chin and fehrenbach - after the nazi racial state (introduction)
DESCRIPTION
cTRANSCRIPT
Aft
er t
he
Nazi
Raci
al
Sta
te
Dif
fere
nce
an
d D
emo
cracy
in
Ger
man
y a
nd
Eu
rop
e
Rit
a C
hin
, H
eid
e F
ehre
nb
ach
, G
eoff
Ele
y,
an
d A
tin
a G
ross
ma
nn
Th
e U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
ich
igan
Pre
ss
An
n A
rbo
r
Co
pyri
gh
t ©
by t
he
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an
2009
All
rig
hts
res
erved
Pu
bli
shed
in
th
e U
nit
ed S
tate
s o
fA
mer
ica b
y
Th
e U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
ich
igan
Pre
ss
Man
ufa
ctu
red
in
th
e U
nit
ed S
tate
s o
fA
mer
ica
cP
rin
ted
on
aci
d-f
ree
pap
er
2012
2011
2010
2009
43
2
1
No
part
of
this
pu
bli
cati
on
may
be
rep
rod
uce
d,
sto
red
in a
ret
riev
al
syst
em,
or
tran
smit
ted
in
an
y f
orm
or
by a
ny m
ean
s, e
lect
ron
ic,
mec
han
ical,
or
oth
erw
ise,
wit
ho
ut
the
wri
tten
per
mis
sio
n o
fth
e p
ub
lish
er.
A C
IP c
ata
log r
ecord
for
this
book
is
ava
ilable
fro
m t
he
Bri
tish
Lib
rary
.
Lib
rary
of
Co
ngre
ss C
ata
login
g-i
n-P
ub
lica
tio
n D
ata
Aft
er t
he
Nazi
raci
al
state
: d
iffe
ren
ce a
nd
dem
ocr
acy
in
Ger
man
y a
nd
Eu
rop
e /
by R
ita C
hin
...
[et
al.
].
p.
cm.
— (S
oci
al
his
tory
, p
op
ula
r cu
ltu
re,
an
d p
oli
tics
in
Ger
man
y)
Incl
ud
es b
ibli
ogra
ph
ical
refe
ren
ces
an
d i
nd
ex.
ISB
N-1
3:
978-0
-472-1
1686-7
(cl
oth
: a
lk.
pap
er)
ISB
N-1
0:
0-4
72-1
1686-X
(cl
oth
: a
lk.
pap
er)
ISB
N-1
3:
978-0
-472-0
3344-7
(p
bk
. :
alk
. p
ap
er)
ISB
N-1
0:
0-4
72-0
3344-1
(p
bk
. :
alk
. p
ap
er)
1. R
aci
sm—
Ger
man
y—
His
tory
—20th
cen
tury
.2.
Ger
man
y—
Race
rela
tio
ns—
His
tory
—20th
cen
tury
.3.
Eu
rop
e—R
ace
rel
ati
on
s—
His
tory
—20th
cen
tury
.4.
Ali
en l
abo
r—G
erm
an
y—
His
tory
—20th
cen
tury
.I.
Ch
in,
Rit
a C
-K,
1970–
DD
74.A
38
2009
305.8
00943—
dc2
2
2
008047855
ISB
N-1
3 9
78-0
-472
-025
78-7
(el
ectr
on
ic)
Co
nte
nts
Intr
od
uct
ion
: W
hat’
s R
ace
Go
t to
Do
Wit
h I
t? P
ost
war
Ger
man
His
tory
in
Co
nte
xt
1
Rit
a C
hin
and H
eide
Feh
renbach
ch
apt
er
1
Bla
ck O
ccu
pati
on
Ch
ild
ren
an
d t
he
Dev
olu
tio
n o
fth
e
Nazi
Raci
al
Sta
te30
Hei
de
Feh
renbach
ch
apt
er
2
Fro
m V
icti
ms
to “
Ho
mel
ess
Fo
reig
ner
s”:
Jew
ish
Su
rviv
ors
in P
ost
war
Ger
man
y55
Ati
na G
ross
mann
ch
apt
er
3
Gu
est
Wo
rker
Mig
rati
on
an
d t
he
Un
exp
ecte
d R
etu
rn o
fR
ace
80
Rit
a C
hin
ch
apt
er
4
Ger
man
Dem
ocr
acy
an
d t
he
Qu
esti
on
of
Dif
fere
nce
, 19
45–19
95
102
Rit
a C
hin
and H
eide
Feh
renbach
ch
apt
er
5
Th
e T
rou
ble
wit
h “
Race
”:
Mig
ran
cy,
Cu
ltu
ral
Dif
fere
nce
,
an
d t
he
Rem
ak
ing o
fE
uro
pe
137
Geo
ffE
ley
Note
s18
3
Sel
ect
Bib
liogra
phy
243
Index
253
Intr
od
uct
ion
Wh
at’
s R
ace
Go
t to
Do
Wit
h I
t?
Po
stw
ar
Ger
man
His
tory
in
Co
nte
xt
Rit
a C
hin
and
Hei
de F
ehre
nbac
h
In J
un
e 2006, ju
st p
rio
r to
th
e st
art
of
the
Wo
rld
Cu
p in
Ger
man
y, t
he
New
Yor
k T
imes
ran
a f
ron
t-p
age
sto
ry o
n a
“su
rge
in r
aci
st m
oo
d”
am
on
g
Ger
man
s att
end
ing s
occ
er e
ven
ts a
nd
an
xio
us
of‹
cials
’ef
fort
s to
dis
cou
r-
age
pu
bli
c d
isp
lays
of
raci
sm b
efo
re a
glo
bal
au
die
nce
. T
he
art
icle
led
wit
h
the
rece
nt
exp
erie
nce
of
Nig
eria
n f
orw
ard
Ad
ebo
wale
Ogu
ngb
ure
, w
ho
, af-
ter
pla
yin
g a
matc
h i
n t
he
east
ern
Ger
man
cit
y o
fH
all
e, w
as
“sp
at
up
on
,
jeer
ed w
ith
raci
al
rem
ark
s, a
nd
mo
cked
wit
h m
on
key
no
ises
”as
he
trie
d t
o
exit
th
e ‹
eld
. “In
reb
uk
e, h
e p
lace
d t
wo
‹n
ger
s u
nd
er h
is n
ose
to
sim
ula
te a
Hit
ler
mu
stach
e an
d t
hru
st h
is a
rm i
n a
Nazi
salu
te.”
1
Alt
ho
ugh
th
e p
ress
rep
ort
su
gges
ted
th
e co
ntr
ary
, th
e ra
cist
beh
avio
r
dir
ecte
d a
t O
gu
ngb
ure
was
hard
ly r
esu
rgen
t o
r u
niq
ue.
Sp
itti
ng,
slu
rs,
an
d
off
ensi
ve
ster
eoty
pes
hav
e a l
on
g t
rad
itio
n i
n t
he
Ger
man
—an
d b
road
er
Eu
ro-A
mer
ican
—ra
cist
rep
erto
ire.
Ogu
ngb
ure
’s w
ord
less
ges
ture
, m
ore
-
over
, gav
e th
e li
e to
raci
sm a
s a w
orr
iso
me
pro
du
ct o
fth
e N
ew E
uro
pe
or
even
th
e n
ew G
erm
an
y. R
ath
er,
his
mim
icry
ef‹
cien
tly s
ugges
ted
co
nti
nu
-
ity w
ith
a l
on
ger
leg
acy
of
raci
st b
ruta
lity
rea
chin
g b
ack
to
th
e T
hir
d
Rei
ch.
In e
ffec
t, h
is r
esp
on
se t
o t
he
an
tib
lack
big
otr
y o
fG
erm
an
so
ccer
fan
s w
as
acc
usa
tory
an
d g
enea
logic
all
y p
reci
se: it
scr
eam
ed “
Nazi
!”an
d la-
bel
ed t
hei
r act
ion
s re
cid
ivis
t h
old
over
s fr
om
a f
an
ati
cal
fasc
ist
past
. Ir
on
i-
call
y, s
ince
his
Hit
ler
mu
stach
e w
as
acc
om
pan
ied
by t
he
rais
ed a
rm o
fa
Nazi
salu
te—
a g
estu
re b
an
ned
in
Ger
man
y—
Ogu
ngb
ure
was
bri
e›y in
ves
-
tigate
d b
y G
erm
an
au
tho
riti
es.
His
to
rmen
ters
, it
ap
pea
rs,
mel
ted
in
to t
he
cro
wd
an
d e
vad
ed l
egal
act
ion
.
Th
e in
cid
ent
on
th
is G
erm
an
pla
yin
g ‹
eld
, o
fco
urs
e, w
as
far
fro
m
un
iqu
e. D
ista
stef
ul
tau
nti
ng a
nd
ou
trig
ht
raci
st i
nsu
lts
are
part
an
d p
arc
el
of
socc
er c
ult
ure
in
Eu
rop
e. T
he
pro
ble
m h
as
bee
n a
ckn
ow
led
ged
in
th
e
spo
rt s
ince
at
least
1993,
wh
en G
reat
Bri
tain
est
abli
shed
“K
ick
It
Ou
t,”
an
org
an
izati
on
to
‹gh
t ra
cism
in
fo
otb
all
th
rou
gh
ou
t th
e co
un
try.
In
1999,
Fo
otb
all
Again
st R
aci
sm i
n E
uro
pe
was
fou
nd
ed a
s a E
uro
pea
n f
oru
m t
o
com
bat
raci
sm i
n a
ll a
spec
ts o
fth
e sp
ort
. B
ut
the
imp
end
ing W
orl
d C
up
gen
erate
d m
ore
att
enti
on
th
an
usu
al
to “
frie
nd
ly”
matc
hes
lea
din
g u
p t
o
the
tou
rnam
ent
an
d e
xp
ose
d t
he
rou
tin
e an
d c
on
tin
uin
g a
bu
se h
eap
ed o
n
bla
ck p
layer
s in
pro
sta
diu
ms
acr
oss
th
e C
on
tin
ent.
Th
ese
even
ts p
rom
pte
d
Th
ierr
y H
enry
, at
the
tim
e a p
rofe
ssio
nal
pla
yer
fo
r th
e L
on
do
n c
lub
Ars
e-
nal
an
d k
ey m
emb
er o
fth
e F
ren
ch n
ati
on
al
team
, to
in
itia
te a
hig
hly
pu
b-
lici
zed
cam
paig
n u
rgin
g f
an
s to
rej
ect
raci
sm i
n f
oo
tball
wit
h t
he
hel
p o
f
his
co
rpo
rate
sp
on
sor
Nik
e. F
IFA
(F
édér
atio
n I
nte
rnat
ion
ale
de
Fo
otb
all)
reco
gniz
ed t
he
issu
e as
urg
ent
eno
ugh
to
mak
e “N
o t
o r
acis
m”
an o
f‹ci
alsl
ogan
of
the
2006
Wo
rld
Cu
p. G
iven
the
pu
blic
han
d-w
rin
gin
g by
Ger
man
po
litic
ian
s an
d F
IFA
of‹
cial
s, G
erm
any’
s ab
ility
to
avo
id m
ajo
r in
cid
ents
of
ou
trig
ht r
acis
m d
uri
ng
the
mo
nth
lon
g ev
ent w
as a
cau
se fo
r ce
leb
rati
on
.T
he
ach
ieve
men
t se
rved
to
co
n‹
rm t
hat
th
e n
atio
n h
ad i
nd
eed
ove
rco
me
its
pre
vio
us
raci
st t
end
enci
es.
Iro
nic
ally
, th
is s
elf-
con
grat
ula
tory
po
stu
reca
me
at a
mo
men
t w
hen
Isl
amic
xen
op
ho
bia
an
d, t
o a
less
er d
egre
e, a
nti
-se
mit
ism
hav
e ga
ined
incr
easi
ng
curr
ency
in E
uro
pe.
Ack
now
led
gin
g th
e p
reva
len
ce o
fra
cism
in E
uro
pea
n s
occ
er a
nd
th
em
ore
rec
ent
emer
gen
ce o
fa
raci
aliz
ed d
isco
urs
e ar
ou
nd
Mu
slim
im
mi-
gran
ts o
n t
he
Co
nti
nen
t as
a w
ho
le, w
e w
ou
ld a
lso
like
to
su
gges
t th
at t
he
Ogu
ngb
ure
inci
den
t an
d it
s af
term
ath
are
par
ticu
larl
y em
blem
atic
for
Ger
-m
any
in t
he
way
s th
ey i
nvo
ke a
nd
tra
nsg
ress
po
stw
ar t
abo
os
surr
ou
nd
ing
“rac
e”an
d t
he
term
’s a
sso
ciat
ion
wit
h t
he
Th
ird
Rei
ch.
Ifth
e “s
urg
e”o
fra
cist
beh
avio
r in
pu
blic
was
po
rtra
yed
as
Ger
man
y’s
sham
efu
l se
cret
, it
was
als
o l
inke
d t
o t
he
po
st–C
old
War
ch
alle
nge
s co
nfr
on
tin
g th
e u
ni‹
edG
erm
an s
tate
. Co
nte
mp
ora
ry G
erm
an r
acis
m, i
n o
ther
wor
ds, i
s ro
uti
nel
yd
escr
ibed
as
per
pet
rate
d b
y h
oo
ligan
s in
hab
itin
g a
spec
i‹c
geog
rap
hy—
nam
ely,
th
e p
rovi
nce
s o
fth
e fo
rmer
Eas
t G
erm
any.
2It
is c
har
acte
rize
d a
s a
reci
div
ist
imp
uls
e fr
om
th
e G
erm
an m
argi
ns:
th
e p
ersi
sten
t p
sych
olo
gica
lan
d b
ehav
iora
l re
sid
ue
of
eco
no
mic
sta
gnat
ion
, u
nem
plo
ymen
t, a
nd
ap
op
ula
tio
n i
nsu
f‹ci
entl
y so
cial
ized
in
dem
ocr
atic
fo
rms.
