargaining. Play and communication also involve the mutual,
sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding (Emotional and
Social development in Middle Childhood, 2019).
Social Comparison and Bullying
Peer relationships can be challenging as well as supportive. (Rubin, 2011). Being
accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer
rejection can foreshadow later behavior problems (especially when children are rejected
due to aggressive behavior). With increasing age, children confront the challenges of
bullying, peer victimization, and managing conformity pressures.
Social comparison with peers is an important means by which children evaluate
their skills, knowledge, and personal qualities, but it may cause them to feel that they do
not measure up well against others. For example, a boy who is not athletic may feel
unworthy of his football-playing peers and revert to shy behavior, isolating himself and
avoiding conversation. Conversely, an athlete who cannot “get” Shakespeare may feel
embarrassed and avoid reading altogether. Also, with the approach of adolescence, peer
relationships become focused on psychological intimacy, involving personal disclosure,
vulnerability, and loyalty (or its betrayal)—which significantly affects a child’s outlook on
the world. Each of these aspects of peer relationships requires developing different social
and emotional skills than those that emerge in parent-child relationships. They also
illustrate the many ways that peer relationships influence the growth of personality and
self-concept (Thompson, 2015).
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Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some popular
children are nice and have good social skills. These popular-prosocial children tend to do
well in school and are cooperative and friendly. Popular-antisocial children may gain
popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others. Rejected children are
sometimes excluded because they are shy and withdrawn. The withdrawn-
rejected children are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when
belittled. Other rejected children are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and
confrontational. The aggressive-rejected children may be acting out of a feeling of
insecurity. Unfortunately, their fear of rejection only leads to behavior that brings further
rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience
conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting (Lifespan Development, n.d.).
Building Friendships
Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children's social and
emotional growth. As soon as they can walk and talk, they will tend to show natural
inclination to be around other children. Children, during this stage, most likely belong to
a peer group. Peer groups are characterized by children who belong approximately to the
same age group and same social economic status. It is found along the stages of
childhood through adolescence. But for children, until the age of seven or eight, they think
of themselves more than that others. They may play well with groups but may need some
time to play alone (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same gender. Many
children will use their surroundings to observe and mingle with other children. Some will
see this as an opportunity to make friends while others remain a bit of a loner (Corpuz et
al., 2018).
Antisocial Behavior
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Some adults may perceive that some children's behavior towards other children
as antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or kick other children when they are first
introduced, it is fairly normal. Remember that children at this stage are still forming their
own world views and other children may seem like a curiosity that they need to explore.
Moral Development
Moral development is the process through which children develop proper
attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural
norms, rules, and laws.
.
Moral development is a complex issue that—since the beginning of human
civilization—has been a topic of discussion among some of the world's most distinguished
psychologists, theologians, and culture theorists. It was not studied scientifically until the
late 1950s (Moral Development, n.d).
Piaget's Theory of Moral Reasoning (McLeod, 2015)
Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgements and
punishment tended to change as they got older. In other words just as there were stages
to children’s cognitive development so there were also universal stages to their moral
development.
Piaget suggested two main types of moral thinking:
1. Heteronomous morality (moral realism)
2. Autonomous morality (moral relativism)
Heteronomous Morality (5-9 years)
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The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism – morality
imposed from the outside. Children regard morality as obeying other people's rules and
laws, which cannot be changed. They accept that all rules are made by some authority
figure (e.g. parents, teacher, God), and that breaking the rules will lead to immediate and
severe punishment (immanent justice) (McLeod, 2015).
The function of any punishment is to make the guilty suffer in that the severity of
the punishment should be related to severity of wrong-doing expiatory punishment.
During this stage children consider rules as being absolute and unchanging, i.e. 'divine
like'. They think that rules cannot be changed and have always been the same as they
are now. Behavior is judged as “bad” in terms of the observable consequences,
regardless on the intentions or reasons for that behavior. Therefore, a large amount of
accidental damage is viewed as worse than a small amount of deliberate damage
(McLeod, 2015).
