children s illustrated encyclopedia the world economy · 2017-10-24 · ﬁrst cultivated in the...

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Orpheus

S T R U C T U R E S

22 BUILDINGSBuilding methods • The world’s tallest structures over time

24 SKYSCRAPERInside the John Hancock Center • The world’s tallest buildings

26 BRIDGESDifferent types of bridges • The Seto-Ohashi Bridge

W O R L D I S S U E S

28 WEALTH AND POVERTYInfant mortality • Gross Domestic Product •Shantytowns

30 ENVIRONMENTAL THREATSHabitat destruction • Desertification • Deforestation • Pollution • Destruction of the ozone layer • Acid rain • Global warming

32 INDEX

CONTENTS

F A R M I N G A N D F I S H I N G

4 FARMINGTypes of farming around the world •Intensive farming • Shifting cultivation

6 ARABLE FARMINGA cereal farmer’s year • The world’s crops

8 LIVESTOCK FARMINGDifferent breeds of livestock • Poultry farming • Main areas of livestock farming

10 FISHINGThe world’s major fishing grounds • Trawlers• Fishing methods • Traditional fishing

I N D U S T R Y A N D T R A N S P O R T

12 MINING AND INDUSTRYMajor mineral deposits • Primary, secondaryand tertiary industries • Steel and glass manufacturing

14 FOSSIL FUELSCoal • Oil and gas • Oil products

16 ELECTRICITYNuclear and hydro-electric power stations • Supplying electricity • Alternative power

18 AIR TRAVELMajor air routes • Features of an airport

20 PORTS AND WATERWAYSMajor shipping lanes • Canals

C O N T E N T S

3

First published in 2009 by Orpheus Books Ltd., 6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire OX28 4AW England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright © 2009 Orpheus Books Ltd

Created and produced by Orpheus Books Ltd

Text Jacqueline Dineen

Illustrators Susanna Addario, Stephen Conlin, Ferruccio Cucchiarini,Giuliano Fornari, Gary Hincks, Christa Hook, Steve Kirk, Lee

Montgomery, Steve Noon, Nicki Palin, Alessandro Rabatti, Eric Robson,Claudia Saraceni, Roger Stewart, Thomas Trojer,

Martin Woodward

Cartography Olive Pearson

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior

written permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 905473 47 2

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in Singapore

C O N T E N T S

2

(AB)UK TextJOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:OUR WORLD & ITS PEOPLE

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The combination of climate andsoil conditions are importantfor farming. This map showswhich types of farming arepractised in different parts ofthe world, and those areaswhere it is not possible to farmat all.

This Romanianshepherd is grazinghis sheep on theCarpathianMountains. Hemoves his flockaround to find goodgrass.

Not all farmers settle in one place. Somelivestock farmers are nomadic—they movearound with their herds, looking for freshgrazing land. Shifting cultivation is a systemwhere arable farmers move on when thesoil becomes exhausted. The most commonmethod is slash-and-burn, which is practisedin tropical regions such as the Amazon rain-forests. Land is cleared by burning patchesof forest. After a few years of planting cropssuch as maize, manioc, millet and yams, therainforest soil is no longer fertile, so thefarmers clear a new area, leaving theprevious land to return to its natural state.

F A R M I N G

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FARMING

THE WORLD relies on farming (alsocalled agriculture) for its food. Farms

range in size from large commercialbusinesses that provide food for sale athome and abroad (cash crops), to smallfarms that produce only enough food forthe community (subsistence farming).

There are several different kinds offarming. Arable farming is the cultivation ofcrops, which include cereals, vegetables andplants for making industrial products such asoil and cotton cloth. Another type ofcultivation is growing trees or vines, such asfruit orchards, vineyards, rubber or coffeeplantations. Livestock farming involveskeeping animals such as pigs, cows andsheep for meat, milk or wool. The animalsgraze on permanent grassland or roughpasture, including heathland, scrub,mountain slopes or tundra grasses. Somefarmers concentrate on one type offarming, while others have mixed farmswhere they both grow crops and keeplivestock.

Intensive farming methods are used toincrease food production. For example,intensive egg production involves keepinghens in tiny, crowded cages where theyspend their lives just laying eggs. Manypeople regard this type of farming as cruel.

A coffee plantation on the subtropicalsouthern foothills of the Andes mountainsin Colombia, South America. “Free-range” products come from animals

kept in more natural surroundings. Theseinclude eggs from hens that have beenallowed to roam around in the farmyard.

Farmers on commercial farms usechemicals to keep pests and weeds at bay.These chemicals cause pollution of the soiland water, and may get into the crops orlivestock themselves. Organic farmers donot use artificial pesticides or fertilizers, butenrich the soil with natural fertilizers suchas seaweed and manure. Some people preferfree-range and organic products, believingthem to taste better and be safer to eat.

F A R M I N G

4

AUSTRALIA

EUROPE

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

Arable or plantation crops

Farming areas

Arable and livestock

Livestock

Savanna

Rough grazing

Woodland and forest

Non-productive land



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Cassava rootsprovide a staplefood in the tropics.Tapioca and breadcan also be madefrom the plant.

First, the farmer uses a ploughto turn over the soil (1).The farmer then pulls

a harrow over theland to smooth

it out (2).

A seed-drill plants

the seeds andcovers them over

at the same time (3).The growing crop is

sprayed with chemicals toprotect it from pests (4). Some

farmers consider this to be harmful to theenvironment and do not spray the crop.

A combineharvester is ahuge machinethat combines allthe jobs of turning acereal crop into grain (5).With its wide front wheel itgathers and cuts the stalks. It thenseparates the grain from the stalks. Thegrain is emptied into a trailer.

The stalks are dropped fromthe back of the combineharvester and rolledinto bales of strawby balers (6).

T H E W O R L D ’ S C R O P SThe most important crops are the cereals:wheat, rice, maize, barley, rye and millet.These provide many people with their basicsource of food, their staple diet.

Rice is the main food for millions ofAsians. Rice-fields, known as paddies, mustbe flooded, so in hilly country flat shelvesof land, or terraces, are built so that thefloodwaters do not flow away. The riceseedlings are planted in rows under water,often by hand. After harvesting, the crop isthreshed, to separate out the grain, thenwinnowed, to lose the husks and grit.