Des
pit
e it
s o
ften
neo
fasc
ist
fash
ion
ing,
co
nte
mp
ora
ry G
erm
an r
acis
m h
as b
een
inte
rpre
ted
as t
he
ugl
y le
gacy
of
the
rep
ress
ive
stat
e p
olit
ics
of
soci
alis
m a
nd
th
e u
n-
com
fort
able
ad
just
men
t to
cap
ital
ist
dem
ocr
acy:
so
meh
ow n
ot-
yet
mo
d-
ern
, n
ot-
yet
Wes
tern
, n
ot-
yet
dem
ocr
atic
or
soci
ally
pro
gres
sive
. C
ente
red
2A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
in d
isaf
fect
ed, u
nem
plo
yed
wh
ite
mal
e yo
uth
, it i
s p
erce
ived
by
and
larg
e as
a p
rod
uct
of
the
soci
al m
alai
se a
nd
po
litic
al i
mm
atu
rity
of
the
still
eco
-n
om
ical
ly s
tun
ted
Eas
t.3
Ogu
ngb
ure
’s a
ngr
y ge
stu
res
too
den
ou
nce
d r
acis
m a
s re
cid
ivis
t. I
nco
ntr
ast
to j
ou
rnal
ists
an
d s
oci
al s
cien
tist
s, t
he
socc
er p
laye
r su
gges
ted
con
tem
po
rary
rac
ism
’s o
rigi
ns
in,
and
af‹
nit
ies
wit
h,
Naz
ism
. H
is c
har
gew
as o
ne
of
his
tori
cal c
on
tinu
ity
rath
er th
an r
up
ture
. Bu
t du
e to
the
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic’s
su
cces
sfu
l po
stw
ar c
onv
ersi
on
to
a s
tabl
e d
emo
crac
y, n
ow o
ver
a h
alf
cen
tury
old
, th
is s
tru
ck s
om
e o
bse
rver
s as
im
mo
der
ate,
off
ensi
ve,
and
in
dee
d t
ech
nic
ally
ille
gal.
Ogu
ngb
ure
, u
nlik
e h
is a
ttac
kers
, fe
lt c
om
-p
elle
d t
o a
po
logi
ze: “
I re
gret
wh
at I
did
. . .
I s
ho
uld
hav
e w
alke
d a
way
. I’m
a p
rofe
ssio
nal
, bu
t I’
m a
hu
man
to
o. T
hey
do
n’t
spit
on
dog
s. W
hy s
ho
uld
they
sp
it o
n m
e? I
fel
t lik
e a
no
bo
dy.”
4S
om
e si
xty
year
s af
ter
the
dem
ise
of
the
Th
ird
Rei
ch, e
ven
in t
he
face
of
deh
um
aniz
ing
raci
sm, i
t w
as s
om
ehow
inap
pro
pri
ate
and
his
tori
cally
inac
cura
te t
o t
race
rac
ist
infr
acti
on
s b
ack
to
the
day
s o
fH
itle
r an
d t
her
eby
sugg
est
con
tinu
itie
s o
fra
cial
id
eolo
gy a
nd
pra
ctic
e b
etw
een
th
e N
azi e
ra a
nd
th
e d
emo
crat
ic F
eder
al R
epu
blic
.5A
fter
all,
Ger
man
s—w
het
her
civ
ilian
s o
r sc
ho
lars
—n
o l
on
ger
even
sp
eak
th
ela
ngu
age
of
“rac
e.”
Th
e te
rmR
asse
has
vir
tual
ly d
isap
pea
red
fro
m t
he
Ger
man
lexi
con
an
d p
ubl
ic d
isco
urs
e si
nce
194
5 d
esp
ite
the
per
sist
ence
of
soci
al id
eolo
gies
an
d b
ehav
iors
th
at lo
ok
an
aw
ful l
ot
like
raci
sm.
Rac
ism
, th
eori
sts
agre
e, h
as “
no
sin
gle
char
acte
rist
ic fo
rm”;
alt
ho
ugh
a p
rod
uct
of
mo
der
nit
y, it
s sp
eci‹
c m
anif
esta
tio
ns
and
tar
gets
var
y ac
ross
spac
e an
d t
ime.
6A
fter
Wo
rld
War
II,
his
tori
ans
of
Eu
rop
e an
d t
he
Un
ited
Sta
tes
beg
an t
o b
ifu
rcat
e th
e st
udy
of
raci
sm a
nd
an
tise
mit
ism
, in
eff
ect
trea
tin
g th
ese
as t
wo
dis
tin
ct s
oci
al, p
sych
olo
gica
l, an
d h
isto
rica
l ph
eno
m-
ena.
Th
is s
cho
larl
y re
spo
nse
ech
oed
a b
road
er p
ost
-Ho
loca
ust
tren
d to
dis
-ag
greg
ate
the
his
tori
cal
trea
tmen
t an
d e
xper
ien
ce o
fJe
ws
fro
m t
hat
of
oth
er r
acia
lized
po
pu
lati
on
s, p
arti
cula
rly
tho
se o
fco
lor,
as
dec
olo
niz
atio
nan
d t
he
Am
eric
an c
ivil
righ
ts m
ovem
ent
wer
e ga
inin
g fo
rce.
Th
is a
p-
pro
ach
, mo
reov
er, h
as a
lter
ed c
on
tem
po
rary
un
der
stan
din
gs o
f“r
acis
m,”
a te
rm t
hat
was
co
ined
an
d g
ain
ed c
urr
ency
in t
he
1920
s an
d 1
930s
an
d e
x-p
licit
ly i
nclu
ded
anti
-Jew
ish
dis
crim
inat
ion
in
its
ori
gin
al d
e‹n
itio
n.
Th
ep
ost
war
dis
tin
ctio
n b
etw
een
rac
ism
an
d a
nti
sem
itis
m w
as a
cco
mp
anie
d b
ya
new
so
cial
co
nce
pti
on
of
Jew
s, a
t le
ast
in s
cho
larl
y an
d p
ubl
ic v
enu
es: i
n-
stea
d o
fco
nst
itu
tin
g a
“rac
e”th
ey c
ame
to b
e u
nd
erst
oo
d (
and
cam
e to
un
der
stan
d t
hem
selv
es)
as a
n “
eth
nic
ity.
”A
s th
is e
xam
ple
mak
es e
vid
ent,
no
tio
ns
of
race
an
d e
thn
icit
y ar
e ›
uid
, co
nti
nge
nt,
an
d u
nst
able
. Her
e, w
ew
ant
to in
sist
on
th
e an
alyt
ic v
alu
e o
fex
plo
rin
g p
roce
sses
of
raci
aliz
atio
n
Intr
oduc
tion
3
bo
th c
om
par
ativ
ely
(acr
oss
gro
up
s) a
nd
his
tori
cally
(ac
ross
th
e 19
45 d
i-vi
de)
.7 Fir
st, t
ho
ugh
, it
seem
s im
po
rtan
t to
off
er s
om
e ru
dim
enta
ry o
bse
rva-
tio
ns
rega
rdin
g o
ur
use
of
the
term
s ra
cean
d e
thni
city
. Eth
nici
tyco
nn
ote
sa
sen
se o
fp
eop
leh
oo
d b
ased
up
on
sh
ared
cu
sto
ms,
lan
guag
e, a
nd
(so
me-
tim
es)
relig
ion
. It
der
ives
fro
m a
“b
elie
fin
co
mm
on
des
cen
t”an
d t
her
efo
rete
nd
s to
be
self
-asc
rib
ed a
nd
em
bra
ced
as
a p
osi
tive
co
llect
ive
iden
tity
.8
Rac
e,o
n th
e o
ther
han
d, i
mp
lies
a “h
ard
er”
or
“dee
per
”se
nse
of
dif
fere
nce
fro
m s
om
e sp
eci‹
ed o
r u
nsp
eci‹
ed n
orm
. U
nlik
e et
hn
icit
y, w
hic
h e
voke
s(a
lth
ou
gh d
oes
n’t
nec
essa
rily
en
act)
an
un
hie
rarc
hic
al s
oci
al l
and
scap
e o
fco
exis
tin
g d
iver
sity
, ra
cial
asc
rip
tio
n i
s at
lea
st i
mp
licit
ly h
iera
rch
ical
an
dth
eref
ore
in
itia
lly i
mp
ose
d f
rom
wit
ho
ut.
Rac
e, l
ike
eth
nic
ity,
is
an i
deo
l-og
y th
at a
chie
ves
po
litic
al, s
oci
al, a
nd
psy
cho
logi
cal e
xpre
ssio
n v
ia in
stit
u-
tio
ns,
str
uct
ure
s o
fth
ink
ing,
so
cial
po
licy,
an
d s
oci
al p
ract
ice.
It
ther
eby
pro
fou
nd
ly a
ffec
ts t
he
raci
aliz
ed s
ub
ject
’s li
fe. R
ace
do
esn’
t ex
ist
in n
atu
re;
rath
er, g
rou
ps
beco
me
raci
aliz
edw
hen
th
eir
dif
fere
nce
is r
egis
tere
d a
nd
in-
vest
ed w
ith
hei
ghte
ned
neg
ativ
e so
cial
mea
nin
g. R
ace
dif
fers
fro
m e
thn
ic-
ity,
th
en,
in t
he
per
ceiv
ed i
nte
nsi
ty,
char
acte
r, a
nd
im
plic
atio
ns
of
its
dif
-fe
ren
ce.
As
his
tori
an G
eorg
e F
red
eric
kso
n p
ut
it,
race
“is
wh
at h
app
ens
wh
en e
thn
icit
y is
dee
med
ess
enti
al o
r in
del
ible
,”in
nat
e, h
ered
itar
y, t
ran
s-ge
ner
atio
nal
, u
nch
ange
able
, in
erad
icab
le,
and
mo
st o
fal
l u
nas
sim
ilabl
e.W
hile
fre
qu
entl
y ju
sti‹
ed b
y a
feti
shis
tic
focu
s o
n s
kin
co
lor
or
oth
er p
he-
no
typ
ical
tra
its
per
ceiv
ed a
s m
arke
rs o
fp
olit
ical
, so
cial
, phy
sica
l, in
telle
c-tu
al,
or
mo
ral
infe
rio
rity
, “r
ace”
—in
th
e ey
es o
fth
e co
nte
mp
ora
ry b
e-h
old
er—
nee
d n
ot
be
emb
od
ied
or
bio
logi
zed
in w
ays
char
acte
rist
ic o
fth
e“o
ld r
acis
ms”
pri
or
to 1
945.
Rat
her
, rac
ializ
ed t
hin
kin
g ca
n b
e fo
un
d in
in-
stit
uti
on
al p
atte
rns,
po
licie
s, s
oci
al p
ract
ices
, an
d b
ehav
iors
th
at t
arge
t,st
igm
atiz
e, t
reat
as
un
equ
al, e
xclu
de,
or
adve
rsel
y af
fect
ind
ivid
ual
s o
n t
he
bas
is o
fth
eir
per
ceiv
ed e
thn
ora
cial
mem
ber
ship
, “e
ven
if
cons
ciou
sb
elie
fth
at t
hey
are
infe
rio
r o
r u
nw
ort
hy is
ab
sen
t.”9
Th
e O
gun
gbu
re c
ase,
of
cou
rse,
is
on
ly o
ne
of
cou
ntl
ess
exam
ple
s o
f“r
ace”
and
rac
ializ
ed t
hin
kin
g th
at h
ave
surf
aced
in
co
nte
mp
ora
ry G
er-
man
y—fr
om
th
e so
-cal
led
Mu
slim
tes
t d
evel
op
ed b
y th
e B
aden
-Wü
rtte
m-
ber
g n
atu
raliz
atio
n o
f‹ce
an
d t
hat
sam
e st
ate’
s b
an o
fth
e h
ead
scar
f, t
o t
he
rece
nt
jud
gmen
ts h
and
ed d
own
fo
r an
att
ack
on
eig
ht
Ind
ian
men
in
th
eea
ster
n to
wn
of
Mü
geln
, an
d e
ven
to th
e n
ow p
reva
len
t pu
blic
an
xiet
y ov
erth
e cl
ash
bet
wee
n J
ud
eo-C
hri
stia
n a
nd
Mu
slim
civ
iliza
tio
ns.
In
dee
d,
it i
sn
o e
xagg
erat
ion
to
say
th
at “
race
”is
a v
erit
able
mov
ing
targ
et i
n c
urr
ent
Ger
man
pu
blic
dis
cou
rse.
Fo
r p
reci
sely
th
is r
easo
n,
we
do
no
t as
pir
e to
4A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
pro
vid
e an
on
-th
e-sp
ot,
co
mp
reh
ensi
ve a
nal
ysis
of
“rac
e”in
th
e p
rese
nt
con
jun
ctu
re. R
ath
er, w
e se
ek t
o c
ou
nte
r th
e lo
ng-
do
min
ant
and
un
spo
ken
assu
mp
tio
n t
hat
th
e p
robl
em o
f“r
ace”
dis
app
eare
d a
t th
e le
vel
of
pu
blic
dis
cou
rse
and
po
licy-
mak
ing
wit
h t
he
def
eat
of
the
Th
ird
Rei
ch.1
0T
his
as-
sum
pti
on
has
mad
e it
mo
re d
if‹
cult
to p
erce
ive
the
raci
aliz
ed r
esp
on
se th
atu
nd
erlie
s m
uch
of
the
con
tem
po
rary
deb
ate
in G
erm
any
aro
un
d i
mm
i-gr
ants
an
d a
sylu
m s
eeke
rs,
Tu
rks,
Jew
s, a
nd
oth
er n
ativ
e m
ino
riti
es.
Ou
rgo
al,
then
, is
to
tra
ce t
he
thre
ad o
fco
nti
nuit
y ac
ross
th
e 19
45 d
ivid
e an
dso
rt t
hro
ugh
key
an
alyt
ical
cat
ego
ries
in
ord
er t
o h
elp
bet
ter
un
der
stan
dth
e cu
rren
t dis
cou
rse
and
the
way
s it
is im
plic
ated
wit
h “
race
.”In
the
pag
esth
at fo
llow
, we
ask
a n
um
ber
of
bas
ic, y
et c
ruci
al q
ues
tio
ns:
How
an
d w
hen
did
“ra
ce”
bec
om
e ta
bo
o i
n G
erm
any?
Why
has
it
dis
app
eare
d a
s a
sign
i‹ca
nt
cate
gory
fo
r u
nd
erst
and
ing
Ger
man
so
ciet
y si
nce
194
5? A
nd
per
hap
s m
ost
im
po
rtan
t, w
hat
are
th
e so
cial
an
d e
pis
tem
ic c
on
seq
uen
ces
of
this
det
erm
ined
ret
reat
fro
m “
race
”?
Race
and R
uptu
re:
Inte
rrogati
ng t
he
Stu
nde N
ull
Ove
r th
e la
st t
wo
dec
ades
, h
isto
rian
s o
fG
erm
any
hav
e sy
stem
atic
ally
de-
con
stru
cted
th
e m
yth
of
“zer
o h
ou
r,”ar
guin
g fo
r th
e nu
mer
ou
s w
ays
inw
hic
h 1
945
did
no
t an
d c
ou
ld n
ot
rep
rese
nt
an a
bso
lute
ru
ptu
re f
rom
all
that
cam
e b
efo
re.
We
now
tak
e fo
r gr
ante
d t
hat
Wes
t G
erm
any
did
no
tem
erge
su
i ge
ner
is f
rom
th
e ru
ins
of
war
an
d o
ccu
pat
ion
, th
at i
ts s
oci
ety,
po
litic
s, a
nd
cu
ltu
re c
an o
nly
be
fully
un
der
sto
od
as
par
t of
the
lon
ger
con
-ti
nuu
m o
fG
erm
an h
isto
ry. T
his
per
spec
tive
, fo
r ex
amp
le, h
as m
ade
it p
os-
sibl
e to
gra
sp t
he
mu
ltip
le m
ean
ings
of
1945
. T
he
arm
isti
ce o
f8
May
, o
nth
e o
ne
han
d, t
erm
inat
ed t
he
war
in E
uro
pe
and
sp
elle
d t
he
colla
pse
of
the
Th
ird
Rei
ch.