Older children look at motives behind actions rather than consequences of
actions. They are also able to examine rules, determining whether they are fair or not,
and apply these rules and their modifications to situations requiring negotiation, assuring
that everyone affected by the rules is treated fairly. Piaget felt that the best moral learning
came from these cooperative decision-making and problem-solving events. He also
believed that children developed moral reasoning quickly and at an early age. (Moral
Development, n.d).
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, extended Piaget's work in
cognitive reasoning into adolescence and adulthood. He felt that moral development was
a slow process and evolved over time. Still, his six stages of moral development, drafted
in 1958, mirrors Piaget's early model (Moral Development, n.d).
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McLeod (2013) cited that Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget’s theory
of cognitive development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In
each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of
some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated
(McLeod, 2013).
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called
Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to
make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He
explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug
cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to
make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he
broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
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By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions,
Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The
sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at
three-yearly intervals for 20 years (McLeod, 2013).
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What
Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action right or
wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to
change as the children got older. Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral
reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two
sub-stages (McLeod, 2013).
Pre-conventional Level
The child at the first and most basic level, the preconventional level, is concerned
with avoiding punishment and getting needs met. This level has two stages and applies
to children up to 10 years of age (McLeod, 2013).
• Punishment-Obedience stage- Children obey rules because they are told to do so
by an authority figure (parent or teacher), and they fear punishment if they do not
follow rules. Children at this stage are not able to see someone else's side
(McLeod, 2013).
• Individual, Instrumentation, and Exchange stage - behavior is governed by moral
reciprocity. The child will follow rules if there is a known benefit to him or her.
Children at this stage also seek out justice in an eye-for-an-eye manner or
according to Golden Rule logic. In other words, if one child hits another, the injured
child will hit back. This is considered equitable justice. Children in this stage are
concerned with what is fair. Children will also make deals with each other and
even adults. They will agree to behave in a certain way for a payoff. "I'll do this, if
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you will do that." Sometimes, the payoff is in the knowledge that behaving
correctly is in the child's own best interest. They receive approval from authority
figures or admiration from peers, avoid blame, or behave in accordance with their
concept of self. They are just beginning to understand that others have their own
needs and drives (McLeod S. , 2013).
Conventional Level
This level broadens the scope of human wants and needs. Children in this level are
concerned about being accepted by others and living up to their expectations. This stage
begins around age 10 but lasts well into adulthood and is the stage most adults remain
at throughout their lives.
• Interpersonal Conformity- often called the "good boy/good girl" stage. Here,
children do the right thing because it is good for the family peer group, team,
school, or church. They understand the concepts of trust, loyalty, and gratitude.
They abide by the Golden Rule as it applies to people around them every day.
Morality is acting in accordance with what the social group says is right and moral
(Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development I Developmental Psychology, 2014).
• Law and Order stage- Children and adults at this stage abide by the rules of the
society in which they live. These laws and rules become the backbone for all right
and wrong actions. Children and adults feel compelled to do their duty and show
respect for authority. This is still moral behavior based on authority but reflects a
shift from the social group to society at large.
Post-conventional level
Some teenagers and adults move beyond conventional morality and enter morality based
on reason, examining the relative values and opinions of the groups with which they
interact. Few adults reach this stage.
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• Social Contract, and Individual Rights stage- Individuals in this stage understand
that codes of conduct are relative to their social group. With that in mind, the
individual enters a contract with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and kindly
and to respect authority when it is equally moral and deserved. They also agree
to obey laws and social rules of conduct that promote respect for individuals and
value the few universal moral values that they recognize. Moral behavior and
moral decisions are based on the greatest good for the greatest number
(Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development I Developmental Psychology, 2014).
• Universal/Ethical Principles stage- individuals examine the validity of society's
laws and govern themselves by what they consider to be universal moral
principles, usually involving equal rights and respect. They obey laws and social
rules that fall in line with these universal principles, but not others they deem as
aberrant. Adults here are motivated by individual conscience that transcends
cultural, religious, or social convention rules. Kohlberg recognized this last stage
but found so few people who lived by this concept of moral behavior that he could
not study it in detail (Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development I Developmental
Psychology, 2014).
Assessment Task
1. How can you (as future teacher) contribute to the development of positive self -
concept among primary schoolers? Give 5 concrete ways.
a. ___________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________
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d. ___________________________________________________________________
e. ___________________________________________________________________
2. Conduct a Moral Reasoning Interview with a Primary Schooler (Grade 1-3) and a
teenager
Step 1 – Ask permission from the child’s parents then explain the purpose of the interview
that you will conduct.