Other important staple crops includebeans, peas and lentils. Fruit and vegetablesadd vitamins and carbohydrates to our diet.

Soya beans, groundnuts and palms are alsouseful for the oils in their seeds. A range ofcrops are grown as fodder (livestock feed).They include grasses, some root vegetablesand alfalfa.

F A R M I N G

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ARABLE FARMING

PEOPLE first started to grow cropsabout 12,000 years ago. They discovered

that certain wild plants, which producedseeds that were ground for flour to makebread, could be made to grow in fields.Crop, or arable, farming had begun.

Today, huge swathes of land that wereonce natural grasslands or woodlands areunder cultivation. Finding new land to farmis sometimes so important that tropicalrainforest, desert and swamp are turned intofarmland. Even land under the sea has beenreclaimed to find more room for crops.

In rich countries, farmers use modernmachines and methods to produce bettercrop yields—more grain from a certain sizeof field. In poorer countries, most of thepopulation still work in the fields anddepend on a small number of crops,together with a few animals, for theirlivelihood. They grow only enough food forthemselves. This is known as subsistencefarming.

Groundnuts are astaple food in manytropical countries.They are alsogrown for edible oiland fodder.

Soya beansoriginally camefrom the Far East.Once grown onlyfor fodder, they arealso used for oil.

Coffee comes fromthe hard beanscontained insideberries from smalltrees cultivated intropical countries.

Sugar cane is atype of grass thatproduces sugar.Syrup, alcohol andindustrial fuel canall be made from it.

Rice is the world’smost importantstaple crop. Thiscereal is normallygrown in hot, wetclimates.

Wheat is well-suited to cultivationon the plains ofNorth America,Europe, Russia andCentral Asia.

Also known ascorn, maize wasfirst cultivated inthe Americas. It isgrown in warm, dryregions.

Barley is a hardycereal, suitable forgrowth in colder orwetter areas. It isused for brewingbeer and as fodder.

Millet is one of thechief cerealsgrown in drytropical lands. InNorth America it isgrown as fodder.

Some crops are grown not forfood but for making cloth.Flax and cotton (right) areexamples. Cotton thread ismade from the fibressurrounding the seed insidethe ripening fruit, or bolls, ofthe cotton plant. The bolls arecleaned, untangled, spun intothread and woven into cloth.Cotton can only be grown inhot countries. Usually, thefields are irrigated (water ischannelled from rivers).

F A R M I N G

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Moderncerealfarmers use arange ofmachines forcarrying outdifferent tasksat differenttimes of theyear.

Planting rice in paddies. Threshing

Winnowing

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P O U LT R YPoultry farmers keep chickens, turkeys,geese and other birds for meat and eggs.Chickens are descended from tropical forestbirds found in Southeast Asia. They can bereared by intensive or free-range methods(see page 4). There are about 7000 millionchickens in the world. Good breeds for egg-laying include Leghorns and Minorcas.Dorking and Cornish breeds are good formeat, and Orpingtons and Rhode IslandReds are useful for both. Turkeys, ducks andgeese are mainly reared for their meat.

Geese on a farm (left) inEurope. In parts of France,geese are kept to makethe famous pâté de foiegras (pâté of goose liver).In Eastern Europe, peoplehave small mixed farmswhere they keep pigs,chickens and geese. Theygrow crops in the fields tofeed their animals.

For many years, gauchos(below) were nomadiccattle-herders on thegrassland plains, orpampas, of Argentina,Uruguay and Paraguayin South America. Inrecent times, mostgauchos haveabandoned theirtraditional way of life.

F A R M I N G

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LIVESTOCK FARMING

AT ABOUT the same time as peoplebegan to grow crops, they also

domesticated wild animals for meat, milkand skins or wool. This was the start oflivestock farming.

Cattle are kept for milk and meat. Thereare about 200 million cattle in India alone,with about 1000 million in the rest of theworld. Breeds of cattle can be divided intotwo main groups: the European breeds,which are descended from a now-extinctspecies of long-horned wild cattle called theauroch, and the various breeds of zebu, thehumped cattle of India.

Animals kept for their wool includesheep, goats, rabbits, and vicuñas (a type ofllama). Of these, sheep are the mostcommon on farms worldwide. Australia isone of the world’s biggest wool producers.Of the 1000 million sheep in the world,about 140 million are in Australia where, infact, there are many more sheep thanpeople! Australian farmers keep large herdsof sheep on huge sheep stations. Most ofthe sheep are Merinos, a breed that has soft,thick wool and which can survive on thepoor grass that is characteristic of the drygrasslands of central Australia.

Some livestock farmers keep pigs formeat. On large modern pig farms, theanimals are kept indoors in controlledconditions and fed a mixture which makesthem put on the most weight in theshortest time. About 400 breeds of pig havebeen produced over the centuries but manyof these have now disappeared with thedevelopment of intensive farming methods(see page 4). The main surviving breedsinclude the Berkshire, Chester White,Poland, China, Saddleback, Yorkshire, Duroc,and Razorback. There are about 800 millionpigs in the world, half of them in Asia. Theirmeat is sold as pork (fresh meat), bacon orham (cured or preserved meat).

Different breeds of animalare kept in different parts ofthe world. Zebu are largerand thinner than westerncattle and have a largehump on their shoulders.There are many breeds ofsheep in the world but theMerino is widespreadbecause it has adapted tohot, dry climates. Goats arekept where the land is dryand poor, and they providemeat and skins as well asmilk. Turkeys are native toNorth America but were

brought to Europe inthe 16th century.

F A R M I N G

8

AUSTRALIA

EUROPENORTH AMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

Cattle

Sheep

Pigs

Main areas oflivestock farming

Zebu

Merinosheep

Goat

Pig

Turkey

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A trawl net dragged alongthe sea bed behind atrawler scoops upthousands of fish at atime. Fish that live nearthe surface, such asherring and sardines, arecaught in purse seinenets. The nets are spreadout to catch the fish andthe ends are then pulledtogether to trap theminside. Drift nets aresometimes used to catchmackerel and herring.The net hangs down intothe water and fish aretrapped as they try toswim through.