Th
e su
bse
qu
ent
occ
up
atio
n p
erio
d (
1945
–49)
res
ult
ed i
n t
he
esta
blis
hm
ent
of
two
Ger
man
sta
tes
and
hel
ped
ush
er t
he
new
Fed
eral
Re-
pu
blic
in
to t
he
Wes
tern
alli
ance
. O
rdin
ary
Ger
man
s, o
n t
he
oth
er h
and
,d
id n
ot
per
ceiv
e an
en
d t
o t
he
war
so
mu
ch w
ith
th
e si
gnin
g o
fth
ear
mis
tice
, bu
t ra
ther
wit
h t
he
intr
od
uct
ion
of
the
new
cu
rren
cy a
nd
im
-p
end
ing
div
isio
n o
fth
eir
nat
ion
. A
nd
man
y ex
per
ien
ced
194
5 as
th
e m
o-
men
t w
hen
on
e re
pre
ssiv
e re
gim
e (H
itle
r’s
dic
tato
rsh
ip)
was
rep
lace
d b
yan
oth
er (
Alli
ed o
ccu
pat
ion
).1
1
Yet
in
ter
ms
of
the
all-
imp
ort
ant
qu
esti
on
of
race
, as
sum
pti
on
s o
fa
Stu
nde
null
rem
ain
larg
ely
un
chal
len
ged
. Th
e T
hir
d R
eich
, sch
ola
rs a
gree
,w
as a
hyp
erra
cial
ized
so
ciet
y. V
irtu
ally
eve
ry a
spec
t o
flif
e w
as d
eter
min
ed
Intr
oduc
tion
5
by N
azi r
ace
thin
kin
g; a
t it
s m
ost
ext
rem
e, t
he
stat
e m
ade
dec
isio
ns
abo
ut
the
fate
of
its
citi
zen
s—an
d d
uri
ng
the
war
, its
Eu
rop
ean
su
bje
cts—
bas
edo
n r
acia
l ca
tego
ries
an
d d
isti
nct
ion
s. A
t th
e sa
me
tim
e, m
ost
his
tori
ans
hav
e o
per
ated
on
th
e u
nsp
oke
n a
ssu
mp
tio
n t
hat
th
e p
robl
em o
fra
ce d
is-
app
eare
d a
fter
the
Naz
i def
eat,
re›
exiv
ely
acce
pti
ng
that
the
po
stw
ar ta
bo
oag
ain
st t
he
term
Ras
seal
so m
ean
t th
e q
ues
tio
n o
fh
ow t
o d
e‹n
e an
d d
eal
wit
h d
iffe
ren
ce w
as n
o lo
nge
r ce
ntr
al. T
his
bo
ok
, by
con
tras
t, w
ants
to
in-
sist
th
at t
he
sam
e ch
alle
nge
s to
th
e ze
ro h
ou
r th
esis
lev
eled
in
oth
er a
reas
of
his
tori
cal a
nal
ysis
als
o a
pp
ly t
o t
he
issu
es o
fra
ce a
nd
dif
fere
nce
.A
s a
‹rs
t ste
p, o
ur
inte
rven
tio
n s
eek
s to
dem
on
stra
te th
at th
e q
ues
tio
no
fra
ce r
emai
ned
at
the
very
cen
ter
of
soci
al p
olic
y an
d c
olle
ctiv
e im
agin
a-ti
on
du
rin
g th
e o
ccu
pat
ion
yea
rs,
as t
he
wes
tern
Alli
es w
ork
ed t
o d
emo
c-ra
tize
Ger
man
y, a
nd
du
rin
g th
e B
on
n R
epu
blic
. O
ur
goal
is
to b
egin
to
trac
e th
e d
evel
op
men
t o
fra
ce a
nd
eth
nic
ity
deb
ates
aft
er t
he
colla
pse
of
the
Th
ird
Rei
ch’s
rac
ial s
tate
, exp
lori
ng
how
an
d in
wh
at fo
rms
thes
e is
sues
resu
rfac
ed a
nd
wer
e re
con
stit
ute
d in
th
e p
ost
-194
5 p
erio
d, e
ven
as
exp
licit
pu
blic
dis
cuss
ion
of
“rac
e”gr
adu
ally
su
bsi
ded
an
d G
erm
ans
bec
ame
ha-
bit
uat
ed t
o d
emo
crat
ic f
orm
s an
d p
ract
ices
. Ou
r p
rim
ary
focu
s is
th
e F
ed-
eral
R
epu
blic
o
fG
erm
any—
“Wes
t G
erm
any”
pri
or
to
un
i‹ca
tio
n
in19
90—
for
bo
th p
ract
ical
an
d a
nal
ytic
al p
urp
ose
s. B
ecau
se o
fit
s st
atu
s as
the
Ger
man
su
cces
sor
stat
e, it
s h
isto
riog
rap
hy a
t th
e m
om
ent
is s
om
ewh
atd
eep
er a
nd
ric
her
th
an t
hat
of
the
now
def
un
ct G
erm
an D
emo
crat
ic R
e-p
ubl
ic. T
his
sam
e st
atu
s, m
ore
over
, co
nvin
ces
us
that
it is
urg
ent
to e
xplo
reth
e h
isto
rica
l dyn
amic
s an
d m
yth
olo
gies
th
at h
ave
pro
du
ced
an
d s
ust
ain
edit
s d
emo
crat
ic p
olit
y an
d c
ult
ure
. N
on
eth
eles
s, o
ur
intr
od
uct
ion
is
in-
ten
ded
as
a cl
ario
n c
all f
or
com
par
ativ
e an
d c
on
text
ual
ized
ap
pro
ach
es t
oth
e st
udy
of
the
po
stw
ar p
erio
d,
and
we
ind
icat
e in
wh
at f
ollo
ws
ou
rd
esid
erat
a fo
r th
e re
con
cep
tual
izat
ion
of
con
tem
po
rary
Ger
man
an
d E
u-
rop
ean
his
tory
, bo
th W
est
and
Eas
t.W
hile
th
is i
ntr
od
uct
ion
ske
tch
es o
ut
a ra
ther
am
bit
iou
s p
rogr
am o
fh
isto
riog
rap
hic
al r
eori
enta
tio
n,
the
follo
win
g th
ree
chap
ters
pre
sen
t sy
n-
thet
ic s
um
mar
ies
of
som
e o
fth
e in
nov
ativ
e ar
gum
ents
of
ou
r re
cen
t re
-se
arch
on
Bla
ck G
erm
ans,
Jew
s, a
nd
im
mig
ran
t T
urk
s af
ter
1945
.12
Th
eai
m o
fo
ur
colla
bo
rati
on
is
to h
igh
ligh
t, i
n a
bbre
viat
ed f
orm
, an
d b
rin
gin
to d
ialo
gue
wit
h e
ach
oth
er s
om
e o
fth
e h
isto
rica
l wo
rk t
hat
has
alr
eady
bee
n d
on
e to
exp
lore
pro
cess
es o
fra
cial
izat
ion
an
d d
emo
crat
izat
ion
in
po
stw
ar G
erm
any.
In
do
ing
so,
we
ho
pe
to d
emo
nst
rate
th
e n
ew p
ersp
ec-
tive
s o
pen
ed u
p b
y su
ch a
focu
s.
Ch
apte
r 1,
by
Hei
de
Feh
ren
bac
h,
trac
es t
he
po
stw
ar “
dev
olu
tio
n”
of
6A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
the
Naz
i rac
ial s
tate
. It
follo
ws
the
shif
tin
g la
ngu
age
and
tax
on
om
y o
fra
ceac
ross
th
e 19
45 d
ivid
e w
ith
in G
erm
any,
inv
esti
gati
ng
the
imp
act
of
inte
r-n
atio
nal
imp
uls
es—
esp
ecia
lly s
egre
gati
on
ist
U.S
. mili
tary
po
licie
s an
d li
b-
eral
izin
g A
mer
ican
so
cial
sci
ence
—o
n p
ost
war
ref
orm
ula
tio
ns
of
raci
alp
olic
y an
d p
ract
ice
in W
est
Ger
man
so
ciet
y. D
iscu
ssio
ns
rega
rdin
g p
ost
-w
ar o
ccu
pat
ion
ch
ildre
n o
fco
lor,
Feh
ren
bac
h a
rgu
es,
wer
e cr
uci
al i
n r
e-co
nst
itu
tin
g n
oti
on
s o
fra
ce i
n W
est
Ger
man
y, s
hif
tin
g th
e te
rms
of
po
st-
war
deb
ate
abo
ut
race
aw
ay f
rom
Jew
ish
nes
s an
d t
owar
d a
bla
ck-w
hit
eb
inar
y.
Ch
apte
r 2,
by
Ati
na
Gro
ssm
ann
, exa
min
es h
ow J
ews
bec
ame Auslän-
der
in p
ost
war
Wes
t G
erm
any.
Fo
cusi
ng
on
Eas
t E
uro
pea
n J
ewis
h H
olo
-ca
ust
su
rviv
ors
wh
o r
esid
ed in
th
e d
isp
lace
d p
erso
ns
(DP
) ca
mp
s o
fo
ccu
-p
ied
Ger
man
y, i
t co
nsi
der
s th
e w
ays
in w
hic
h v
icti
ms
of
the
Th
ird
Rei
chw
ere
qu
ick
ly c
ast
as p
aras
itic
“fo
reig
ner
s,”
wh
o t
hre
aten
ed t
o s
iph
on
off
pre
cio
us
reso
urc
es.
Ger
man
s in
sist
entl
y re
mem
ber
ed t
hei
r ow
n v
icti
miz
a-ti
on
an
d r
efu
sed
to
rec
ogn
ize
thei
r n
ew/o
ld p
reju
dic
es a
nd
res
entm
ents
as
anti
sem
itis
m,
in p
art
bec
ause
no
tio
ns
of
dif
fere
nce
wer
e re
cast
in
th
e la
n-
guag
e o
fre
sou
rces
an
d “
righ
ts.”
Ch
apte
r 3,
by
Rit
a C
hin
, sh
ifts
tem
po
ral
fram
es t
o c
on
sid
er T
urk
ish
gues
t w
ork
ers
du
rin
g th
e ea
rly
1980
s, a
mo
men
t w
hen
pu
blic
deb
ates
beg
anto
ack
now
led
ge t
hat
tw
o m
illio
n f
ore
ign
ers
and
th
eir
fam
ilies
now
co
nst
i-tu
ted
im
mig
ran
ts i
n t
he
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic.
It e
xam
ines
co
nse
rvat
ive
and
pro
gres
sive
idea
s ab
ou
t Ausländer
and
inte
grat
ion
. Wh
ile G
erm
an c
on
ser-
vati
ves
ten
ded
to
see
mig
ran
t cu
ltu
re a
s ti
mel
ess,
ess
enti
al, a
nd
‹xe
d, t
hei
rlib
eral
co
un
terp
arts
gen
eral
ly in
sist
ed o
n th
e m
uta
bili
ty o
fm
igra
nt c
ult
ure
.Y
et b
oth
pat
tern
s o
fth
ou
ght
and
dis
cou
rse
cam
e to
em
ph
asiz
e in
com
-m
ensu
rabl
e d
iffe
ren
ces
bet
wee
n T
urk
ish
an
d G
erm
an c
ult
ure
s an
d u
lti-
mat
ely
trea
ted
inte
grat
ion
as
a o
ne-
way
pro
cess
. Th
rou
gh t
hes
e ca
se s
tud
-ie
s, it
is p
oss
ible
to
glim
pse
th
e o
utl
ines
of
po
stw
ar W
est
Ger
man
y’s
effo
rts
to b
oth
red
e‹n
e an
d d
eal
wit
h d
iffe
ren
ce a
cro
ss t
hre
e d
isti
nct
min
ori
tygr
ou
ps.
Bu
t th
is i
s ju
st a
sta
rt.
Ou
r h
op
e is
th
at t
he
pic
ture
will
bec
om
em
ore
det
aile
d a
nd
nu
ance
d t
hro
ugh
th
e w
ork
of
oth
er s
cho
lars
.T
he
‹n
al t
wo
ch
apte
rs in
th
is v
olu
me
are,
like
th
is in
tro
du
ctio
n, m
ore
inte
rpre
tive
in c
har
acte
r an
d o
ffer
rea
pp
rais
als
of
sign
i‹ca
nt d
evel
op
men
tsin
po
stw
ar G
erm
an a
nd
Eu
rop
ean
his
tory
. C
hap
ter
4, b
y R
ita
Ch
in a
nd
Hei
de
Feh
ren
bac
h,
revi
sits
so
me
mile
sto
ne
mo
men
ts i
n t
he
his
tory
of
the
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic fr
om
194
5 th
rou
gh th
e ea
rly
1990
s in
ord
er to
trac
e th
e in
-te
rco
nn
ecti
on
s (s
om
etim
es e
xplic
it, b
ut
mo
stly
imp
licit
) b
etw
een
th
e sh
ift-
ing
way
s G
erm
ans
un
der
sto
od
dem
ocr
acy—
as s
ecu
red
by
eco
no
mic
rec
ov-
Introduction
7
ery,
ach
ieve
d t
hro
ugh
a c
on
dem
nat
ion
of
fasc
ism
an
d c
apit
alis
m,
earn
edth
rou
gh h
isto
rica
l co
mm
emo
rati
on
—an
d t
hei
r co
nce
pti
on
s o
fd
iffe
ren
ce.
Th
e es
say
also
ex
plo
res
un
i‹ca
tio
n
and
it
s af
term
ath
—in
clu
din
g th
esp
eci‹
c an
alyt
ical
ter
ms
that
Ger
man
so
cial
sci
enti
sts
and
th
e m
edia
de-
plo
yed
to
tes
t th
e d
emo
crat
ic s
tab
ility
of
the
exp
and
ed F
eder
al R
epu
blic
and
that
min
ori
ty in
telle
ctu
als
use
d t
o il
lum
inat
e u
ni‹
ed G
erm
any’
s u
nac
-k
now
led
ged
eth
no
nat
ion
al s
elf-
con
cep
tio
n.