Step 2: Explain the following moral dilemma to a child and ask the questions that follow.
Joey is walking to the store. It is his mother’s birthday on Saturday. He’s feeling bad
because he hasn’t been able to save up enough money to get her the present, he’d like
to give her. Then, on the sidewalk, he finds a wallet with 500 pesos in it — just what he
needs to buy the present! But there’s an identification card in the wallet telling the name
and address of the owner”
Interview questions:
1. What should Joey do? Why?
2. What would be a good reason for Joey to return the wallet? Can you think of any
other reasons?
3. Would it be stealing to keep the money? Why is it wrong to steal?
4. What if the owner of the wallet were rich and greedy and wouldn’t even give Joey a
reward for returning it — should he return the wallet then?
STEP 3: Interview someone above the age of sixteen. Read or explain the following moral
dilemma and ask the questions that follow.
Christy and Kay were best friends. One day they went shopping together.
Christy tried on a sweater and then, to Kay’s surprise, walked out of the store wearing
the sweater under her coat. A moment later, the store’s security officer stopped Kay
and demanded that she tell him the name of the girl who had walked out. He told the
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storeowner he had seen the two girls together and was sure the one who left had been
shoplifting. The storeowner said to Kay, “Come on now, come clean. You could get into
serious trouble if you don’t give us your friend’s name.”
1. Should Kay tell Christy’s name to the security officer? Why?
2. Would it make any difference if Christy had recently done a big favor for Kay?
3. Would it make a difference if they were not good friends?
4. What factors should Kay consider in making her decision?
STEP 4: Write a response paper (300-500 words) reflecting on the responses from the
two interviews. How did the responses of the child and the teen differ in terms of maturity
of moral judgments? Were you surprised by anything they said? How do they fit into
Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning and Piaget’s Theory of Moral Reasoning?
Summary
Up until middle childhood, the process of development is not usually as structured
as it becomes during middle childhood, when children enter the formal education setting.
Children in school are taught new ways of thinking about things that they already know—
they learn why they structure sentences the way they do, they learn new words not
through hearing them from others, but from lists provided by teachers or determined by
committees. They are even taught how to play sports in specific ways with explicit rules
and that they get tested on in written form. This is quite a different from the organic
learning of younger years.
Learning in this new way is difficult for some children who have never had to sit
down for formal instruction. Structured learning can also shed light on learning difficulties
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and learning disabilities. Educators today are trained to recognize the signs of many
learning disabilities so that children can get help early on in their academic careers.
Developing social relationships in the school environment and keeping up with
the changing relationships at home can be difficult tasks for children during middle
childhood. Children begin the period relatively dependent on parents and by the end of
the period, children should be able to act autonomously in terms of decision making and
caring for themselves. This change may feel quick to parents, and it can be difficult for
them to let go of control and to allow the child to make more decisions. For the child to
continue healthy development, though, that gradual letting go is necessary. Parents and
teachers should pay close attention to their children to recognize signs that the child is
capable of taking on new responsibilities. This will help the child continue to develop their
skills, their sense of self, their sense of place in the family, and their sense of place in the
greater community.
References
Arora, M. (2019, July 17). Factors that affect growth and developement in Children.
Retrieved from parenting.firstcry.com:
https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/factors-that-affect-growth-and-
development-in-children/
Bengtsson, H. A. (2011). The impact of developing social perspective-taking skills on
emotionality of middle and late childhood. Social Development, 353-375.
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Child Development, Stages of Growth . (2016, December 11). Retrieved from
encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-
almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/child-development-stages-growth
Corpuz, B. B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H. G., & Lucido, P. I. (2018). The Child and
Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing.
Emotional and Social development in Middle Childhood. (2019, August 9). Retrieved
from courses.lumenlearning.com: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-
lifespandevelopment/chapter/emotional-and-social-development-in-middle-
childhood/
Harter, S. (2003). The development of self-representations during childhood and
adolescence. Handbook on self and identity, 610-642.