Today, in many traditional fishing groundsnumbers of fish are declining fast, the resultof overfishing. In the North Atlantic,herring are now almost extinct and thereare far fewer cod and haddock. The use ofhuge factory ships, on which largequantities of fish can be frozen, is severelydepleting supplies for local people indeveloping countries, who rely on fish fortheir livelihood. There is also concern aboutthe destruction of ocean food chains byoverfishing. It is estimated that 20 milliontonnes of fish a year are discarded by fishingboats because they are not the right kind—a practice that needlessly reduces stocks ofother kinds of fish.

T R A D I T I O N A L F I S H I N GIn some parts of the world, fishermen stillgo out in small boats and catch fish withhand-held nets, as they have done forcenturies. These fishermen catch onlyenough fish for their local communities.

A traditional fisherman from Mexico(above) uses “butterfly nets” in hissmall boat. The nets are dipped intothe lake to collect the fish.

The catch is hauled aboard afishing boat (left) off the coastof Newfoundland, Canada.The Grand Banks wereonce rich fishing groundsbut overfishing hasdrastically reducednumbers.

F I S H I N G

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FISHING

PEOPLE have been catching fish fromthe sea, rivers and lakes for thousands of

years. Fishing is still a source of food, and animportant industry for many people livingnear the sea. Japan, China and Russia arethe largest commercial fishing nations. Theworld’s major fishing grounds (see mapbelow) are the areas of relatively shallowwaters that lie above the continental shelf—those parts of the Earth’s landmasses that aresubmerged by ocean waters.

Most sea fish are caught by fishermenworking on trawlers. Trawlers are equippedwith a large net that is trawled (dragged)along the sea bed. Distant-water trawlers,the most numerous type, can stay at sea forseveral months. Many of them have freezersso the fish can be gutted and frozen onboard. Middle-water trawlers go out for twoor three weeks and near-water trawlers foronly a few days at a time.

Trawlers catch demersal fish, those kindsthat live near the sea bed. North Atlantictrawlers catch cod in the cold waters offCanada, Greenland and Scandinavia.Japanese and American fleets catch tuna inthe deep waters of the Pacific Ocean.

Middle-water trawlers catch fish such ashalibut and plaice, while near-water vesselscatch fish that live in the warmer watersclose to shore, such as haddock, plaice, soleand turbot. These boats do not have freezerson board but the fish can be packed in iceto keep them fresh.

Different techniques are used to catchother marine creatures. Lobsters and crabsare caught in small traps called pots. Oystersand scallops are collected with a dredge, atriangular steel frame with a net on it,which is towed along by a fishing boat.

A Dutch trawler in the North Sea. Modern shipsare equipped with radar, lifting gear and on-board freezing plants.

F I S H I N G

10

Whales used to be huntedfor their meat and oil.Harpoons and factory shipswere used. So many speciesbecame endangered thatcommercial whaling of anumber of different specieswas banned by internationalagreement in 1986.

Atlant icOcean

P a c i f i cO c e a n


IndianOcean

AUSTRALIA

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

EUROPE

Major fishing grounds

Drift net

Purse seinenet

Trawl net

1

2

3

4

5 6

7



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I N D U S T R YThe word “industry” describes an activitythat produces the goods or services thatpeople need or want. There are manydifferent kinds of industry, includingmining, farming, fishing, manufacturing andthe provision of services for people to use.

Industries fall into three groups. Primaryindustries are those which extract or growraw materials, such as mining, fishing,farming and forestry. Manufacturingindustries, which turn the raw materialsinto products such as cars, matches, booksand buildings, are known as secondaryindustries. Tertiary industries includetransport, shops, health care, banking,education, leisure and tourism.

One of theoldestmethods ofshaping glassis to blow it.The glass-blower blowsinto a hollowmetal pipewhich has ablob ofmolten glasson the end.The glassblows up likea balloon.Glassblowershave plied their trade sinceancient times.

In many manufacturing industries aroundthe world, for example, cars, plastics andelectrical appliances, machines are usedinstead of people to make goods. Highlyautomated industries, as they are called, areusing more and more specialized equipmentsuch as electronic technology and industrialrobots to increase productivity. This hasbeen partly responsible for increasingunemployment in certain countries. Duringthe last part of the 20th century, Japan andother east Asian countries have developedhighly automated industries, includingelectronics, computers and cars.

Iron is smelted from theore in a blast furnace bymixing it with coke andlimestone. The molteniron is poured into a steelconverter. Oxygen burnsoff impurities, mostlycarbon, to create steel.To make glass, (right)

sand, limestone, sodaash and old glass aremelted in a furnace (1).Molten glass may bepoured into a mould (2).A plunger (3), followedby compressed air, forcesit into the shape of themould (4). In the floatglass process, moltenglass is floated on a bathof molten tin (5), beforebeing cooled (6) and cutinto lengths (7).

I N D U S T R Y

13

MINING ANDINDUSTRY

THE EARTH contains many mineralsthat are vital to us today. Minerals are

non-living substances such as rocks andmetals found naturally in the Earth’s crust.

Some metals, such as gold, can be foundat the surface, but others are buried deep inthe ground and have to be mined. Copperwas one of the first metals to be used bypeople, but it is brittle and breaks if it ishammered too much. Early metalworkersdiscovered that if they hammered copper,then heated it in the fire and thenhammered it again, it was easier to workwith. This was the discovery of a processcalled annealing.

Some metals have to be extracted fromthe rock, or ore, in which they are found.The process used is called smelting. Therock is heated to a high temperature so thatthe metal melts and runs out.

This is an opencast copper mine.Huge excavators cut away the surfacerock and dig up the ore.

Metals found near the surface are minedby the opencast method but those founddeeper down have to be drilled out of theground. First, geologists determine wherethe metals are. They carry out surveys of therock layers beneath the surface, and alsomeasure the magnetism of the rocks andminerals. This is because the magnetic fieldis stronger in rocks that contain metals suchas iron, nickel and cobalt.