Fin
ally
, ch
apte
r 5,
by
Geo
ffE
ley,
bro
aden
s th
e ge
ogra
ph
ical
len
s, a
r-gu
ing
that
oth
er W
este
rn E
uro
pea
n c
ou
ntr
ies
also
ab
sorb
ed t
he
less
on
s o
fth
e G
erm
an H
olo
cau
st a
nd
sh
ied
aw
ay f
rom
th
e la
ngu
age
of
race
in
th
ed
ecad
es a
fter
194
5. S
om
e, li
ke F
ran
ce, a
pp
eale
d t
o a
lon
ger
trad
itio
n o
fre
-p
ubl
ican
un
iver
salis
m t
hat
em
erge
d f
rom
th
e E
nlig
hte
nm
ent
and
Fre
nch
Rev
olu
tio
n, e
ven
as
they
rep
eate
dly
rei
nsc
rib
ed r
acia
l dif
fere
nce
in th
eir
so-
cial
an
d p
olit
ical
co
nce
pti
on
s o
fco
lon
ials
an
d p
ost
colo
nia
ls a
cro
ss t
he
pas
t tw
o c
entu
ries
. Ele
y th
en t
urn
s to
Bri
tain
to
exp
lore
in m
ore
det
ail h
ow“r
ace”
as a
cen
tral
cat
ego
ry o
fan
alys
is e
mer
ged
on
ly ‹
tfu
lly f
rom
th
e n
eo-
Mar
xist
thin
kin
g o
fm
ost
ly m
ino
rity
inte
llect
ual
s lik
e S
tuar
t Hal
l an
d P
aul
Gilr
oy,
wh
ose
th
eori
zin
g ga
ined
in
tern
atio
nal
in
›u
ence
by
the
1980
s an
db
eyo
nd
. In
tra
cin
g th
e an
alyt
ical
tu
rn t
owar
d “
race
”ov
er t
he
pas
t co
up
leo
fd
ecad
es,
Ele
y tr
ain
s a
crit
ical
eye
on
dis
cuss
ion
s o
fE
uro
pea
n c
ult
ure
and
co
mm
on
alit
y as
wel
l as
th
e re
cen
t em
bra
ce o
fan
ti-I
slam
icis
m i
n e
f-fo
rts
to c
on
solid
ate
Eu
rop
ean
iden
tity
.It
is
imp
ort
ant
to b
e cl
ear
that
th
is b
oo
k b
y n
o m
ean
s re
pre
sen
ts t
he
‹rs
t at
tem
pt
to a
ddre
ss t
he
con
tinu
itie
s o
fra
cism
an
d x
eno
ph
ob
ia in
Ger
-m
an h
isto
ry.
Min
ori
ty w
rite
rs,
inte
llect
ual
s, a
nd
sch
ola
rs h
ave
bee
n c
om
-m
enti
ng
on
the
pro
cess
es a
nd
eff
ects
of
raci
aliz
atio
n in
co
nte
mp
ora
ry G
er-
man
so
ciet
y si
nce
th
e m
id-1
970s
. A
s ea
rly
as 1
973,
Ara
s Ö
ren
pu
blis
hed
po
ems
that
hig
hlig
hte
d t
he
way
s in
wh
ich
ass
um
pti
on
s o
fes
sen
tial
eth
nic
dif
fere
nce
pre
ven
ted
Ger
man
an
d T
urk
ish
wo
rker
s fr
om
rec
ogn
izin
g th
eir
shar
ed o
pp
ress
ion
wit
hin
th
e ca
pit
alis
t sy
stem
of
pro
du
ctio
n.1
3M
ay A
yim
and
Kat
har
ina
Ogu
nto
ye w
rote
Far
be b
eken
nen
in 1
988
wit
h t
he
exp
licit
pu
rpo
se o
fex
po
sin
g “t
he
soci
al u
nd
erp
inn
ings
of
raci
sm”
and
dem
on
-st
rati
ng
that
th
e in
visi
bili
ty o
fA
fro
-Ger
man
s w
as a
“co
nse
qu
ence
of
the
sup
pre
ssio
n o
fG
erm
an h
isto
ry.”
14
In t
he
mo
nth
s af
ter
the
fall
of
the
Ber
lin W
all,
Zaf
er S
eno
cak
po
inte
d t
o t
he
raci
aliz
ing
effe
cts
of
the
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic’s
cit
izen
ship
law
, wh
ich
co
nti
nued
to
tre
at G
erm
an d
esce
nt
as t
he
cru
cial
cri
teri
on
fo
r ci
tize
nsh
ip.
Th
is r
esid
ue
of
gen
ealo
gica
l th
ink
ing,
he
ob
serv
ed, m
ean
t th
at e
thn
ic G
erm
ans
fro
m E
aste
rn E
uro
pe
wit
h o
nly
dis
-ta
nt
fam
ily t
ies
to G
erm
any
and
lit
tle
abili
ty t
o s
pea
k t
he
lan
guag
e w
ere
8A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
con
sid
ered
Ger
man
, w
hile
sec
on
d-
or
thir
d-g
ener
atio
n T
urk
s w
ho
kn
ewG
erm
an b
ette
r th
an T
urk
ish
rem
ain
ed p
erp
etu
al fo
reig
ner
s.1
5
Des
pit
e th
eir
tren
chan
t cr
itiq
ues
, th
ese
auth
ors
hav
e ge
ner
ally
go
ne
un
reco
gniz
ed b
y m
ost
Ger
man
his
tori
ans.
Par
t o
fth
e p
robl
em is
th
at t
hei
rw
riti
ng
has
bee
n c
ateg
ori
zed
as
“fo
reig
ner
lit
erat
ure
.”T
his
des
ign
atio
nm
arke
d t
hei
r te
xts
as p
rim
arily
of
inte
rest
to
lite
rary
sch
ola
rs. I
t al
so r
ele-
gate
d t
hei
r w
ork
to
“m
igra
tio
n”
or
“min
ori
ty”
stu
die
s, ‹
eld
s o
ften
per
-ce
ived
as
mar
gin
al t
o t
he
mai
n c
urr
ents
of
mo
der
n G
erm
an h
isto
ry. T
hes
eim
po
rtan
t ea
rly
effo
rts
to e
nga
ge t
he
qu
esti
on
of
race
an
d t
o in
sist
on
th
eco
nti
nued
rel
evan
ce o
fra
cial
ass
um
pti
on
s in
th
e F
eder
al R
epu
blic
hav
eth
us
faile
d t
o r
egis
ter
as in
tegr
al t
o o
ur
un
der
stan
din
g o
fG
erm
an s
oci
ety,
po
litic
s, a
nd
cu
ltu
re in
th
e p
ost
war
per
iod
.F
or t
he f
utu
re, a
th
oro
ugh
un
pac
kin
g o
fth
e ze
ro h
our
th
esis
in t
erm
so
fra
ce a
nd
dif
fere
nce
wo
uld
inv
olv
e fu
rth
er i
nte
rven
tio
ns
in t
he
bro
ader
‹el
d o
fm
od
ern
Ger
man
his
tory
th
at c
an o
nly
be
gest
ure
d a
t h
ere.
Fir
stan
d f
ore
mo
st,
this
tas
k w
ou
ld r
equ
ire
con
sid
erin
g co
nti
nuit
ies
acro
ss t
he
1945
div
ide.
It
is w
ort
h p
oin
tin
g o
ut
that
a s
ign
i‹ca
nt,
au
tho
rita
tive
his
tor-
ical
lite
ratu
re h
as e
mer
ged
th
at in
vest
igat
es c
on
tinu
itie
s in
rac
ializ
ed t
hin
k-
ing
and
so
cial
po
licy
fro
m t
he
Imp
eria
l p
erio
d,
incl
ud
ing
colo
nia
lism
,th
rou
gh t
he
Wei
mar
Rep
ubl
ic in
toth
e T
hir
d R
eich
.16
Th
e q
ues
tio
n o
fco
n-
tinu
ity
has
bee
n t
aken
up
by
loo
kin
g b
ack
war
d f
rom
th
e 19
30s
to e
arlie
rd
ecad
es a
nd
acr
oss
pri
or
po
litic
al r
egim
es. I
n r
ecen
t ye
ars,
his
tori
ans
hav
eex
hib
ited
a g
reat
dea
l of
inte
rest
in tr
acin
g th
e ev
olu
tio
n o
fG
erm
an r
acis
man
d it
s m
ob
iliza
tio
n b
y th
e G
erm
an s
tate
th
rou
gh t
he
last
day
s o
fth
e N
azi
regi
me.
A p
rim
ary
con
cern
is
to t
est
the
rad
ical
ism
of
Nat
ion
al S
oci
alis
tp
olic
ies
tow
ard
Ger
man
an
d E
uro
pea
n m
ino
riti
es,
wh
ich
em
erge
d f
rom
alo
nge
r h
isto
rica
l co
mm
itm
ent
to r
acia
l h
iera
rch
ies
and
eu
gen
ic p
ract
ices
,an
d c
ulm
inat
ed i
n s
tate
-man
dat
ed s
teri
lizat
ion
, m
edic
al e
xper
imen
tati
on
,an
d m
ass
mu
rder
. Bu
t th
e q
ues
tio
n o
fco
nti
nuit
y al
so n
eed
s to
be
po
sed
for
the
per
iod
aft
er 1
945.
Wh
ile t
he
mo
st e
greg
iou
s ra
cial
ized
vio
len
ce o
fth
eN
azi
regi
me
ceas
ed w
ith
def
eat,
Cla
ud
ia K
oo
nz
has
su
gges
ted
th
at o
ther
,m
ore
loca
lized
an
d e
very
day
pra
ctic
es w
ere
no
t ro
ote
d o
ut
so e
asily
. Wh
at,
in o
ther
wo
rds,
hap
pen
ed t
o t
he
ever
yday
rac
ism
th
at w
as a
lso
ver
y m
uch
ap
art
of
Ger
man
so
cial
lif
e, s
oci
al p
olic
y, a
nd
th
e so
cial
im
agin
ary
du
rin
gth
e T
hir
d R
eich
?17
Pio
nee
rin
g w
ork
has
beg
un
on
th
is q
ues
tio
n,
but
its
cen
tral
in
sigh
tsan
d c
riti
cal
app
roac
h h
ave
yet
to b
e in
tegr
ated
in
to s
ynth
etic
acc
ou
nts
of
mo
der
n G
erm
an h
isto
ry. T
hu
s fa
r, s
tud
ies
that
hav
e ra
ised
the
issu
e o
fra
ceaf
ter
1945
hav
e p
rim
arily
fo
cuse
d o
n p
ost
war
Ger
man
in
tera
ctio
ns
wit
h,
Intr
oduc
tion
9
and
res
po
nse
s to
, Am
eric
an c
ult
ure
an
d A
mer
ican
mili
tary
occ
up
atio
n. I
nh
er s
tudy
of
the
reco
nst
ruct
ion
of
nat
ion
al i
den
tity
an
d g
end
er n
orm
s in
the
two
po
stw
ar G
erm
an s
tate
s, U
ta P
oig
er e
xplo
res
the
soci
al a
nd
cu
ltu
ral
thre
ats
that
th
e im
po
rt a
nd
yo
uth
ful
con
sum
pti
on
of
“bla
ck”
Am
eric
anm
usi
c lik
e ja
zz a
nd
ro
ck ’n
’ro
ll re
pre
sen
ted
to b
oth
Eas
t an
d W
est G
erm
anau
tho
riti
es. I
n d
etai
ling
the
conv
erge
nce
s an
d d
iver
gen
ces
of
this
Co
ld W
ard
ialo
gue
abo
ut
the
mea
nin
g o
fA
mer
ican
cu
ltu
ral
form
s fo
r “G
erm
an-
nes
s,”
Po
iger
exp
ose
s co
nti
nuit
ies
in e
uge
nic
lan
guag
e an
d r
acis
t ste
reo
typ
eac
ross
194
5 in
bo
th G
erm
an s
tate
s an
d t
her
eby
hig
hlig
hts
th
e ra
cial
ized
con
ten
t o
fso
cial
an
d c
ult
ura
l re
con
stru
ctio
n.
Mari
a H
öh
n,
on
th
e o
ther
han
d,
con
sid
ers
gro
un
d-l
evel
so
cial
inte
ract
ion
s b
etw
een
Ger
man
civ
ilia
ns
an
d A
mer
ican
so
ldie
rs i
n w
este
rn G
erm
an
y. S
he
pay
s sp
ecia
l att
enti
on
to
inte
rraci
al
(bla
ck-w
hit
e) s
exu
al
frate
rniz
ati
on
, in
clu
din
g t
he
ho
stil
e re
cep
-
tio
n i
t p
rovo
ked
am
on
g G
erm
an
s an
d A
mer
ican
s ali
ke,
an
d u
ltim
ate
ly
sho
ws
ho
w A
mer
ican
pra
ctic
es o
fra
ce w
ere
tran
sfer
red
to
Ger
man
garr
i-
son
to
wn
s in
th
e fo
rm
of
raci
all
y
segre
gate
d
bars
an
d
ente
rtain
men
t
ven
ues
. H
eid
e F
ehre
nb
ach
exam
ines
tra
nsn
ati
on
al
deb
ate
s re
gard
ing t
he
“m
ixed
-race
”ch
ild
ren
of
po
stw
ar
frate
rniz
ati
on
bet
wee
n b
lack
tro
op
s an
d
wh
ite
Ger
man
wo
men
fro
m t
he
end
of
the
war
thro
ugh
ab
ou
t 19
60,
sug-
ges
tin
g t
hat
resp
on
ses
to t
he
chil
dre
n w
ere
cen
tral
to t
he
ideo
logic
al
tran
-
siti
on
fro
m N
ati
on
al S
oci
ali
st t
o d
emo
crati
c ap
pro
ach
es t
o r
ace
an
d, m
ore
-
over
, th
at
thes
e ea
rly y
ears
hel
ped
sh
ap
e co
nte
mp
ora
ry G
erm
an
raci
al
un
der
stan
din
g.
Her
ess
ay i
n t
his
vo
lum
e co
mp
are
s th
e ra
cial
typ
olo
gie
s o
f
the
Nazi
per
iod
wit
h t
ho
se t
hat
emer
ged
un
der
U.S
. o
ccu
pati
on
, w
hil
e
Ati
na G
ross
man
n’s
pie
ce,
lik
e h
er r
ecen
t b
oo
k,
hig
hli
gh
ts t
he
ever
yd
ay
way
s in
wh
ich
an
tise
mit
ic p
reju
dic
es (
re)s
urf
ace
d d
uri
ng t
he
inte
rreg
nu
m.1
8
Mo
re r
ecen
tly,
th
e em
ergen
t b
od
y o
fw
ork
aro
un
d g
ues
t w
ork
ers
in W
est
Ger
man
y h
as
als
o b
egu
n t
o c
on
sid
er t
he
issu
e o
fra
ce.