Kliegman, R., Staton, B., & Schor, N. (2016). Nelson textbook of pediatrics 20th ed. NY:
Elsevier.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development I Developmental Psychology. (2014, October
7). Retrieved from courses.lumenlearning.com:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-ss-152-1/chapter/kohlbergs-
stages-of-moral-development/
Lifespan Development. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://pressbooks.nscc.ca:
https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/lumenlife/chapter/emotional-and-social-development-
in-middle-childhood/
McLeod, S. (2013). Kohleberg's Stages of Moral Development. Retrieved from
simplypsychology.org: https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html
McLeod, S. (2015, September 10). Piaget's Theory of Moral Development. Retrieved
from simplypsychology.org: www.simplypsychology.org/piaget-moral.html
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Moral Development. (n.d). Retrieved from healthofchildren,com:
http://www.healthofchildren.com/M/Moral-Development.html
Physical Changes during Puberty. (2010, February 25). Retrieved from
healthychildren.org: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-
stages/gradeschool/puberty/Pages/Physical-Development-of-School-Age-
Children.aspx#:~:text=Most%20children%20have%20a%20slimmer,giving%20h
er%20a%20thinner%20look.
Rathus, S. A. (2006). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 2nd Ed.
Thomson Wadsworth.
Rubin, K. C. (2011). Developmental science: An Advanced textbook 6th ed. New York:
Psychology Press.
Santrock, J. W. (2016). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development 8th Edition. NY:
McGraw Hill Education.
Stages of Growth Development. (2011, November 15). Retrieved from
education.stateuniversity.com:
https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1826/Child-Development-Stages-
Growth.html
Thompson, R. (2015, February 20). Social and personality development in childhood.
Retrieved from nobaproject.com: https://nobaproject.com/modules/social-and-
personality-development-in-childhood
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MODULE 8 LATE CHILDHOOD STAGE
Intermediate Schooler
Introduction
Late childhood is generally covers approximately ages 9 through 12. Up until this
point, most children have been growing at predictable rates. One preteen can be in a
completely different growth phase than another child who is the exact same age. The
disparity in physical development may continue well into adolescence, when growth
patterns even out (Heesvig-Gaskell, 2018).
Every stage of development of human life has its own unique qualities and
significance. Each stage is interlinked with the later one. The stage of late childhood is a
sort pseudo maturity, because at this stage, the child has achieved a good degree of
adoption to his or her environment as compared with the children of the early childhood
stage. We have learned the distinction between the quantitative aspects of growth and
the qualitative aspects of development (Santrock, 2016).
This module will familiarize you with the late childhood stage, its important
characteristics as well as some guiding principles that the parents and the teachers must
follow in order to handle the children belonging to this period.
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Does physical growth slow down or speed up in this what they call the
"troublesome age". You should be able to answer this after going through this module
which dwells on the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development of the
intermediate schooler.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, the learners should be able to:
• Identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate schoolers
• Discuss ways and practices that will help intermediate schoolers in developing
physically, cognitively, and socially.
• Determine the qualities of family life that affect intermediate schoolers’
development including changes in family interactions
• Enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the learning
environment, learning activities and instructional materials.
Lesson 1. Physical Development in Late Childhood Stage
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry. They get so
busy with their schoolwork, interacting with their friends, exploring other possible
activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a leisurely pace.
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Early Puberty
On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in
terms of physical maturity. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for girls - which is
the initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early
as 8 and some as late 13 (Corpuz et al. 2018).
Height, Weight and Muscle Development
This is the period of slow and uniform growth. Physical growth follows a
predictable pattern, although variations do occur. Body build affects both the height and
weight of a child in late childhood. The bones harden; the height and weight increase at
this stage and there is improvement in a child motor development, skills, and endurance.
The child develops skills like-self-help-skills, social-help-skills, school skills and play
skills. Apart from doing his or her own works the child becomes able to help others in this
stage. At school, the child develops the skills needed in writing, drawing, painting, clay
modelling, sewing etc. the children also develops skills like throwing, catching, riding a
bicycle, swimming, etc. By the end of the late childhood stage, a child normally has twenty
eight of the thirty-two permanent teeth. The last four, the wisdom teeth erupt during
adolescence. Late childhood is generally defined as age 9 through 12. Up until this point,
most children have been growing at predictable rates. One preteen can be in a completely
different growth phase than another child who is the exact same age. The disparity in
physical development may continue well into adolescence, when growth patterns even
out (Late Childhood, 2019).