I N D U S T R Y

12

AUSTRALIA

EUROPENORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

Industrial area

Copper

Diamonds

Gold

Chromium Lead

Nickel

Silver

Iron ore

Tin

Bauxite

Major mineral deposits

Iron ore

Limestone

Coke

Rawmaterialsenterfurnace

Hotair

Furnace

Wastegases

Slag

Molten ironpoured intosteelconverter

Molteniron Oxygen

blown in

Converter poursmolten steelinto moulds

Ingots ofsteel

Cooled

Limestone

Wasteglass

Sand

Sodaash



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O I L A N D G A SOil is a very important substance. It is usedas a fuel in power stations, cars, ships andaircraft, and is an essential raw material forplastics and chemical industries.

Oil and gas were formed in the seasmillions of years ago. When the tiny plantsand animals that lived in them died theysank to the bottom and were buried underlayers of sand and silt. These were graduallycompressed into layers of sedimentary rock.The heat action of bacteria changed theremains into crude oil and natural gases.

Pressures in the Earth force the oil upthrough the sedimentary rock, which hastiny holes in it like a sponge. The oil risesuntil it comes to a layer of hard rock. If thehard rock has formed a dome over the softrock, the oil is trapped under it. Geologistslooking for oil study the local rockformations and make test drillings. If oil isfound, wells are drilled into the ground.When the drill reaches oil, the pressure maybe enough to send it gushing up to thesurface. If not, it is pumped. The crude oilfrom the well is sent by pipeline or tankerto a refinery where it is separated intodifferent substances by distillation (right).

Oil under the sea bedis mined using aderrick (frameworktower) and drillmounted on an oil rig.

Tiny animals and plants die and settle on thesea bed (1), where they are covered bysediments. The oil and gas that form aretrapped under domes of hard rock (2). A drillsuspended from a derrick releases the oil (3).

The oil is boiled at the bottom of a hugetank called a fractionating tower. Thevapours that are formed float upwards, cooland condense into liquids at differenttemperatures. Trays at different heights inthe tower collect the liquids as they form.These separate parts, or fractions, areformed into different oil products, such aspetrol, kerosene and diesel oil. At the top ofthe tower, gas comes off. The thickest,heaviest products, such as bitumen, used formaking roads, sink to the bottom. They canbe refined again to make lubricating oils.

I N D U S T R Y

15

FOSSIL FUELS

FOSSIL FUELS—coal, oil and gas—wereformed from the remains of living

things that died millions of years ago andare preserved as fossils.

Coal began to form about 350 millionyears ago. At that time parts of the Earth’ssurface were covered with swamps andlakes. Forests of huge trees and giant fernsgrew in the swamps (right). When theseplants died, they rotted down and graduallychanged into a type of dark soil called peat.As the centuries passed the peat was buriedunder layers of sand and mud. Successivelayers pressed down more and more tightlyuntil the peat was compressed into layers ofhard, black, shiny rock—coal. Folding andfaulting of rock layers, the result of Earthmovements over millions of years, togetherwith erosion, have brought some coal layersclose to the surface and within reach ofunderground mines.

Coal was first mined as a fuel on anindustrial scale in the 18th century when itwas used in furnaces to power steamengines and smelt iron. Today it is used inpower stations to produce electricity. Coke,a baked form of coal, is a smokeless fuelused in making iron and steel (see page 13).

Today much of the world’s coal is buried underlayers of rock. It can reached only by undergroundmining (above right). The coal is found in layers calledseams. First, geologists locate the coal by studying rockformations in the Earth’s crust. Then the mining companydrills vertical shafts down to the level of the coal. A networkof tunnels lead from the bottom of the shafts to the coal face.Miners are taken down the shafts in lifts. They mine the coalusing powerful, electric coal-cutting machines. The coal isbrought to the surface in large containers.

I N D U S T R Y

14

Bitumen

Fractionatingtower

Gas

Petrol

Kerosene

Diesel oilLubricants

Furnace

Crudeoil

Industrial oil

Atlant icOcean



IndianOcean

NORTH AMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ASIA

Bituminous coal

Oil

Natural gas

Uranium

Major fuel deposits

1 2 3



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Hydro-electric power stations (seeillustration, below left) use fast-flowing waterto turn turbines. The water from rivers isstored in a reservoir behind a dam. Thepower station is located in front of the dam.Some of the water is allowed to rush outthrough pipes to make turbines spin anddrive the generator.

S U P P LY I N G E L E C T R I C I T YThe electricity is sent from the powerstation along thick wires called cables. Theyare supported above ground by tall pylons.The electric current is boosted bytransformers along the way. The electricitygoes to sub-stations from where cables carryit to houses, factories, shops and offices.

The cables from a power station arelinked to form a country’s supply networkor grid. This allows electricity to be sent towherever it is needed. Electricity cannot bestored, so a constant supply flows throughthe cables and wires.

A LT E R N AT I V E P O W E R Coal and oil-fired power stations causepollution. Fossil fuels, once used up, cannotbe replaced. Leaks of radioactivity fromnuclear power stations is a potential hazard.So alternative methods for generatingelectricity are needed. Wind turbines onwind farms, solar power (in which solarpanels store sunlight for conversion toelectricity), tidal and wave power are allpossibilities for the future.

Many railways arepowered by electricity.The train connects to itfrom overhead cables.

Most homes are connected to mains electricity via anelectricity grid. Electricity runs from power stations alongcables boosted by transformers. When we plug in an electricappliance, it connects to mains electricity.

I N D U S T R Y

17

ELECTRICITY

ELECTRICITY is a type of energy thatgives us heat and light and drives

machines. To be useful, electricity must bemade to flow in a current. In 1831 theBritish scientist Michael Faraday used amagnet to produce electricity. He moved aloop of wire over the magnet, causing anelectric current to flow through the wire.This principle is used to generate electricityin power stations today. In thermal powerstations, coal, oil or gas are burned to boilwater, producing steam to drive a generator.

The steam from the boiling water rushesthrough pipes and turns a bladed wheelcalled a turbine. The turbine is connected tothe generator, which consists of a hugemagnet surrounded by copper wire. Theturbine makes the magnet spin, thusproducing an electric current in the wire.

The water can be heated by other means.The mineral uranium is the fuel used in anuclear power station (above). Everything onEarth is made up of very tiny particlescalled atoms. Splitting the atoms that makeup uranium produces a very intense heat forcreating steam.

Water for hydro-electric power is storedbehind dams like the Hoover Dam on theColorado River in the United States.