An
aly
zin
g n
ati
on
al
pu
bli
c d
ebate
s ab
ou
t fo
reig
n lab
or
recr
uit
s, R
ita C
hin
arg
ues
th
at
the
‹gu
re
of
the
gu
est
wo
rker
eff
ecti
vel
y m
ark
ed i
mp
ort
ed w
ork
ers
as
tem
po
rary
so
-
jou
rner
s w
ho
wer
e co
mp
lete
ly s
epara
te f
rom
Ger
man
so
ciet
y. H
er e
ssay
sho
ws
ho
w W
est
Ger
man
s ap
pli
ed r
aci
ali
zed
no
tio
ns
of
cult
ura
l d
iffe
ren
ce
to g
ues
t w
ork
ers
(an
d e
spec
iall
y T
urk
s) o
nce
th
e p
rese
nce
of
lab
or
mi-
gra
nts
was
of‹
ciall
y a
ckn
ow
led
ged
as
per
man
ent.
As
a w
ho
le, th
is s
cho
lar-
ship
on
th
e p
ost
war
per
iod
rep
rese
nts
an
im
po
rtan
t st
art
, b
ut
the
lin
e o
fin
-
ves
tigati
on
nee
ds
to b
e ex
ten
ded
.19
Tak
ing s
erio
usl
y t
he
issu
e o
fco
nti
nu
ity w
ou
ld a
lso
op
en u
p n
ew a
v-
enu
es o
fin
qu
iry a
cro
ss t
he
enti
re s
pan
of
mo
der
n G
erm
an
his
tory
. If
the
raci
al
ideo
logie
s o
fth
e N
ati
on
al
So
ciali
st r
egim
e are
no
lo
nger
per
ceiv
ed
10A
fter
th
e N
azi
Raci
al
Sta
te
as
an
ab
solu
te b
reak
wit
h w
hat
cam
e b
efo
re a
nd
aft
er, th
en it
bec
om
es p
os-
sib
le a
nd
even
nec
essa
ry t
o t
hin
k a
bo
ut
raci
al
or
eth
nic
“d
iffe
ren
ce”
as
an
on
go
ing,
con
stit
uti
ve
qu
esti
on
in
th
e n
ati
on
’s d
evel
op
men
t.2
0O
ne
of
the
pri
mary
task
s o
fco
nso
lid
ati
ng t
he
nati
on
-sta
te,
aft
er a
ll,
was
de‹
nin
g t
he
legal
an
d i
deo
logic
al
para
met
ers
of
mem
ber
ship
in
ord
er t
o d
iffe
ren
tiate
insi
der
s fr
om
ou
tsid
ers.
In
th
is r
esp
ect,
nin
etee
nth
-cen
tury
an
tise
mit
ism
,
an
ti-S
lavis
m, an
d a
nti
bla
ck r
aci
sm s
erved
a f
un
ctio
n s
imil
ar
to t
hat
of
late
-
twen
tiet
h-c
entu
ry x
eno
ph
ob
ia.
Each
fo
rm o
fp
reju
dic
e b
ecam
e a k
ind
of
wea
po
n in
th
e ef
fort
to
ass
ert
a u
niq
uel
y G
erm
an
id
enti
ty; ea
ch s
ingle
d o
ut
a s
pec
i‹c
gro
up
of
peo
ple
as
an
tith
etic
al
an
d a
nta
go
nis
tic
to t
he
Ger
man
soci
al
bo
dy i
n a
n a
ttem
pt
to c
reate
eth
nic
ho
mo
gen
eity
. G
erm
an
y’s
pro
-
tract
ed s
tru
ggle
to
ach
ieve
nati
on
al
un
i‹ca
tio
n—
wit
h t
he
deb
ate
s o
ver
a
gre
ate
r o
r le
sser
Ger
man
y—
mad
e th
e n
eed
to
cle
arl
y d
emarc
ate
“o
ther
s”
esp
ecia
lly u
rgen
t. A
nd
def
eat
in b
oth
wo
rld
wars
, alo
ng w
ith
mo
re r
ecen
t
reu
ni‹
cati
on
, p
rod
uce
d m
om
ents
of
cris
is t
hat
req
uir
ed (
re)c
on
stru
ctin
g
nati
on
al
iden
tity
an
d h
ence
cla
rify
ing b
elo
ngin
g.
Ou
r p
oin
t is
no
t to
cla
im
that
thes
e en
gagem
ents
wit
h “
dif
fere
nce
”w
ere
exact
ly t
he
sam
e o
r th
at
they
pro
du
ced
eq
uiv
ale
nt
his
tori
cal
effe
cts.
We
sim
ply
wan
t to
su
gges
t th
at
they
ou
gh
t to
be
exp
lore
d i
n r
elati
on
to
on
e an
oth
er r
ath
er t
han
tre
ate
d a
s
iso
late
d,
dis
cret
e ep
iso
des
.
A J
ewis
h-T
urk
ish
co
mp
ari
son
, fo
r ex
am
ple
, yie
lds
sever
al
po
ten
tiall
y
illu
min
ati
ng i
nsi
gh
ts.
In t
erm
s o
fth
e st
atu
s o
fre
ligio
n,
Ch
rist
ian
an
ti-J
u-
dais
m o
ffer
s a c
ou
nte
rpo
int
to t
he
Isla
miz
ati
on
of
Tu
rkis
h i
mm
igra
nts
af-
ter
1945.
In m
edie
val
an
d e
arl
y m
od
ern
Eu
rop
e, r
elig
ion
ser
ved
as
the
pri
-
mary
m
ark
er
of
abso
lute
d
iffe
ren
ce:
Jew
s w
ere
vie
wed
as
reli
gio
usl
y
mis
gu
ided
an
d e
ven
th
e so
urc
e o
fd
eici
de.
Th
e p
erce
pti
on
of
reli
gio
us
al-
teri
ty d
icta
ted
th
e w
ay J
ews
wer
e tr
eate
d i
n G
erm
an
Ch
rist
ian
lan
ds.
Even
wh
en t
hey
wer
e to
lera
ted
, th
e p
op
ula
tio
n u
nd
erst
oo
d t
hem
as
sep
ara
te
fro
m a
nd
in
feri
or
to t
he
rest
of
soci
ety.
Th
is s
tatu
s w
as
mo
st v
isib
le i
n
term
s o
fth
e re
stri
ctio
ns
pla
ced
on
Jew
s’fr
ee m
ovem
ent,
tra
des
, an
d c
loth
-
ing.
Th
eir
soci
al
an
d e
con
om
ic s
tan
din
g a
s w
ell
as
thei
r p
hysi
cal
secu
rity
wer
e h
igh
ly p
reca
rio
us
an
d u
ltim
ate
ly d
epen
den
t o
n t
he
go
od
wil
l o
fth
e
rule
rs in
wh
ose
ter
rito
ry t
hey
res
ided
. W
ith
th
e re
cogn
itio
n o
fT
urk
ish
per
-
man
ent
resi
den
ce i
n p
ost
war
Ger
man
y, r
elig
ion
has
resu
rface
d a
s a c
ruci
al
exp
lan
ati
on
fo
r in
com
pati
bil
ity.
In
th
is c
ase
, th
e p
rob
lem
is
no
t so
mu
ch a
clash
of
do
ctri
nal
inte
rpre
tati
on
s o
r th
eolo
gic
al
un
der
stan
din
gs
that
set
on
e co
mm
un
ity o
fffr
om
an
oth
er,
bu
t ra
ther
a s
ense
th
at
Isla
mic
rel
igio
us
pra
ctic
es c
an
no
t b
e acc
om
mo
date
d w
ith
in a
Wes
tern
lib
eral
dem
ocr
acy
.
Fo
r m
an
y G
erm
an
s, t
he
Tu
rkis
h c
ust
om
of
fem
ale
hea
d-c
over
ing i
s th
e u
l-
Intr
oduc
tion
11
tim
ate
sign
of
Isla
m’s
dee
ply
pat
riar
chal
nat
ure
an
d t
end
ency
to
op
pre
ssw
om
en. T
hes
e as
pec
ts o
fth
e re
ligio
n a
re d
eem
ed a
nti
thet
ical
to
th
e lib
eral
pri
nci
ple
of
equ
alit
y. I
slam
, in
th
is v
iew
, rep
rese
nts
a m
ajo
r ch
alle
nge
an
dth
reat
to
po
stw
ar G
erm
any’
s h
ard
-wo
n d
emo
crac
y.A
no
ther
po
int
of
com
par
iso
n is
th
e q
ues
tio
n o
fin
tegr
atio
n o
r as
sim
-ila
tio
n. F
or
Jew
s in
Ger
man
lan
ds,
th
e is
sue
emer
ged
as
a m
atte
r o
fse
rio
us
pu
blic
deb
ate
on
ce e
man
cip
atio
n b
ecam
e a
real
po
ssib
ility
. T
o t
he
exte
nt
that
th
e E
nlig
hte
nm
ent
pri
nci
ple
of
ind
ivid
ual
eq
ual
ity
pav
ed t
he
way
fo
rJe
wis
h e
qu
alit
y o
fri
ghts
ove
r th
e co
urs
e o
fth
e n
inet
een
th c
entu
ry, i
t al
sole
d t
o t
he
exp
ecta
tio
n t
hat
Jew
s w
ou
ld “
mer
ge w
ith
th
e re
st o
fth
e ci
tize
ns”
and
forg
o “
a n
atio
n o
fth
eir
own
, co
mp
lete
ly is
ola
ted
by
relig
iou
s cu
sto
ms,
way
s o
fth
ink
ing
and
act
ing.
”21
On
e u
nan
tici
pat
ed c
on
seq
uen
ce o
fJe
wis
hem
anci
pat
ion
, th
en, w
as a
n e
xpec
tati
on
of
assi
mila
tio
n th
at w
as u
ltim
atel
yh
ard
to
dis
tin
guis
h f
rom
th
e er
adic
atio
n o
fJu
dai
sm p
ure
an
d s
imp
le. S
im-
ilarl
y, a
mai
n t
ensi
on
aro
un
d T
urk
ish
im
mig
ran
ts i
n c
on
tem
po
rary
Ger
-m
any
has
bee
n t
he
pu
tati
ve f
ailu
re o
fin
tegr
atio
n.
Fo
r m
any
Ger
man
s o
nb
oth
th
e ri
ght
and
th
e le
ft, t
he
inte
grat
ion
of
Tu
rks
req
uir
es r
elin
qu
ish
ing
cult
ura
l par
ticu
lari
ties
an
d p
ath
olo
gies
that
they
ass
oci
ate
wit
h I
slam
, su
chas
th
e w
eari
ng
of
hea
dsc
arve
s o
r th
e p
erp
etu
atio
n o
fge
nd
er i
neq
ual
ity
(th
rou
gh a
rran
ged
mar
riag
es, d
om
esti
c vi
ole
nce
, an
d “
ho
no
r k
illin
gs”)
. Is-
lam
, th
ese
Ger
man
s fe
ar, e
nco
ura
ges
Tu
rks
to li
ve in
a P
aral
lelg
esel
lsch
aft
wit
h i
ts o
wn
ru
les,
val
ues
, an
d i
nst
itu
tio
ns
that
iso
late
th
em f
rom
mai
n-
stre
am s
oci
ety.
Th
e ex
iste
nce
of
encl
aves
in
maj
or
Ger
man
cit
ies
wh
ere
Tu
rkis
h i
s th
e p
rim
ary
lan
guag
e, w
ors
hip
tak
es p
lace
in
mo
squ
es,
busi
-n
esse
s ar
e p
red
om
inan
tly
Tu
rkis
h-o
wn
ed,
and
see
min
gly
bac
kw
ard
cu
s-to
ms
and
beh
avio
rs p
red
om
inat
e o
ften
ser
ves
as p
roo
fo
fth
e T
urk
ish
co
m-
mu
nit
y’s
un
will
ingn
ess
or
inab
ility
to
inte
grat
e.B
y ju
xtap
osi
ng
the
pu
sh f
or
assi
mila
tio
n o
r in
tegr
atio
n a
t tw
o v
ery
dif
fere
nt
his
tori
cal m
om
ents
, we
beg
in t
o s
ee C
hri
stia
nit
y as
a c
on
stit
uti
vebu
t so
met
imes
un
nam
ed e
lem
ent
of
Ger
man
cu
ltu
ral
iden
tity
.22
Jew
ish
eman
cip
atio
n o
ften
cam
e w
ith
th
e ex
pec
tati
on
of
conv
ersi
on
, wh
ile t
he
Is-
lam
of
Tu
rkis
h m
igra
nts
has
bee
n u
nd
erst
oo
d a
s cl
ash
ing
wit
h a
sec
ula
rst
ate
even
as
that
sta
te s
till
mai
nta
ins
spec
ial p
rivi
lege
s fo
r Ju
deo
-Ch
rist
ian
inst
itu
tio
ns.
At t
he
sam
e ti
me,
Ger
man
an
xiet
y ov
er th
e fa
ilure
to e
rad
icat
ed
iffe
ren
ce g
row
s o
ut
of
a d
isti
nct
set
of
con
cern
s in
eac
h c
ase.
An
ti-
sem
itis
m,
wh
ich
‹rs
t em
erge
d a
s a
term
in
Ger
man
pu
blic
deb
ate
du
rin
gth
e la
te n
inet
een
th c
entu
ry,
spec
i‹ca
lly c
on
dem
ned
Jew
s fo
r ca
usi
ng
and
ben
e‹ti
ng
fro
m t
he
mas
sive
up
hea
vals
of
glo
bal
cap
ital
ism
, in
du
stri
aliz
a-ti
on
, u
rban
izat
ion
, an
d m
od
ern
izat
ion
.23
On
th
is s
core
, th
e d
isco
urs
e
12A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
aro
un
d
Tu
rks
pre
sen
ts
an
inte
rest
ing
con
tras
t:
Isla
m
has
o
ften
b
een
blam
ed f
or
enco
ura
gin
g b
ack
war
dn
ess
and
illi
ber
al b
ehav
ior
amo
ng
its
Tu
rkis
h-G
erm
an a
dh
eren
ts, a
sce
nar
io t
hat
is p
erce
ived
as
esp
ecia
lly d
an-
gero
us
bec
ause
it r
ein
tro
du
ces
retr
ogra
de
valu
es in
to G
erm
an s
oci
ety.