As cited by Corpuz et al. (2018) many of the bodily structures like the liver
muscles, skeletons, kidneys, and face follow a normal curve of development for both girls
and boys. Other structures like the brain, intestines and other organs and bodily systems
mature at their own time, thus. affecting growth pattens.
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Girls appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean body mass per
inch of height than girls. These are all normal part of development. These differences in
body composition become very significant during adolescence (Corpuz et al. 2018).
Corpuz et al. (2018) also cited that at this stage, children may become very
concerned about their physical appearance. Girls. especially, may become concerned
about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and
muscle size and strength. Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and
teachers must be very conscious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate
activities must be designed so that children will be guided into the right direction. Children
must be given opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile activities that:
• promote healthy growth
• give them a feeling of accomplishment
• reduce the risk of certain diseases
This stage is also characterized by advanced development of their fine and gross
motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina increase as they are offered different physical
activities. Children may become more interested in physical activities where they can
interact with friends and family. Activities which they can sharp with parents (e.g. biking,
running, playing basketball) show children that exercising can be fun (Corpuz et al. 2018).
Physical development in late childhood is characterized by considerable
variations in growth patterns. These variations may be due to gender, ethnic origin,
genetics, hormones, nutrition, environment, or disease. While children of this age group
follow the same basic developmental patterns, they do not necessarily mature at the
same rate. Most girls experience a preadolescent growth spurt around age 9 or 10, while
most boys experience the same growth spurt around age 11 or 12. Children who do not
receive adequate nutrition or medical attention may be at risk for stunted or delayed
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growth development. For example, children who live in countries where malnutrition is
not a problem tend to be taller than children who live in countries where malnutrition is a
problem. Physical changes, brain and nervous system development, gross and fine motor
skills, and health issues are important aspects of physical development during middle
childhood as in previous developmental stages (Physical Development: Age 7-11, 2015).
Development in Girls
The years of late childhood development can be exciting and confusing, and
even a bit disillusioning. A 12-year-old girl may have a hard time understanding why her
9-year-old neighbor has already developed breast buds while she does not have
slightest hint of a protruding chest. A preteen as young as 10 years old may experience
menarche- first menstrual period. However, the average starting age is 12.5 (Hellesvig-
Gaskell, 2018).
Development in Boys
Boys in late childhood may notice an enlargement of the testicles and scrotum,
possibly as young as age 9. A boy’s penis generally starts to grow around age 12. Also
around this time, boys will begin to grow pubic hair, as well as armpit, leg, chest and
facial hair (Hellesvig-Gaskell, 2018).
Boys & Girls
Boys and girls alike experience rapids growth spurts in late childhood. Girls
begin to sprout between the ages of 9 and 14. Boys lag behind slightly at the onset but
will more than make up for it as time goes on. A boy’s growth in height usually occurs
between ages 10 and 18, seeing the most rapid growth typically at around age 14
(Heesvig-Gaskell, 2018).
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Lesson 2. Cognitive Development in the Late Childhood Stage
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development
of mental skills is evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can
now organize thoughts effectively, although, they can only logically perceive the
immediate situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and events that
they can manipulate. Thus, their reasoning and logical thinking are still extremely limited.
But with proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the
community, these children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors (Corpuz et
al., 2018).
Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now
utilize. Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared during their primary
years. Their schoolwork is now more complicated. Reading texts have become longer;
problem-solving has become an everyday part of their lives. Their ability to use logic and
reasoning give them chances of thinking about what they want and how to get it. They
now become interested in talking about the future or even their potential careers. They
develop special interest in collections, hobbies, and sports. They are even capable of
understanding concepts without having direct hands-on experiences (Corpuz et al.,
2018).
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of
the presence of previous knowledge. they now have a wide vocabulary which enables
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them to understand the meanings of unknown words through context clues (This is the
"Reading to Learn, Stage in reading development.) They are no longer into the fairy tales
and magic type of stories but are more interested in loner and more complex reading
materials like fiction books and series books (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by the given task.