In a nuclear power station, energy isproduced by creating a reaction in thenuclei (cores) of uranium atoms. Releasingenergy by splitting atomic nuclei is calledfission. Each nucleus contains particlescalled neutrons. Inside the reactor, these hitother nuclei, causing them to split andrelease more neutrons. This repeatedprocess, called a chain reaction, producesimmense amounts of heat energy. Waterpumped around the reactor is heated.

I N D U S T R Y

16

Nuclear powerstation

Heated waterturns to steamin heatexchanger

Fuel rodsHigh pressurewater system

Water pumped into heat exchanger

Generator

Coolant turns steamback to water

Steam spinsturbine

Dam

Water inreservoir

Hydro-electricpowerstation

Generator

Water spinsturbine

Power station

Transformer

Pylons

Transformers

Sub-station

Concrete



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Security officers use X-ray equipment tocheck passengers for bombs, guns and otherweapons. International passengers also haveto pass through immigration where theyshow their passports and any visas that arerequired to enter the country. Officials oftenstamp the passport to show that passengersare entering the country legally. Airportsalso have lounges and restaurants wherepassengers can wait for their flights.

KEY1 Radar2 Airliner landing3 Airliner taking off4 Runway5 Control tower6 Gangway7 Waiting area8 Moving walkway9 Gate to gangway10 Security X-ray

11 Escalators12 Check-in desks13 Terminal building14 Fuel tanker15 Baggage loading16 Fire engine17 Airport bus18 Baggage trolley19 Jumbo Jet (Boeing 747)20 Mobile stairway

T R A N S P O R T

19

AIR TRAVEL

AIR TRAVEL has grown enormouslysince World War II. Until then, only the

wealthy travelled by air. The development ofthe jet airliner in the 1950s made it possiblefor everyone to fly to destinations across theworld. As the map (above) shows, air routesnow link all major cities.

The world’s busiest airport is AtlantaHartsfield Jackson near Atlanta in theUnited States, with an average of one take-off or landing every 33 seconds and nearly77 million passengers a year. Many of theseflights are for people travelling within theUnited States—about 85 per cent of peopletravelling within the United States go byair. London’s Heathrow Airport handlesmore international traffic than any otherairport with more than 62 millioninternational passengers a year.

A large modern airport employsthousands of people. Air traffic controllerswork in a control tower, directing all aircraftto and from runways and deciding when itis safe to take off or land. They havepowerful radar equipment to keep watchover the whole airspace around the airport.

Baggage handlers load and unloadsuitcases from the aircraft. Once passengershave disembarked, ground crew prepare theaircraft to fly out again, and refuel it whilefirefighters stand by.

In the terminal, the passengers collecttheir baggage and go through customs,where officials check that they are notcarrying drugs or goods which requireimport or export tax to be paid.

Airports also handle goods (air freight)that are required to be transported quickly.Warehouses store goods before loading andafter arrival, when they are inspected bycustoms officials.

T R A N S P O R T

18

Major air routes



150# DTP:39 PAGE:21

The Panama Canal cutsthrough a narrow neck ofland called the Isthmus ofPanama in CentralAmerica. Before it wasbuilt, ships had tonegotiate the stormy seasaround the southern tip ofSouth America to get fromthe Atlantic to the PacificOcean. Opened in 1914,the Panama Canal is stillone of the most importantof the world’s waterways.Small locomotives guideocean-going ships throughthe locks in the canal.Canals for shipping areknown as navigationalcanals.

Modern cargo ships are much larger thanvessels of the past, and big, efficient portswith docks (enclosed areas of water) areneeded so that their cargoes can be loadedand unloaded as quickly as possible. Someships take cargoes inland along large riversand man-made waterways called canals.

Two major canals, cut through narrownecks of land, provide much shorter routesbetween ports. They are the 165-kilometreSuez Canal in Egypt, linking theMediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, andthe 82-kilometre Panama Canal, connectingthe Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Canals often link natural waterways andprovide a transport route across a continent.The Main-Danube Canal, for example,allows the movement of goods betweenEastern and Western Europe. The United

Rotterdam handles manygoods being imported andexported to and fromWestern Europe (about 300million tonnes annually). Itis also a centre for refiningoil (see page 15).Rotterdam’s docks stretchalong the 35-kilometre NewWaterway canal linking itto the North Sea. Shippingtraffic passing through theEnglish Channel and theNorth Sea is among thebusiest in the world.

States and Canada have more than 41,000kilometres of waterways linked to the St.Lawrence and Mississippi rivers and theirtributaries. The St. Lawrence Seawayconnects the Great Lakes, and the cities ofChicago, Detroit, Cleveland and Torontoamong others, with the Atlantic Ocean.

Cargo on inland waterways in industrialcountries, for example, the River Rhine inGermany, is usually carried by barges whichare towed by tugs. Sometimes several bargesare strapped together. Barges carry cargoesalong the Rhine to and from the port ofRotterdam in the Netherlands, the world’sbusiest port. Antwerp in Belgium is thelargest inland port in the world. Eventhough it is 89 kilometres from the opensea, ships of all types load and unloadcargoes there.

T R A N S P O R T

21

PORTS ANDWATERWAYS

EVEN THOUGH aircraft now carrymany of the world’s passengers, shipping

is still a vital link between countries,particularly for carrying cargo. The biggestvessels are called bulk carriers. They includeoil supertankers, some of which are morethan 450 metres long. Container ships carrygeneral cargo stored in large steel boxesstacked up like building blocks. These canbe unloaded directly on to trucks.

The River Rhine (above) rises in Switzerland and runs alongthe border between France and Germany, then on throughGermany and the Netherlands, meeting the North Sea nearRotterdam. It is one of Europe’s most important industrialwaterways. As well as barges carrying cargo, river boats taketourists along the river to see the vineyards and ancientcastles on its banks.

Ships cross the oceans on fixed routes called shipping lanes(below). The world’s busiest shipping lanes link Europe andNorth America with the Middle East and East Asia. Ships gothrough the Suez and Panama Canals to shorten theirjourneys, although supertankers, being too large for the SuezCanal, still travel around the southern tip of Africa.

An icebreaker breaks up ocean pack iceso that other ships can sail through.