Th
is c
om
par
iso
n b
etw
een
Jew
s an
d T
urk
s, m
ore
over
, p
rod
uct
ivel
yfo
regr
ou
nd
s th
e co
mp
licat
ed c
alcu
lus
that
exi
sts
bet
wee
n c
ult
ura
l an
d b
io-
logi
cal
con
cep
tio
ns
of
dif
fere
nce
. A
fter
th
e m
urd
ero
us
gen
oci
de
of
Eu
ro-
pea
n J
ewry
co
mm
itte
d i
n t
he
nam
e o
fra
cial
pu
rity
, it
bec
ame
com
mo
n-
pla
ce a
mo
ng
Wes
tern
dem
ocr
acie
s to
rej
ect
the
lan
guag
e o
fra
ce. T
he
1950
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s st
atem
ent
on
rac
e, i
n f
act,
un
equ
ivo
cally
den
ou
nce
d t
he
valid
ity
of
the
con
cep
t as
a s
cien
ti‹
c ca
tego
ry a
nd
mad
e b
iolo
gica
l no
tio
ns
of
race
un
acce
pta
ble
in a
po
st-H
olo
cau
st w
orl
d. T
he
1949
co
nst
itu
tio
ns
of
bo
th p
ost
war
Ger
man
sta
tes
dec
lare
d c
ivic
eq
ual
ity
un
der
th
e la
w a
nd
pro
-h
ibit
ed r
acia
l dis
crim
inat
ion
.24
On
e ef
fect
of
this
tre
nd
was
th
e re
pu
dia
tio
no
fb
iolo
gy a
nd
the
grow
ing
pre
po
nd
eran
ce o
fcu
ltu
re a
s an
exp
lan
atio
n fo
rfu
nd
amen
tal
dif
fere
nce
s b
etw
een
peo
ple
s. S
uch
exp
lan
atio
ns
insi
sted
th
atit
was
un
nat
ura
l fo
r d
iffe
ren
t n
atio
nal
gro
up
s to
live
tog
eth
er n
ot
so m
uch
bec
ause
on
e w
as s
up
erio
r to
th
e o
ther
bu
t ra
ther
bec
ause
eac
h b
elo
nge
d t
oa
dif
fere
nt
cult
ure
. In
th
e ea
rly
1980
s, f
or
exam
ple
, C
hri
stia
n D
emo
crat
sco
nd
emn
ed t
he
far
Rig
ht’s
cla
im t
hat
Tu
rks
and
oth
er g
ues
t w
ork
ers
thre
aten
ed t
he
gen
etic
pu
rity
of
the
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic a
s o
bvio
usl
y ra
cist
.B
ut
they
wen
t o
n t
o a
dvo
cate
res
tric
tio
ns
on
co
nti
nued
fam
ily r
eun
ion
, ar-
guin
g th
at t
he
stre
ngt
h o
fT
urk
ish
cu
ltu
re p
reve
nte
d s
ucc
essf
ul i
nte
grat
ion
and
thu
s im
per
iled
the
Ger
man
way
of
life.
Rej
ecti
ng
imm
igra
tio
n a
nd
eth
-n
ic d
iver
sity
, in
th
is v
iew
, was
no
t ra
cist
, bu
t an
ho
nes
t ac
kn
owle
dgm
ent
of
un
bri
dge
able
dif
fere
nce
.25
In t
he
last
tw
enty
yea
rs,
sch
ola
rs o
fE
uro
pe
hav
e cr
itic
ized
th
e p
ost
-w
ar s
hif
t fr
om
bio
logy
to
cu
ltu
re,
no
tin
g th
e w
ays
that
cu
ltu
ral
exp
lan
a-ti
on
s o
fin
com
men
sura
ble
dif
fere
nce
esc
aped
th
e ta
inte
d l
abel
of
raci
sm.
So
me
of
the
mo
st in
sigh
tfu
l wo
rk c
har
acte
rize
d t
his
sh
ift
as t
he
emer
gen
ceo
fa
“new
rac
ism
,”in
wh
ich
usi
ng
the
lan
guag
e o
fcu
ltu
re m
ade
raci
st a
s-su
mp
tio
ns
of
esse
nti
al d
iffe
ren
ce s
eem
rea
son
able
an
d r
esp
ecta
ble.
26
Bu
tth
ese
sch
ola
rly
effo
rts
to e
xpo
se t
he
raci
alis
t th
ink
ing
lurk
ing
ben
eath
cu
l-tu
ral a
rgu
men
ts a
gain
st im
mig
rati
on
an
d e
thn
ic d
iver
sity
(a
pro
ject
we
en-
thu
sias
tica
lly e
nd
ors
e) h
ave
also
pro
du
ced
un
inte
nd
ed c
on
seq
uen
ces.
Cu
l-tu
re o
ften
ap
pea
rs a
s an
en
tire
ly n
ovel
mo
de
for
rati
on
aliz
ing
the
clai
m o
fab
solu
te b
ou
nd
arie
s b
etw
een
peo
ple
s an
d n
atio
ns.
Wh
at a
bro
ader
tem
po
ral f
ram
e an
d c
om
par
ativ
e ap
pro
ach
mak
e vi
s-ib
le a
re t
he
way
s in
wh
ich
cu
ltu
re a
nd
bio
logy
are
ro
uti
nel
y in
terw
oven
. In
-
Intr
oduc
tion
13
dee
d, b
oth
th
e Je
wis
h q
ues
tio
n a
nd
th
e gu
est
wo
rker
qu
esti
on
dem
on
stra
teth
at c
ult
ura
lly b
ased
no
tio
ns
of
dif
fere
nce
hav
e al
way
s ex
iste
d a
lon
gsid
eth
eir
bio
logi
cal
cou
nte
rpar
ts.
Wit
hin
th
e fr
amew
ork
of
Ch
rist
ian
an
ti-J
u-
dai
sm a
nd
an
tise
mit
ism
, Je
ws’
relig
iou
s b
elie
fs a
nd
cu
sto
ms
pro
ved
th
eir
fun
dam
enta
l d
isti
nct
ion
fro
m G
erm
ans,
eve
n a
s th
ose
cu
ltu
ral
trai
ts w
ere
oft
en u
nd
erst
oo
d a
s in
her
ited
. T
he
Naz
is c
onv
erse
ly e
mp
loye
d b
loo
dlin
esto
mar
k J
ews
as O
ther
, w
hile
sim
ult
aneo
usl
y p
oin
tin
g to
Jew
ish
cu
ltu
ral
pec
ulia
riti
es t
o j
ust
ify
this
exc
lusi
on
.27
In a
sim
ilar
vein
, W
est
Ger
man
co
nse
rvat
ives
exp
ress
ed a
nxi
etie
s ab
ou
t T
urk
ish
cu
ltu
ral
dif
fere
nce
by
emp
has
izin
g Is
lam
ic fa
ith
an
d c
on
dem
nin
g w
hat
they
per
ceiv
ed a
s Is
lam
ic-
insp
ired
fo
rms
of
beh
avio
r. B
ut
they
als
o r
etai
ned
a h
ard
er n
oti
on
of
im-
mu
tab
ility
, in
sist
ing
that
Tu
rkis
h c
ult
ure
was
to
o s
tro
ng
to a
llow
fo
r su
c-ce
ssfu
l in
tegr
atio
n n
o m
atte
r h
ow lo
ng
Tu
rks
and
Ger
man
s liv
ed t
oget
her
.In
eac
h c
ase,
nei
ther
th
e b
iolo
gica
l n
or
the
cult
ura
l is
fu
lly a
bse
nt
fro
mra
cial
ized
co
nce
pti
on
s o
fd
iffe
ren
ce.
Th
is b
road
er a
pp
roac
h a
lso
hel
ps
us
to s
ee th
at r
ace,
eth
nic
ity,
an
d n
a-ti
on
are
no
t so
mu
ch d
iscr
ete
enti
ties
or
thin
gs i
n t
hem
selv
es b
ut
rath
erm
od
es o
fp
erce
pti
on
or
way
s o
fm
akin
g se
nse
of
the
wo
rld
.28
In t
his
fo
r-m
ula
tio
n,
the
salie
nt
qu
esti
on
is
no
t w
het
her
an
tise
mit
ism
an
d a
nti
-Tu
rk-
ish
xen
op
ho
bia
rea
lly c
ou
nt
as r
acis
m?
Or
wh
at d
iffe
ren
tiat
es r
egu
lar
old
pre
jud
ice
fro
m d
ange
rou
s ra
cism
? B
ut
rath
er h
ow d
oes
rac
e th
ink
ing
get
op
erat
ion
aliz
ed?
Wh
en a
nd
why
do
peo
ple
in
terp
ret
soci
al e
xper
ien
ce i
nra
cial
or
eth
nic
ter
ms?
Wh
at a
bo
ut
a p
arti
cula
r h
isto
rica
l m
om
ent
lead
sp
eop
le t
o in
voke
rac
e o
r et
hn
icit
y as
an
exp
lan
atio
n fo
r so
cial
rel
atio
ns,
so
-ci
al r
esen
tmen
ts, o
r ev
en s
oci
al v
iole
nce
? O
ur
inte
nti
on
her
e is
no
t to
off
erd
e‹n
itiv
e an
alys
es o
fan
tise
mit
ism
or
anti
-Tu
rkis
h x
eno
ph
ob
ia,
or
to e
x-p
licat
e th
e re
lati
on
ship
bet
wee
n t
hem
on
ce a
nd
fo
r al
l, bu
t to
dra
w a
tten
-ti
on
to
th
e k
ind
s o
fq
ues
tio
ns
op
ened
up
by
mak
ing
race
as
a w
ay o
fun
-de
rsta
ndin
g th
e so
cial
w
orld
an
on
goin
g an
d
cen
tral
n
arra
tive
w
ith
inm
od
ern
Ger
man
his
tory
.29
At
this
po
int,
it a
lso
see
ms
nec
essa
ry t
o a
sk w
hat
is t
o b
e ga
ined
an
dw
hat
is t
o b
e lo
st w
ith
an
ap
pro
ach
th
at in
sist
s o
n s
eein
g “r
ace”
as a
sal
ien
tca
tego
ry,
and
rac
ializ
atio
n a
s a
con
tinu
ing
pra
ctic
e, w
ith
in G
erm
an h
is-
tory
. Th
ere
is u
nea
se, e
spec
ially
am
on
g E
uro
pea
ns,
wit
h w
hat
see
ms
to b
eth
e im
po
siti
on
of
an A
mer
ican
mo
del
—ra
ce—
on
a r
adic
ally
dif
fere
nt
Eu
-ro
pea
n h
isto
ry, s
oci
ety,
an
d s
et o
fva
lues
. To
be
sure
, th
e co
nce
pt
of
Ras
seh
as b
een
clo
sely
ass
oci
ated
wit
h t
he
dis
cip
lines
of
anth
rop
olo
gy a
nd
eu
-ge
nic
s, t
rad
itio
nal
ly in
volv
ed a
‹xa
tio
n o
n J
ews
and
Sla
vs, a
nd
was
gen
er-
ally
trea
ted
as
an o
nto
logi
cal c
ateg
ory
. Th
us,
for
man
y G
erm
ans
bo
rn a
fter
14A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
Wo
rld
War
II,
th
e id
ea o
fu
sin
g th
e w
ord
is
tan
tam
ou
nt
to v
alid
atin
g th
eas
sum
pti
on
s, b
elie
fs,
and
fal
se s
cien
ce o
n w
hic
h i
t h
ad b
een
bas
ed.
Yet
wh
at is
co
nsi
sten
t b
etw
een
“ra
ce”
and
“R
asse
”is
th
e in
sist
ence
on
loo
kin
gfo
r d
iffe
ren
ces
bet
wee
n p
eop
le.
In t
his
res
pec
t, w
e ar
e tr
yin
g to
op
en u
p a
wh
ole
‹el
d o
f“r
ace”
and
rac
e th
ink
ing,
a b
road
er f
ram
ewo
rk t
hat
wo
uld
allo
w t
hes
e tw
o c
on
cep
ts t
o b
e se
en a
s co
mp
arab
le b
ut
also
nev
er f
ully
sta
-bl
e. M
axim
Silv
erm
an h
as o
bse
rved
for
a F
ren
ch s
oci
ety
that
has
sim
ilarl
yre
ject
ed t
he
wo
rd r
ace
that
“th
e b
anis
hm
ent
of
the
term
is n
o g
uar
ante
e o
fth
e b
anis
hm
ent
of
the
pra
ctic
e.”3
0
Ou
r in
ten
tio
n i
s ce
rtai
nly
no
t to
len
d c
red
ence
to
th
e so
cial
cat
ego
ryo
f“r
ace”
as a
bio
logi
cal o
r o
nto
logi
cal r
ealit
y o
r to
su
gges
t th
at w
e ac
cep
tsu
ch a
vie
w b
ut
rath
er t
o u
se t
he
term
as
a cr
itic
al c
on
cep
t th
at e
nab
les
us
to p
erce
ive
pro
cess
es o
fra
cial
izat
ion
, th
e w
ays
Ger
man
so
ciet
y h
as b
een
and
rem
ain
s st
ruct
ure
d a
cco
rdin
g to
id
eas
abo
ut
fun
dam
enta
l (a
nd
oft
enh
iera
rch
ical
) d
iffe
ren
ces
amo
ng
gro
up
s o
fp
eop
les.
It
is i
mp
ort
ant
to b
ecl
ear
abo
ut
the
pre
cise
mo
men
ts w
hen
rac
ializ
ed t
hin
kin
g b
ecam
e o
per
a-ti
on
al: w
hen
, how
, an
d w
hy s
pec
i‹c
sect
ors
of
the
po
pu
lati
on
are
iden
ti‹
edan
d t
arge
ted
as
con
stit
uti
ng
“gro
up
s”im
bued
wit
h s
ign
i‹ca
nt
and
mea
n-
ingf
ul
dif
fere
nce
s fr
om
th
e m
ajo
rity
po
pu
lati
on
. W
hen
, h
ow,
why
, an
d b
yw
ho
m i
s “g
rou
pn
ess”
mo
bili
zed
, to
bo
rrow
Rog
ers
Bru
bak
er’s
ter
min
ol-
ogy,
an
d t
o w
hat
po
litic
al, s
oci
al, a
nd
cu
ltu
ral e
ffec
t?3
1
Feh
ren
bac
h
dem
on
stra
tes
qu
ite
clea
rly
that
in
th
e ‹
rst
po
stw
ard
ecad
es t
he
Am
eric
an m
od
el o
fra
ce d
id, i
n f
act,
hav
e a
maj
or
in›
uen
ce o
nW
est
Ger
man
par
amet
ers
for
thin
kin
g ab
ou
t an
d fo
rmu
lati
ng
soci
al p
olic
yo
n A
fro
-Ger
man
occ
up
atio
n c
hild
ren
. A
t th
e sa
me
tim
e, C
hin
su
gges
tsth
at r
acia
lized
no
tio
ns
of
dif
fere
nce
on
ly b
ecam
e n
eces
sary
fo
r u
nd
er-
stan
din
g gu
est
wo
rker
s o
nce
th
e F
eder
al R
epu
blic
beg
an t
o a
ckn
owle
dge
thes
e m
igra
nts
as
per
man
ent
mem
ber
s o
fso
ciet
y. S
uch
exa
mp
les
vivi
dly
il-
lust
rate
th
e n
eces
sity
of
op
enin
g o
ur
eyes
to
th
e h
isto
rica
lly c
on
tin
gen
tp
roce
sses
of
raci
aliz
atio
n a
nd
eth
nic
izat
ion
. In
dee
d,
we
can
no
t gr
asp
th
efu
ll ra
nge
of
soci
al e
xper
ien
ce in
po
stw
ar W
est
Ger
man
y w
ith
ou
t th
is c
rit-
ical
per
spec
tive
.