In terms of schoolwork, older children can concentrate and focus more for longer period
of hours especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing (Corpuz et
al.,2018).
Creativity
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in
children, they just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers, and people
around them (Corpuz et al.,2018). They are usually at their best when the work is done
in small pieces. Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities:
• encourage different responses from each child
• celebrate uniqueness
• break stereotype
• value process over product
• reduce stress and anxiety in children
• support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but also with
other children.
• minimize competition and external rewards.
The Impact of Media
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Corpuz et al. (2018) cited the dream of having a television unit in every classroom
started in the 1950's. It was considered as one of the first technological advancements in
schools. The impact of the use of television and other media like the computer has gained
popularity because students are given more opportunity to:
• communicate effectively in speech and in writing
• work collaboratively
• use technological tools
• analyze problems, set goals and formulate strategies for achieving those
goals .
• seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals
Media and Aggression (Corpuz et al., 2018)
Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media.
According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following are some of the negative
results of media:
• Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
• Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer
from violence.
• Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful
of being a victim of violence.
• Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
• Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not
only televisions and computers, but also videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics.
The responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should
be a collective effort among the factors working together to support children in every
aspect of development (Corpuz et al., 2018).
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Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition
(from childhood to adolescence). It gives children an adult to admire and emulate. Role
models also provide them with motivation to succeed. One of the most important roles of
teachers is to become a very good role model to children (Corpuz et al., 2018).
Application of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory to Education
Piaget was not an educator, but he provided a sound conceptual framework for
viewing learning and education. Here are some ideas in Piaget’s theory that can be
applied to teaching children (Santrock, 2016).
1. Take a constructivist approach.
Piaget emphasized that children learn best when they are active and seek
solutions for themselves. Piaget opposed teaching methods that treat children as
passive receptacles for knowledge.
2. Facilitate rather than direct learning.
Effective teachers design situations that allow students to learn by doing. These
situations promote students’ thinking and discovery. Teachers listen, watch, and
question students, to help them gain better understanding.
3. Consider the child’s knowledge and level of thinking.
Students do not come to class with empty minds. They have concepts of space,
time, quantity, and causality. These ideas differ from the ideas of adults. Teachers
need to interpret what a student is saying and respond in a way that is not too far
from the student’s level. Also, Piaget suggested that it is important to examine
children’s mistakes in thinking, to help guide them to a higher level of
understanding.
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4. Promote the student’s intellectual health.
Piaget emphasized that children’s learning should occur naturally. Children
should not be pushed and pressured into achieving too much too early in their
development before they are ready.
5. Turn the classroom into a setting of exploration and discovery.
What do actual classrooms look like when the teachers adopt Piaget’s views?
The teachers emphasize students’ own exploration and discovery. The
classrooms are less structured than we would expect in a typical classroom.
Workbooks and predetermined assignments are not used. Rather, the teachers
observe the students’ interests and natural participation in activities to determine
what the course of learning will be.
Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional Development of Intermediate Schoolers
Developmental Changes in Emotion
Here are some important developmental changes in emotions during the late
childhood years (Denham, Bassett, & Wyatt, 2007)·
a. Improved emotional understanding. Children in elementary school develop an
increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame.
These emotions become less tied to the reactions of other people. They become
more self-generated and integrated with a sense of personal responsibility. A child
may feel a sense of pride about developing new reading skills or shame after
hurting a friend’s feelings. Also, during late childhood as part of their
understanding of emotions, children can engage in “mental time travel,” in which
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they anticipate and recall the cognitive and emotional aspects of events (Lagatta,
2014).
b. Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional
reactions. Children now sometimes intentionally hide their emotions. Although a
boy may feel sad that a friend does not want to play with him, he may decide not
to share those feelings with his parents.
c. The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. In the elementary
school years, children reflect more about emotional experiences and develop
strategies to cope with their emotional lives. Children can more effectively
manage their emotions by cognitive means, such as using distracting thoughts. A
boy may be excited about his birthday party that will take place later in the
afternoon, but still be able to concentrate on his schoolwork during the day.
d. An increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional
reactions. A fourth grader may become aware that her sadness today is
influenced by her friend’s moving to another town last week.
e. Development of a capacity for genuine empathy. Two girls see another child in
distress on the playground and run to the child and ask if they can help (Belsky,
2013).