T R A N S P O R T

20

PanamaCanal

SuezCanal

Major shipping lanes

Atlant icOcean



IndianOcean



150# DTP:39 PAGE:23

T A L L S T R U C T U R E SThe Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt wasthe world’s tallest structure for nearly 4000years, until the great age of cathedralbuilding began in medieval Europe. LincolnCathedral in England, which was built in1311, had a great spire that made it slightlytaller than the pyramid, although it wasblown down in a storm in 1549. TheWashington Monument in Washington,USA, became the world’s tallest structure in1884, before the Eiffel Tower in Paris,France, almost doubled the record five yearslater. The skyscrapers of the 20th centuryclaimed the honour until the CN Towerwas built in Toronto in 1976. A skyscraperin Dubai holds the record today.

RECORD-HOLDERS IN HISTORY1 c.2580 BC The Great Pyramid 147 m2 1311 Lincoln Cathedral 160 m3 1884 Washington Monument 169 m4 1889 Eiffel Tower 301 m5 1930 Chrysler Building, New York

318 m6 1930 Empire State Building, New York

381 m7 1973 World Trade Center, New York

417 m8 1973 Sears Tower, Chicago 443 m9 1976 CN Tower, Toronto 553 m

Burj Dubai, UAE (808 m), will becomethe world’s tallest self-supportingstructure on completion in 2009.

23

BUILDINGS

PEOPLE have constructed buildingsfrom ancient times as homes to provide

shelter, monuments or places of worship.Earth, wood and stone have always beenused as building materials. Bricks, hardenedclay, were first used in the Middle East inabout 3000 BC. Concrete is made bymixing sand, cement and water. Reinforcedconcrete dates from the late 1800s. Oftenused in modern buildings, it contains steelwires or rods to provide extra strength.

Old buildings are demolished, the rubble is takenaway and the ground is flattened ready for the newbuilding.

Buildings belong to one of two types.The first type has solid walls, called load-bearing walls, that support the floors androof of the building. The second type has aframework of wood, steel or concrete thatbears the weight of the building

Most buildings need foundations (a solidbase) to prevent them from sinking into theground or falling over. Foundations can befootings (underground walls), flat rafts, orunderground supporting pillars called pilesthat are driven into the ground.

Skyscrapers are usually supported on caissons, a type of pilein which a steel tube is driven into the ground and filled withconcrete. When the caissons are in place, the thick concretebasement walls are built. The frame of the skyscraper is builtup from this base. Tower cranes hoist steel girders intoposition and concrete lift shafts are put in place. As the frameis completed, glass and metal panels, known as curtain walls,are fixed to the outside of the building.

A pile-driver (above) is a hugemechanical hammer that forces aseries of long metal piles deepinto the ground.

S T R U C T U R E S

22

12

3

45

6

7

8

9

11

32

5

4

6

9

7

8

10

B

A

C

E

D

11

14

12

16 17

15

13



150# DTP:39 PAGE:25

Burj Dubai, UAE, to be completed in 2009, will

have a projected height of 808 m

Living or working in a skyscraper would not be feasible

without an efficient lift system. The lifts in the John

Hancock Center are winched up and down on a steel

cable pulley by an electric motor (A). The motor is

worked by computerized control gear. Guide rails (B) on

either side of the shaft prevent the lift (C) from swaying.

If the steel cable were to snap, automatic safety brakes

would grip the guide rails to prevent the lift from falling.

The

Joh

n H

anco

ck C

ente

r is

like

a ci

tyin

a tow

er. I

t ha

s sh

ops,

a ba

nk, a

pos

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fice,

a re

stau

rant

, a sw

imm

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pool

and

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sce

ntre

. The

re a

re 5

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h flo

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pute

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lt in

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skys

crap

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serv

ice

system

s.

KEY 1 Antennae

2 Air conditioning

3 Water tanks

4 Restaurant

5 Observatory

6 Apartments

7 Swimming pool

8 Emergency staircase

9 Lifts

10 Offices

11 Car parking

12 Exhibition area

13 Lifts

14 Lobbies and shops

15 Steel fram

e holding

caissons together

16 Lift buffers

17Caissons

SK

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Nor

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.T

he Joh

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Chi

cago

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SA, w

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A core of reinforced concrete runs up the middle of the

skyscraper. It forms the lift shaft (A) of the building and

provides a duct for air conditioning and other services (B).

Concrete beams link the core to the outside wall and support

the floors (C). The weight of the building is taken by the steel

frame (D), strengthened by massive X-shaped girders (E).

Burj Dubai, United

Arab Emirates

S T R U C T U R E S S T R U C T U R E S

24 25

THE WORLD’S TALLEST

BUILDINGS

1 Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan

508 m

2 Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia 452 m

3 Sears Tower, Chicago,

USA 443 m

4 Jin Mao Building,

Shanghai 421 m

5 Two International Finance

Centre, HK 414 m

6 CITIC Plza, Guangzhou,

China 391 m

7 Shun Hing Square,

Shenzhen, China 384 m

8 Empire State Building,

New York, USA 381 m

A

B

C

9 Central Plaza,

Hong Kong, China

368 m

10 Bank of China,

Hong Kong 369 m



150# DTP:39 PAGE:27

This can be raised in themiddle like a drawbridge sothat ships can pass through.

A cantilever is a beam orstructure that is fixed at oneend only. Cantilever bridgesare built in two halves, witheach beam cantilevered outfrom the bank and each half balanced on asupport in the river. There may be a shortcentral span where the two halves meet.

Suspension bridges can span longdistances. The towers of the bridge are builtfirst and long steel cables are suspendedfrom the towers. Lengths of cable calledhangers are fixed to the suspending cables.The deck of the bridge is lifted intoposition and attached to the hangers.

The longest bridge carrying aroad and a railway is theSeto-Ohashi Bridge in Japan.The bridge is nearly 13kilometres long andcrosses five islands and10 kilometres of theSeto Inland Sea. Of itssix spans, three aresuspension, two arecable-stayed andone is a trussgirder beam.

Suspension bridges are ideal for long, highspans as they do not require a row ofsupporting columns that may interfere withriver transport. One of the most famousexamples of a suspension bridge is theGolden Gate Bridge (1280 metres), nearSan Francisco in the USA, which wascompleted in 1937.

A cable-stayed bridge has diagonal steelcables running from high

supporting masts at eitherend connected to the

deck of the bridge.The weight of thedeck is supportedby the masts.