Raci
al
Ideo
logie
s in
Tra
nsn
ati
onal
Per
spec
tive
Rac
ial
ideo
logi
es,
alth
ou
gh t
ypic
ally
inv
esti
gate
d a
nd
co
nce
ptu
aliz
ed i
nn
atio
nal
ter
ms,
are
fu
nd
amen
tally
inte
rnat
ion
al a
nd
tra
nsn
atio
nal
in r
efer
-en
ce. T
his
ext
end
s fr
om
sp
eci‹
cally
nat
ion
al r
egim
es o
fb
elo
ngi
ng
such
as
Intr
oduc
tion
15
citi
zen
ship
an
d im
mig
rati
on
po
licy,
wh
ich
are
gro
un
ded
in c
on
cep
tio
ns
of
“us”
and
“o
ther
”an
d a
rtic
ula
te t
he
lega
l b
asis
fo
r in
clu
sio
n i
n a
nd
exc
lu-
sio
n f
rom
th
e n
atio
n,
thro
ugh
so
cial
po
licy,
to
po
pu
lar
no
tio
ns
and
cu
l-tu
ral
exp
ress
ion
s o
fd
iffe
ren
ce.
In t
his
, G
erm
any
was
lik
e o
ther
mo
der
nE
uro
pea
n n
atio
ns
of
the
eigh
teen
th a
nd
nin
etee
nth
cen
turi
es,
fou
nd
edu
po
n t
he
lan
guag
e o
fet
hn
ic s
elf-
det
erm
inat
ion
an
d r
igh
ts.
Wh
at d
iffe
red
in t
he
Ger
man
cas
e w
ere
the
his
tori
cal,
geog
rap
hic
al,
and
th
eref
ore
th
eid
eolo
gica
l par
ticu
lars
. Ger
man
un
i‹ca
tio
n a
nd
nat
ion
bu
ildin
g in
th
e la
ten
inet
een
th c
entu
ry r
esu
lted
fro
m a
hal
fd
ecad
e o
fw
ars
(aga
inst
th
e D
anes
,th
e H
apsb
urg
Au
stri
ans,
an
d th
e F
ren
ch),
wh
ich
wer
e o
rch
estr
ated
to fo
rge
a p
olit
y, c
itiz
enry
, an
d, u
ltim
atel
y, a
loya
lty
to t
he
new
Ger
man
nat
ion
an
dit
s P
rote
stan
t P
russ
ian
Kai
ser
amo
ng
a d
iver
se c
olle
ctio
n o
fce
ntr
al E
uro
-p
ean
s d
ivid
ed n
ot o
nly
by
regi
on
an
d r
elig
ion
bu
t als
o b
y la
ngu
age
and
eth
-n
ic id
enti
‹ca
tio
n. T
he
Ger
man
nat
ion
th
at r
esu
lted
was
har
dly
a h
om
oge-
neo
us
idea
l, bu
t a m
ore
het
erog
eneo
us
mix
that
incl
ud
ed m
ino
rity
rel
igio
ns
(Cat
ho
licis
m a
nd
Ju
dai
sm)
and
asc
rib
ed e
thn
icit
ies
(Po
les,
Cze
chs,
Dan
es,
Fre
nch
, S
orb
s, S
inti
, an
d R
om
a).
Th
e q
ues
t to
fo
ster
nat
ion
al l
oyal
ty a
nd
Ger
man
id
enti
ty i
nvo
lved
exp
licit
att
emp
ts b
y th
e st
ate
and
its
aca
dem
ices
tabl
ish
men
t to
del
inea
te t
he
soci
al a
nd
cu
ltu
ral d
iffe
ren
ces
bet
wee
n G
er-
man
s an
d t
hei
r O
ther
s, b
oth
do
mes
tic
and
fo
reig
n.
Th
is e
nco
mp
asse
dst
rate
gies
as
div
erse
as
Bis
mar
ck’s
Ku
ltu
rkam
pf
(187
3–79
), w
hic
h t
arge
ted
Po
les
and
Cat
ho
lics;
imp
eria
l exp
ansi
on
in o
vers
eas
colo
nie
s p
rio
r to
191
8an
d i
n E
uro
pe
pro
per
th
rou
gh 1
945;
a n
atio
nal
ity
law
(19
13)
bas
ed u
po
np
atri
arch
al d
esce
nt
and
an
eth
nic
ized
no
tio
n o
fD
euts
chtu
m;a
nd
th
e cu
lti-
vati
on
of
soci
al k
now
led
ges
of
race
—su
ch a
s co
lon
ial a
nth
rop
olo
gy, O
st-
fors
chun
g, e
uge
nic
s, a
nd
oth
er r
acia
l sci
ence
s—th
at le
giti
mat
ed s
tate
init
ia-
tive
s ra
ngin
g fr
om c
onqu
est,
col
oniz
atio
n, n
atio
naliz
atio
n, a
nd d
epor
tati
onto
ado
ptio
n, a
bort
ion,
Ary
aniz
atio
n, s
teri
lizat
ion,
eut
hana
sia,
ens
lave
men
t,m
ass
expu
lsio
ns,
and
even
tual
ly
geno
cide
. G
erm
an
nati
onal
id
enti
tyem
erge
d an
d ev
olve
d ac
cord
ing
to a
pro
trac
ted
polit
ics
ofdi
ffer
ence
that
es-
tabl
ishe
d G
erm
an s
ubje
ctiv
ity
and
supe
rior
ity
by d
elin
eati
ng t
hese
fro
mth
eir
hist
oric
ally
, geo
grap
hica
lly, a
nd p
olit
ical
ly r
elev
ant O
ther
s. B
y th
e ea
rly
twen
tiet
h ce
ntur
y, G
erm
anne
ss w
as d
e‹ne
d in
opp
osit
ion
to a
num
ber
ofra
cial
ly d
e‹ne
d ca
tego
ries
of
perc
eive
d al
iens
res
idin
g in
Ger
man
y, i
tsco
loni
es,
and
its
bord
erla
nds,
nam
ely,
Jew
s, S
lavs
, B
lack
s, a
nd “
Gyp
sies
.”32
Bec
ause
thi
s pr
oces
s w
as “
enm
eshe
d”w
ith
the
ques
t fo
r “n
atio
nal
iden
tity
and
cohe
sion
,”w
e ca
ll it
a n
atio
naliz
ing
polit
ics
ofdi
ffer
ence
.33
Th
is n
atio
nal
izin
g p
olit
ics
of
dif
fere
nce
was
res
po
nsi
ve t
o m
ore
th
anm
erel
y th
e ac
cid
ents
of
geog
rap
hy a
nd
lo
caliz
ed i
nte
rnat
ion
al p
ress
ure
s,
16A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
wh
eth
er a
ctu
al o
r p
erce
ived
. It
also
dev
elo
ped
in o
ngo
ing
dia
logu
e w
ith
ala
rger
in
tern
atio
nal
mar
ketp
lace
of
idea
s an
d i
nte
ract
ion
s. I
n t
his
sen
se,
Ger
man
rac
ial i
deo
logi
es—
tho
ugh
art
icu
late
d t
hro
ugh
nat
ion
al la
ws,
po
li-ci
es,
and
pra
ctic
es—
hav
e b
een
sh
aped
by
a tr
ansn
atio
nal
dyn
amic
.34
Be-
gin
nin
g in
th
e n
inet
een
th c
entu
ry,
this
inv
olv
ed,
amo
ng
oth
er t
hin
gs,
the
pro
fess
ion
al in
tera
ctio
ns
of
bio
logi
sts,
an
thro
po
logi
sts,
an
d e
thn
ogra
ph
ers
wit
hin
a g
row
ing
inte
rnat
ion
al a
cad
emic
cir
cuit
of
con
fere
nce
s, r
esea
rch
inst
itu
tes,
an
d jo
urn
als
that
res
ult
ed in
the
circ
ula
tio
n o
fso
cial
kn
owle
dge
so
fra
ce,
now
un
hin
ged
fro
m t
he
nat
ion
al c
on
text
wit
hin
wh
ich
th
ey h
adb
een
art
icu
late
d,
for
sele
ctiv
e b
orr
owin
g o
r tr
ansp
lan
tati
on
els
ewh
ere.
35
Rac
ial i
deo
logi
es w
ere
also
sh
aped
by
a ra
nge
of
inte
ract
ion
s b
etw
een
no
r-m
ativ
e G
erm
ans
and
per
ceiv
ed r
acia
l al
ien
s in
th
e w
ork
pla
ce,
nei
ghb
or-
ho
od
, str
eet,
sh
op,
sch
oo
l, m
ilita
ry, a
nd
eve
n t
he
ho
me
(in
th
e ca
se o
fd
o-
mes
tic
serv
ants
) in
Ger
man
y p
rop
er,
in G
erm
any’
s co
lon
ial
terr
ito
ries
in
Afr
ica,
Asi
a, a
nd
Eu
rop
e, a
nd
du
rin
g G
erm
ans’
trav
els
abro
ad.
A t
hir
d c
ruci
al t
ran
snat
ion
al n
etw
ork
fo
r th
e cu
ltiv
atio
n o
fso
cial
kn
owle
dge
an
d c
ult
ura
l re
pre
sen
tati
on
s o
fra
ce w
as t
he
exp
and
ing
glo
bal
mar
ket.
Th
is u
nle
ash
ed a
his
tori
cally
un
pre
ced
ente
d i
ncr
ease
in
tra
nsn
a-ti
on
al m
igra
nt
lab
or
and
th
e m
ass
circ
ula
tio
n o
fco
mm
erci
al m
edia
an
dp
rod
uct
s—su
ch a
s m
ovie
s, m
usi
c, m
agaz
ines
, fas
hio
n, a
nd
co
smet
ics—
that
dis
sem
inat
ed p
ote
nt
imag
es a
nd
nar
rati
ves
of
race
.36
Rac
ial a
esth
etic
s an
did
eolo
gy a
re a
n in
tegr
al e
xpre
ssio
n o
fm
od
ern
ity,
imp
licat
ed in
its
po
litic
al,
soci
al,
cult
ura
l, an
d e
con
om
ic f
orm
s. M
ob
ilize
d t
hro
ugh
pro
cess
es o
fn
a-ti
on
aliz
atio
n, r
acia
l aes
thet
ics
and
ideo
logi
es h
ave
bee
n p
erp
etu
ated
by
anin
crea
sin
gly
mo
bile
an
d g
lob
al c
apit
alis
t ec
on
om
y.3
7T
he
Ger
man
po
litic
so
fra
ce m
ust
be
situ
ated
in t
his
larg
er in
tern
atio
nal
nex
us.
Th
e ar
gum
ent f
or
inve
stig
atin
g th
e p
olit
ics
of
race
as
an o
ngo
ing,
co
n-
stit
uti
ve f
eatu
re o
fm
od
ern
Ger
man
y—an
d m
od
ern
nat
ion
s m
ore
gen
er-
ally
—d
oes
no
t d
isco
un
t th
e dy
nam
ics
of
chan
ge.
Th
e ye
ars
afte
r 19
45 i
nG
erm
any
are
a ca
se i
n p
oin
t. W
ith
mili
tary
def
eat
in M
ay 1
945,
th
ew
arti
me
geog
rap
hy o
fra
ce im
po
sed
up
on
Eu
rop
e by
th
e N
azi r
egim
e w
asth
rust
bac
k in
to G
erm
any,
in p
arti
cula
r in
to th
e w
este
rn z
on
es o
ccu
pie
d b
yth
e B
riti
sh a
nd
th
e A
mer
ican
s. D
efea
ted
Ger
man
s w
itn
esse
d t
he
in›
ux
of
thei
r fo
rmer
rac
ializ
ed e
nem
ies
in t
he
form
of
Jew
ish
, S
lavi
c, a
nd
Sov
iet
DP
s, w
ho
wer
e lib
erat
ed f
rom
sla
ve l
abo
r an
d t
he
dea
th c
amp
s o
r, a
bit
late
r, h
ad ›
ed w
estw
ard
in t
he
face
of
pog
rom
s in
ear
ly p
ost
war
Po
lan
d.3
8
Sim
ult
aneo
usl
y, G
erm
ans
wer
e su
bo
rdin
ated
to
th
e m
ult
ieth
nic
mili
tari
eso
fth
e B
riti
sh,
Fre
nch
, S
ovie
t, a
nd
U.S
. vi
cto
rs.
In t
erm
s o
fp
olit
ical
au
-th
ori
ty a
nd
so
cial
dem
ogra
ph
ics,
May
194
5 re
pre
sen
ted
an
ab
rup
t ru
ptu
re
Intr
oduc
tion
17
for
Ger
man
s. T
he
resi
den
t p
op
ula
tio
n w
ith
in t
hei
r o
ccu
pie
d b
ord
ers
in-
crea
sed
an
d b
ecam
e et
hn
ical
ly d
iver
se. D
ue
to m
ilita
ry o
ccu
pat
ion
, mo
re-
over
, G
erm
ans
had
lo
st t
hei
r fo
rmal
ized
po
litic
al a
nd
so
cial
su
per
iori
ty.
Th
ey n
o l
on
ger
exer
cise
d a
uth
ori
ty a
t h
om
e o
r ab
road
. T
hei
r h
iera
rch
ical
soci
al a
nd
rac
ial
ord
er h
ad b
eco
me
dis
ord
ered
. B
ut
exac
tly
how
in
tera
c-ti
on
s w
ith
fore
ign
Alli
ed s
up
erio
rs, p
rote
cted
DP
su
rviv
ors
, an
d r
efu
gees
—an
d c
on
tact
wit
h v
icto
rs’
own
rac
ial
atti
tud
es a
nd
id
eolo
gies
—af
fect
edp
ost
war
Ger
man
s’n
oti
on
s o
fra
cial
an
d n
atio
nal
iden
tity
an
d t
hei
r ex
pec
-ta
tio
ns
con
cern
ing
the
con
ten
t an
d s
oci
al c
on
seq
uen
ces
of
dem
ocr
atiz
a-ti
on
is s
till
insu
f‹ci
entl
y u
nd
erst
oo
d.