Coping with Stress
An important aspect of children’s lives is learning how to cope with stress. As
children get older, they can more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine
how much control they have over it. Older children generate more coping alternatives to
stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies (Saarni,
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Campos, Camras, & Witherington, 2006). For example, older children are better than
younger children at intentionally shifting their thoughts to a topic that is less stressful.
Older children are also better at reframing or changing their perception of a stressful
situation. For example, younger children may be disappointed that their teacher did not
say hello to them when they arrived at school. Older children may reframe this type of
situation and think, “She may have been busy with other things and just forgot to say
hello.” By 10 years of age, most children are able to use these cognitive strategies to
cope with stress (Saarni et al.,2006). However, in families that have not been supportive
and are characterized by turmoil or trauma, children may be so overwhelmed by stress
that they do not use such strategies (Thabet, Ibraheem, Shivram, & Vostanis, 2009).
Following are descriptions of recent studies of how various aspects of traumatic
events and disasters affect children (Belsky, 2013).
In a study of mothers and their children aged 5 years and younger who were
directly exposed to the 9/11 attacks in New York City, the mothers who developed post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression were less likely to help their children
regulate their emotions and behavior than mothers who were only depressed or only had
PTSD (Chemtob, 2010). This outcome was linked to their children having anxiety,
depression, aggression, and sleep problems.
A study of the effects of the 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka found that severe exposure
to the tsunami combined with more exposure to other adversities, such as an ongoing
war and family violence, was linked to poorer adjustment after the tsunami disaster
(Catani C., 2010).
A research review revealed that children with disabilities are more likely than
children without disabilities to live in poverty conditions, which increases their exposure
to hazards and disasters (Peek & Stough, 2010). When a disaster occurs, children with
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disabilities have more difficulty escaping from the disaster. In research on
disasters/trauma, the term dose-response effects is often used. A widely supported
finding in this research area is that the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse
the adaptation and adjustment (response) following the disaster/trauma (Masten, 2014).
Children who have developed a number of coping techniques have the best
chance of adapting and functioning competently in the face of disasters and traumas
(Ungar, 2015).
Following are some recommendations for helping children cope with the stress of
especially devastating events (Gurwitch, Silovksy, Schultz, Kees, & Burlingame, 2001).
a. Reassure children of their safety and security. This step may need to be taken
numerous times. · Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to
them.
b. Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings. Tell them
that these are normal feelings after a stressful event. ·
c. Help children make sense of what happened. Children may misunderstand what
took place. For example, young children “may blame themselves, believe things
happened that did not happen, believe that terrorists are in the school, etc.
d. Gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event”
e. Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the
trauma.
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f. Limit conversations about the event in front of the children and limiting exposure
to media coverage of the event.
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity, and Self-Concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development
is the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to
when he described the developmental task of middle childhood - the social crisis industry
versus inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful
"work" (Corpuz et al., 2018).
The child's definitions of self and accomplishment vary greatly according to
interpretations in the surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in
order for children to develop a sense of perseverance. They should be offered chances
to both fail and succeed, along with sincere feedback and support. During late childhood,
children can now describe themselves with internal and psychological characteristics and
traits. They most likely employ more social comparison- distinguishing themselves from
others. In dealing with other children, they show increase in perspective-taking. This
ability increases with age. Perspective taking enables the child to: (a) judge others'
intentions, purposes and actions, (b) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors
and to (c) increase skepticism of others' claims (Acero, Javier, & Casto, 2004).
Emotional Development
Similar to the other areas of development, children in this stage, show improved
emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can be
experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to show or
conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children's emotional intelligence
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(EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others and use this to
guide and motivate behavior (Acero, Javier, & Casto, 2004).
Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
Developing emotional self-awareness
Managing emotions (self-control)
Reading emotions (perspective taking)
Handling emotions (resolve problems)
Building Friendships
In addition to having close friends and belonging to a group, children also value
acceptance by larger peer groups such as their school classmates, neighborhood
playmates, or members of their athletic teams. The approval and belongingness they
receive contribute to the stability and security of their emotional development. Peer size
also increases and less supervision by adults is required. At this stage, children prefer to
belong to same-sex peer groups. (Peer Social Status and Emotion Regulation, 2020).