S T R U C T U R E S

27

BRIDGES

BRIDGES have been used since ancienttimes to span deep ravines, rivers and

other stretches of water. Early bridges weremade of wood which rotted easily andcould not span great distances. In someparts of the world, people made bridgesfrom wood and rope. They had walkwaysmade of wooden slats and rope handrails.Bridges made of stone may last forcenturies. However, stone is heavy totransport and long bridges need to havemany sturdy supports.

During the Industrial Revolution, whichbegan in the 18th century, engineers beganto build bridges made from iron. Thesewere much more durable than woodenbridges and could span longer distancesthan stone ones. The first iron bridge wasbuilt at Coalbrookdale, England, in 1779.

Modern bridges are built using steel andconcrete. They may carry roads or railwaysover rivers, wide estuaries or high valleys, orabove other roads and railways. There are anumber of different kinds of bridge designavailable, each of which may be used in amodern bridge according to the type ofcrossing required.

Beam bridges aresupported oncolumns. Archesmake strongersupports. In acantilever bridge,each section isbalanced on a centralsupport. Suspensionbridges hang fromsteel cables strungbetween towers. Acable-stayed bridgeis held up by sets ofcables.

A rope bridge across a deep ravine in theAndes mountains in South America.

A beam bridge is one of the simplest andoldest designs. The beam is supported ateach end. The earliest bridges were treetrunks or stone slabs laid across a streamsupported by the banks on either side. Aclapper bridge is a type of beam bridgewhich is supported from beneath by severalcolumns in the river bed or ground. Thedeck may be flat or made from a hollowgirder (truss) containing the road or railway.

An arch bridge—a very strong type—hasa deck supported on an arch fixed to thebanks. Some arch bridges are too low forriver traffic to pass underneath so a part oftheir span may be a bascule or lift bridge.

S T R U C T U R E S

26

MinamiBisan-setoBridge

Kita Bisan-setoBridge

Yoshima Viaduct

Yoshima Bridge

Iwakurojima Bridge

Hitsuishijima Bridge

HitsuishijimaViaduct

Shimotsui-setoBridge

Cross-section of Seto-Ohashi bridge

JAPAN

Beam bridge

Arch bridge

Cantileverbridge

Suspensionbridge

Cable-stayedbridge



150# DTP:39 PAGE:29

South America has some of the fastest-growing cities in the world. They includethe Brazilian supercities of São Paulo andRio de Janeiro, both with populations ofmore than 10 million. People from thecountryside flock to these cities to findwork but there is nowhere for them to live.They build their own shantytowns (locallyknown as favelas) just outside the city bybuilding shelters and shacks from anymaterial that comes to hand (right). Peoplewho live in shantytowns cannot find workeasily and so they are forced to work forvery low wages.

The wealth of a nation can be measuredby its gross domestic product (GDP). This isdefined as the value of all the goods andservices produced there, including thoseproduced by foreign-owned firms. TheGroup of Eight (G8) are the eight leadingindustrial nations of the world. Thesenations—the United States, Japan, Germany,France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Canadaand Russia—account for more than 65% ofthe world’s GDP. The country with thehighest GDP per person in 2007 was Qatar($80,900). In the same year, the figure forRwanda in Africa was $900. More than 1.3billion people around the world live on lessthan one dollar a day.

Wealthy nations such as the G8 lendmoney to developing countries. However,the developing countries often find that,because of their low GDP, they cannotrepay the loans and a big debt burden buildsup. The largest foreign aid donor in 2007was the United States with aid amountingto more than $21.8 billion.


29

WEALTH ANDPOVERTY

SOME NATIONS in the world are rich,while others are very poor. The gap

between them seems to grow ever wider.Measured by the average income earned bypeople in the richest and poorest fifth ofthe world’s nations, the gap has grown from30 to 1 in 1960 to nearly 80 to 1 today.Within both rich and poor countries, thereare also great contrasts in wealth.

The wealthiest countries are those thathave developed industries and serviceswhich can supply their own populationswith all their needs. They do this either byproducing these products and servicesthemselves, or by importing them fromother countries, paying for them byexporting goods. In poorer developingcountries, people may produce only enoughfood to feed their families. Disease andclimatic disaster may prevent even this.

The population of developing nations has grown greatly in recent years. Theirhigh birth rates means even moremouths to feed.

People ride on the roof of a train in India. Annualincome per person averages $1600 in India.


28

Infant mortality is an accurate measure of a country’sdevelopment.The highest number of deaths occur in Africaand South Asia, where health care provision is poorest.

CHINASOUTHKOREA

N KOREA

IRELAND

SPAIN

GERMANY

ITALY

FRANCE

PORTUGAL

SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA

BELGIUM

NETH

ERLA

NDS POLAND

UKRAINE

BELARUS

RUSSIA

ROMANIA

GREECE

INDONESIA

MALAYSIA

PNG

TURKEY

CYPRUS

SINGAPORE PHILIPPINES

HUNGARY

INDIA

SAUD

I ARA

BIA

IRANTHAILAND

OMAN

ISRAELSRI

LANKA

UAE

KUWAIT

USA

CANADA

MEXICO

GUATEMALADOM. REP.

CUBA

NORWAY

SWEDEN

FINLAND

UK

ICELAND

DENMARK

VENEZUELA

BRAZIL

ECUADOR

COLOMBIA

PERU

CHILEURUGUAY

ARGENTINA MOROCCO

SOUTHAFRICA

ALGERIATUNISIA

KENYA AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND

JAPAN

EGYPT

TRINIDAD & TOBAGO

This map shows the grossdomestic product (GDP) ofcountries in the world. Thesize of each country isproportional to the size ofits GDP. North America,Japan and Western Europeare the largest by thismeasure.