Peer Social Status and Emotion Regulation (2020), identified five types of Peer Statuses
1. Popular - frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely disliked
by peers
2. Average - receives an average number of positive and negative nominations from
peers .
3. Neglected - very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really disliked.
4. Rejected- infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is disliked by peers
5. Controversial- frequently nominated as a friend but at the same time disliked by
peers
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Popular children which peers find very positive, have the following skills and as a
result they become the most favored in the group (Peer Social Status and Emotion
Regulation, 2020).
l. They give out reinforcement.
2. They act naturally.
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.
4. They are happy and are in control of their negative emotions.
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.
On the other hand, here are the characteristics of why the group or majority of the
peers develop negative feelings toward rejected children.
1. They participate less in the classroom.
2. They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance.
3.They are more often reported as being lonely.
4. Aggressive
5. They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and disruptive.
6. They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down - They have fewer social
skills to make and maintain friends (Rathus, 2006).
Family
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and failure.
If children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like
riding a bike or playing a musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated If families are
seen as a primary support system, failures and setbacks become temporary and
surmountable rather than something that is attributed to personal flaws or deficits. This
time is a critical time for children to develop a sense of competence. A high-quality adult
relationship, specifically, family relationship enables them to successfully go through this
stage of development (Corpuz et al., 2018).
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Assessment Task
1. Choose one (1) Application of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory to Education. Cite 5 ways
on how you can apply this to your future class.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Why are some children more popular than others? What are the causes and
consequences of being rejected?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Interview a parent of an intermediate schooler (Grades 4-6). Use the questions
below as your guide. Write your conclusions and insights.
Name of Parent (optional) ________________________________________________
Age of the child ____________Grade level _________ Gender of the child ________
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Interview Guide:
a. What were some marked changes in your child as he/she reached the
intermediate level?
b. How does your child handle his/her schoolwork?
c. Describe your son’s/daughter’s interactions with sibling/s teachers and peers?
d. What can you say about your child’s self-confidence and self-esteem?
e. How does he / she express the following emotions:
1. Happy 4. Angry
2. Sad 5. Rejected
3. Frustrated 6. Stressed
f. (you may add questions to elicit more facts about your subject. Your questions
must be based on the discussion part of this module)
Based on your interview, write your insights in terms of your subject’s physical, cognitive,
social and emotional development.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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Summary
In late childhood, the physical development is slow and steady, as it was in
early childhood. The child’s bones and muscles continue to grow in length and width,
Body proportions continue to change as the head grows more slowly in comparison with
the torso, arms, and legs. Intermediate school children gain greater control over their
body and motor skills develop as a result. As their size and strength increases, children
can perform more complex physical activities such. They also develop speed, agility
and balance which are useful in playing sports and games.
During this stage, children’s relationships also become broader. Multiple
social contacts outside the family are created. Social skills such as sharing,
communication, perspective-taking and conflict resolution are further developed during
this stage. .
Intermediate school children acquire a greater sense of right and wrong as
well as a better understanding and doing socially acceptable behaviors. During this
lifespan stage, children place increasing importance on being accepted by others such
as their parents, friends, peers and even their teachers. Acceptance and confirmation
matter a lot to children in this stage. Positive feedback helps a child achieve competence.
There is clear understanding and control of emotions. They begin to develop
empathy, as such, they begin noticing and identifying the emotions in others. Children
also become more skilled in expressing their emotions in words.
Children start to realize what they are good at and what they are not, and as a
result the children may become self-conscious in situations where they feel inadequate.
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Most of the child’s intellectual development takes place at school; the brain
continues to develop during late childhood. At the beginning of this stage, children follow
basic instructions and place objects in logical order or arrange them according to
numerical value. As the child begins to develop intellectually, the child can follow
instructions and directions with multiple steps. Children in late childhood generally have
increased interest in numbers and can perform basic mathematical problems. Their
attention span increases, and the child can sit in class for longer periods, but the
children’s concentration will still lapse after a matter of minutes.
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