One square millimetre ( ) represents 5400 million US $

AUSTRALIA

EUROPE

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

150100502010

Number of deaths of babies underthe age of one per 1000 births

2

1

3

4

6

8

5

7



150# DTP:39 PAGE:31

Air pollution is caused by fumes andsmoke from vehicles, factory chimneys andpower stations (below). Poisonous gases, suchas sulphur dioxide, mix with rain and mistto produce acids. When the acid rain falls, itkills plants over a wide area. Burning fuelsalso causes a build-up of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide and CFCs are bothgreenhouse gases. In the right amounts,greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trapheat from the Sun so the Earth is not toohot or too cold. But if the greenhouse gasesbuild up, too much heat is trapped and theEarth becomes warmer. This change inclimate, known as global warming, couldhave disastrous effects. The ice in the polarregions may melt, causing severe flooding tolow-lying areas. Changes in the climaticpattern worldwide could lead to violentstorms and long droughts.

The waters of the Aral Sea in Russia areused to irrigate land for cotton cultivation.The lake has now partially dried up.


ENVIRONMENTALTHREATS

PEOPLE have made many changes tothe world they live in and some of these

have had harmful consequences. As theworld population increases, there is moreneed for bigger cities, new towns andfarming land. Land has to be cleared,destroying the habitats of many animals andplants. Some of these are now extinct andothers are in danger of becoming so.Hunting has also put animals in danger.

There is now nearly three times as muchdesert in the world as there was 100 yearsago. This is partly due to farmers over-grazing their animals on the meagre grassand shrubs and to the clearance of wood-land trees for firewood.

Industrialization is a major threat to theenvironment. Pollution is just one example.Factories discharge harmful chemicals intorivers and seas, killing fish and plants. The production of chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) is reckoned to be responsible fordamaging the ozone layer, the protectivelayer in the Earth’s atmosphere that preventsharmful rays from the Sun reaching thesurface. CFCs are synthetic chemicals usedin aerosol sprays and refrigerators. Whenthey are released into the atmosphere, theydestroy the ozone. There is now a hole inthe ozone layer above Antarctica.

This map shows how theenvironment is underthreat. Huge areasof rainforest havebeen cleared.Many coastalwaters havebeenpolluted,and thedesertspreadsyearly.

Clearing the rainforests destroys thehabitats of many plants and animals. Itmay also contribute to global warming bydestroying the trees that remove carbondioxide from the air.


30

KEY1 Aircraft exhaust gases2 Industrial pollution3 Forest clearance4 Nuclear power station5 Coal power station6 Landfill site7 Vehicle emissions8 Methane from cows

Sea pollution

Moderate

Severe

Former rainforest

Rainforest

Desert

Moderate risk of desertification

High risk of desertification

AUSTRALIA

At lant icOcean



IndianOcean

EUROPENORTH

AMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

31

JOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:OUR WORLD & ITS PEOPLE150# DTP:39 PAGE:32

Aacid rain 31agriculture 4air freight 18air traffic controllers 18air travel 18-19airports 18-19Amazon rainforest 5Amoco Building 25animals, endangered 30arable farming 4, 6-7

Bbarges 20barley 7blast furnace 13bridges 26-27buildings 22-23, 24-25Burj Dubai 23, 25

CC. & S. Plaza 25cable-stayed bridges

26-27canals 21carbon dioxide 31cargo ships 21cassava roots 6cattle farming 8Central Plaza 25cereal farmers 7cereals 7chickens 9chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) 30-31Chrysler Building 23cities 29CN Tower 23coal 14, 16-17Coalbrookdale 26coffee 4, 6coke 14combine harvester 6concrete 22container ships 48copper 12corn 7cotton 6crops 4, 6-7cultivation 6

Ddams 17debts 29desert 30developing countries

28-29

Industrial Revolution 26industrialization 30industries, automated 13industry 10, 12-13irrigation 6, 31

J K Ljet airliners 18John Hancock Center

24-25kerosene 15lifts 25Lincoln Cathedral 23livestock farming 4, 8-9

MMain-Danube Canal 21maize 7manufacturing 13Merino sheep 8metals 12metalworkers 12millet 7minerals 12mines 14mining 12-13, 14-15

NNew Waterway Canal 21nomads 5nuclear,

fission 16power stations 16-17reactor 16

Ooil 14-15, 16-17ore 12organic farming 4ozone layer 30

P Q Rpaddies 7pampas 9Panama Canal 20-21peat 14pesticides 4pests 7petrol 15Petronas Twin Towers 25pig farming 8pile-driver 22plough 7pollution 17, 30-31population 30ports 20-21poultry farming 9poverty 28-29power stations 14, 16-17productivity 13radar 10, 18radioactivity 17

diesel oil 15distillation 15domesticated animals 8dredge 10drift nets 11

EEiffel Tower 23electricity 14, 16-17Empire State Building 23,

25environment, threats to

the 30-31exports 28

FFaraday, Michael 16farming 4-5, 6-9, 13favelas 29fertilizers 4fishing 10-11, 13flax 6float glass process 13fodder 6-7foreign aid 29forestry 13fossil fuels 14-15, 17fractionating tower 15free-range farming 4, 9fuel 14-15, 31

Ggas 14-15, 16gauchos 9generator 16-17geologists 12, 14, 15glass 13glassblowing 13glassmaking 13global warming 30-31Golden Gate Bridge 27Great Pyramid 23greenhouse gases 31gross domestic product

(GDP) 29groundnuts 6Group of Eight (G8) 29

Hhabitats 30harrow 7Home Insurance Building

24Hoover Dam 16hydro-electric power

16-17

Iicebreaker 20immigration 19imports 28income 28India 28

rainforests 30Rhine, River 20-21rice 7

SSt. Lawrence Seaway 21Sears Tower 23, 25sedimentary rock 15seed-drill 7Seto-Ohashi bridge 27shantytowns 29sheep farming 8shepherds 5shifting cultivation 5shipping 20-21shipping lanes 20ships 20-21skyscrapers 22, 24-25slash-and-burn 5, 30smelting 12smokeless fuel 14solar power 17soya beans 6steel 13steel converter 13structure, tallest 23subsistence farming 6Suez Canal 20-21sugar cane 6sulphur dioxide 31supercities 29supertankers 20

T Uthermal power stations

16-17tidal power 17trawlers 10turbines 16-17uranium 16

WWashington Monument

23waterways 20-21wave power 17wealth 28-29whales 11whaling 11wheat 7wind turbines 17

I N D E X

32

INDEXPage numbers in bold

refer to main entries.

children s illustrated encyclopedia the world economy · 2017-10-24 · ﬁrst cultivated in the...

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