No
net
hel
ess,
it
is c
lear
th
at t
he
alte
red
in
tern
atio
nal
co
nte
xt a
nd
tran
snat
ion
al in
tera
ctio
ns
wit
hin
occ
up
ied
Ger
man
y p
rod
uce
d a
dra
mat
icim
pac
t. M
ilita
ry o
ccu
pat
ion
, co
mb
ined
wit
h p
ost
war
Ger
man
s’o
bse
rva-
tio
n o
fan
tibl
ack
rac
ism
in t
he
U.S
. arm
y an
d o
ften
vio
len
t re
acti
on
to
th
eci
vil
righ
ts m
ovem
ent,
a g
row
ing
mar
ket
for
Afr
ican
Am
eric
an r
ock
’n’
roll,
jazz
, an
d r
hyth
m a
nd
blu
es, a
nd
th
e p
olit
ical
des
tab
iliza
tio
n c
ause
d b
yd
eco
lon
izat
ion
cre
ated
a n
ew le
ns
thro
ugh
wh
ich
Ger
man
s b
egan
to
inte
r-p
ret
“rac
e.”3
9A
s G
erm
any
abru
ptl
y re
ced
ed a
s a
glo
bal
po
litic
al a
nd
mili
-ta
ry p
ower
, th
e si
gni‹
can
t si
tes
of
race
ap
pea
red
to
mov
e el
sew
her
e. I
n t
he
dec
ades
aft
er W
orl
d W
ar I
I, G
erm
ans
on
bo
th s
ides
of
the
Co
ld W
ar b
or-
der
incr
easi
ngl
y in
tern
atio
nal
ized
—an
d W
este
rniz
ed—
the
race
pro
blem
.B
y th
e tu
rn o
fth
e 19
50s,
Ger
man
co
mm
enta
tors
iden
ti‹
ed r
acis
t p
ol-
icy
and
beh
avio
r—an
d t
her
efo
re p
reo
ccu
pat
ion
s w
ith
“ra
ce”
as a
so
cial
cate
gory
—p
rim
arily
wit
h t
he
Un
ited
Sta
tes
and
, se
con
dar
ily,
wit
h t
hei
rW
este
rn E
uro
pea
n n
eigh
bo
rs e
nga
ged
in
th
e p
ain
ful
pro
cess
of
dec
olo
-n
izat
ion
. T
his
was
lik
ely
a fu
nct
ion
of
seve
ral
dev
elo
pm
ents
, al
l o
fw
hic
hw
ere
con
nec
ted
to
th
e d
rast
ical
ly c
han
ged
geo
po
litic
al s
itu
atio
n a
fter
Wo
rld
War
II
and
th
e em
ergi
ng
bip
ola
r w
orl
d.
Fir
st w
as t
he
ado
pti
on
, in
Ger
man
y, o
fan
Am
eric
an m
od
el o
fra
ce,
bas
ed u
po
n s
kin
co
lor
and
abl
ack
-wh
ite
bin
ary,
an
d a
co
rres
po
nd
ing
dis
arti
cula
tio
n o
fan
tise
mit
ism
fro
m r
acis
m. S
eco
nd
, th
e F
eder
al R
epu
blic
exp
erie
nce
d a
dem
ogra
ph
ic d
e-cl
ine,
as
a re
sult
of
the
Ho
loca
ust
an
d a
vid
em
igra
tio
n, o
fJe
ws
and
oth
erm
ino
riti
es w
ho
wer
e G
erm
an c
itiz
ens
rath
er th
an G
erm
an r
esid
ents
. Th
ird
,th
e em
erge
nce
of
the
Co
ld W
ar a
nd
pro
lifer
atio
n o
fso
cial
ist
stat
es u
nd
erS
ovie
t p
atro
nag
e p
rod
uce
d a
new
typ
e o
fp
olit
ick
ing
that
eag
erly
adv
er-
tise
d t
he
dis
crep
anci
es b
etw
een
th
e lo
fty
pro
mis
es a
nd
th
e p
reju
dic
ed p
rac-
tice
s o
fA
mer
ican
cap
ital
ist
dem
ocr
acy
at h
om
e an
d a
bro
ad.
At
the
sam
eti
me,
Eu
rop
ean
so
cial
ist
stat
es a
ctiv
ely
sup
po
rted
th
e lib
erat
ion
mov
e-
18A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
men
ts o
fco
lon
ials
aga
inst
th
eir
Wes
tern
Eu
rop
ean
mas
ters
an
d c
on
cur-
ren
tly
shie
lded
th
eir
own
do
mes
tic
soci
al i
lls f
rom
scr
uti
ny.4
0T
he
rise
of
Am
eric
an in
tern
atio
nal
in›
uen
ce, c
om
bin
ed w
ith
th
e so
cial
ear
thq
uak
e o
fth
e U
.S.
civi
l ri
ghts
mov
emen
t an
d a
dec
line
in W
este
rn E
uro
pea
n c
ou
n-
trie
s’ab
ility
to
mai
nta
in t
hei
r im
per
ial
pow
er a
bro
ad,
refo
cuse
d t
he
inte
r-n
atio
nal
bat
tleg
rou
nd
of
“rac
e”aw
ay f
rom
Ger
man
y. T
his
dev
elo
pm
ent
was
lik
ely
furt
her
pro
pel
led
by
the
New
Lef
t ra
dic
alis
m o
fth
e st
ud
ent
mov
emen
t, w
hic
h w
as g
rou
nd
ed i
n a
cri
tiq
ue
of
the
op
pre
ssiv
e so
cial
ef-
fect
s o
fgl
ob
al c
apit
alis
m in
gen
eral
an
d A
mer
ican
pow
er in
par
ticu
lar.
41
To
su
m u
p, i
t m
igh
t b
e u
sefu
l to
mak
e a
cou
ple
of
ob
serv
atio
ns.
De‹
nit
ion
s o
fra
ce/R
asse
are
no
t h
isto
rica
lly s
tabl
e an
d w
ere
in a
per
iod
of
trem
end
ou
s ›
ux
in t
he
po
st-1
945
per
iod
in
bot
h E
uro
pe
and
th
e U
nit
edS
tate
s. T
he
ideo
logi
es o
f“r
ace”
and
“R
asse
,” t
ho
ugh
ass
oci
ated
wit
h d
is-
tin
ctiv
e n
atio
nal
-cu
ltu
ral
trad
itio
ns,
did
no
t ev
olv
e in
sp
len
did
iso
lati
on
but
thro
ugh
in
ten
se m
utu
al i
nte
ract
ion
, p
arti
cula
rly
afte
r W
orl
d W
ar I
I.B
y th
e 19
60s,
Ger
man
s an
d t
hei
r h
isto
rian
s ca
me
to r
ecog
niz
e “r
ace”
on
lyin
mo
men
ts o
fov
ert
raci
al v
iole
nce
an
d i
ncr
easi
ngl
y ar
ou
nd
pro
blem
s o
fco
lor—
such
as
the
eras
of
Naz
i d
om
inat
ion
, d
eco
lon
izat
ion
, o
r th
e U
.S.
civi
l rig
hts
mov
emen
t. A
s a
resu
lt, t
he
stu
dy o
fq
ues
tio
ns
of
race
has
bee
nco
rdo
ned
off
to p
erio
ds
of
hig
h s
oci
al d
ram
a o
r d
estr
uct
ion
. Th
is h
as le
dto
a n
egle
ct o
fth
e m
ore
su
btl
e ye
t n
on
eth
eles
s si
gni‹
can
t w
ays
that
no
-ti
on
s o
fd
iffe
ren
ce h
ave
stru
ctu
red
a m
ore
sta
ble,
dem
ocr
atic
Ger
man
so
ci-
ety,
eco
no
my,
an
d c
ult
ure
sin
ce 1
945.
Th
e te
nd
ency
of
po
st-1
945
Ger
man
s to
in
tern
atio
nal
ize
the
pro
blem
of
race
an
d u
nco
up
le i
t fr
om
th
e co
nte
mp
ora
ry G
erm
an c
on
text
has
ex-
ten
ded
to
th
e h
isto
rica
l sc
ho
lars
hip
of
the
po
stw
ar p
erio
d,
as w
e h
ave
no
ted
. We
wan
t to
insi
st t
hat
a n
atio
nal
izin
g p
olit
ics
of
race
per
sist
ed a
fter
1945
, if
in a
n a
lter
ed f
orm
. Pro
cess
es o
fra
cial
izat
ion
did
no
t en
d w
ith
th
ed
emis
e o
fG
erm
any’
s gl
ob
al p
olit
ical
an
d m
ilita
ry p
ower
. In
fac
t, o
ne
cou
ld a
rgu
e ju
st t
he
op
po
site
: th
at i
n t
imes
of
mili
tary
def
eat,
fo
reig
n o
c-cu
pat
ion
, an
d p
erce
ived
so
cial
an
d m
ora
l dis
ord
er, t
he
imp
etu
s fo
r a
po
li-ti
cs o
fn
atio
nal
red
e‹n
itio
n a
nd
rec
on
stit
uti
on
inte
nsi
‹ed
. As
the
follo
win
ges
says
mak
e cl
ear,
rac
ializ
ed n
oti
on
s o
fb
oth
Ger
man
co
hes
iven
ess
and
un
assi
mila
ble
dif
fere
nce
per
sist
ed a
nd
in
form
ed t
his
pro
cess
in
sig
ni‹
can
tan
d in
suf‹
cien
tly
ack
now
led
ged
way
s. A
fter
all,
Ger
man
y w
as d
ivid
ed in
totw
o C
old
War
sta
tes,
eac
h o
fw
hic
h f
aced
th
e ta
sk o
fn
atio
nal
rec
on
stru
c-ti
on
via
po
litic
al,
soci
al,
and
id
eolo
gica
l re
de‹
nit
ion
. H
ow t
hey
de‹
ned
them
selv
es a
nd
th
eir
Oth
ers
was
key
to
th
is p
roce
ss.
Wh
at l
esso
ns
wer
e
Intr
oduc
tion
19
lear
ned
? W
hat
mo
del
s w
ere
emp
loye
d?
An
d a
lth
ou
gh r
acia
l dis
crim
inat
ion
was
ou
tlaw
ed i
n b
oth
sta
tes,
did
th
ey e
nvis
ion
so
ciet
ies
built
up
on
rac
ial
tole
ran
ce o
r in
tegr
atio
n?
Did
th
ey, i
n p
ract
ice,
pu
rsu
e b
oth
—o
r ei
ther
?
Race
and D
emocr
acy
Rec
onsi
der
ed
Wh
at e
mer
ges
fro
m t
his
tra
nsn
atio
nal
per
spec
tive
, es
pec
ially
fo
r th
e p
ost
-19
45 p
erio
d, i
s a
mo
re c
om
ple
x u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
the
rela
tio
nsh
ip b
etw
een
race
an
d d
emo
crac
y. A
s th
e U
.S. c
ase
dem
on
stra
tes
mo
st v
ivid
ly, c
om
mit
-m
ents
to
rac
ial
hie
rarc
hie
s an
d d
emo
crac
y w
ere
no
t in
com
pat
ible
. W
hile
Am
eric
an le
ader
s in
Ger
man
y p
reac
hed
dem
ocr
atiz
atio
n a
nd
so
ugh
t to
lay
its
fou
nd
atio
n t
hro
ugh
den
azi‹
cati
on
an
d r
eed
uca
tio
n,
this
mis
sio
n w
asca
rrie
d o
ut
init
ially
by
a se
greg
ated
U.S
. Arm
y. D
esp
ite
the
Am
eric
an m
il-it
ary’
s b
est
effo
rts
to d
own
pla
y th
e ra
cist
pra
ctic
es o
fit
s ow
n o
rgan
izat
ion
,th
e le
sso
n t
hat
wh
ite
sup
rem
acy
and
rac
ial
ineq
ual
ity
cou
ld c
oex
ist
wit
hd
emo
crac
y ca
me
thro
ugh
lo
ud
an
d c
lear
to
occ
up
ied
Ger
man
s.4
2D
uri
ng
the
init
ial e
ffo
rts
to m
ete
ou
t ju
stic
e, m
ore
over
, Am
eric
an o
f‹ci
als
insi
sted
on
iden
tify
ing
Naz
i vic
tim
s o
n t
he
bas
is o
fn
atio
nal
ity
and
ref
use
d t
o r
ec-
ogn
ize
Jew
s as
a
spec
ial
gro
up
th
at
cut
acro
ss
nat
ion
al
lines
. T
his
clas
si‹
cati
on
sys
tem
had
th
e ef
fect
of
ob
scu
rin
g th
e d
eep
ly r
acia
lized
dis
-ti
nct
ion
s th
at a
nim
ated
Naz
i dec
isio
ns
abo
ut
wh
o s
ho
uld
live
or
die
.43
Yet
by
1949
, as
Gro
ssm
ann
po
ints
ou
t, k
ey A
mer
ican
dip
lom
ats
such
as U
.S.
hig
h c
om
mis
sio
ner
Jo
hn
McC
loy
insi
sted
th
at t
he
Wes
t G
erm
anst
ance
tow
ard
its
rem
ain
ing
Jew
ish
po
pu
lati
on
wo
uld
ser
ve a
s a
mea
sure
of
the
cou
ntr
y’s
dem
ocr
atiz
atio
n.
Am
eric
an l
ead
ers
furt
her
su
gges
ted
th
atco
mm
itm
ent
to t
he
Wes
tern
alli
ance
co
mp
elle
d W
est
Ger
man
s to
ac-
kn
owle
dge
Ger
man
res
po
nsi
bili
ty fo
r th
e H
olo
cau
st.4
4A
ccep
tan
ce in
to th
efa
mily
of
Wes
tern
dem
ocr
acie
s th
us
imp
licit
ly r
equ
ired
a c
lear
rej
ecti
on
of
the
Naz
i ra
cial
pro
ject
. In
pra
ctic
e, t
his
mea
nt
that
th
e ca
tego
ries
of
race
tain
ted
by
the
Naz
i le
gacy
bec
ame
tab
oo,
an
d t
he
lan
guag
e o
fra
ce w
asla
rgel
y p
urg
ed fr
om
Wes
t Ger
man
pu
blic
dis
cou
rse.
At t
he
sam
e ti
me,
ther
ew
as n
o u
nif
orm
or
con
sist
ent
po
licy
agai
nst
rac
ism
; W
est
Ger
man
att
i-tu
des
tow
ard
rac
e sh
ifte
d m
ult
iple
tim
es i
n t
his
per
iod
of
›u
x an
d u
p-
hea
val.
Dif
fere
nt
stra
nd
s o
fra
cism
wer
e tr
eate
d d
iffe
ren
tly:
wh
erea
s it
was
po
ssib
le t
o a
cco
mm
od
ate
the
raci
alis
t b
inar
y o
fbl
ack
/wh
ite
in t
hin
kin
gab
ou
t A
fro
-Ger
man
“M
isch
ling
e,”
it s
imu
ltan
eou
sly
bec
ame
imp
oss
ible
to
invo
ke R
asse
in r
elat
ion
to
th
e Je
wis
h r
emn
ant
in t
he
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ican
d, m
ore
gen
eral
ly, a
s a
soci
al c
ateg
ory
in p
ubl
ic d
iscu
ssio
n.
20A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
Th
is c
om
plic
ated
rel
atio
nsh
ip b
etw
een
rac
e an
d d
emo
crac
y is
wo
rth
emp
has
izin
g.4
5A
fter
all,
on
e o
fth
e ar
gum
ents
in f
avo
r o
fG
erm
an e
xcep
-ti
on
alis
m w
as i
ts p
urp
ort
edly
ove
rly
rigo
rou
s ra
cism
. T
her
e se
ems
to b
eso
me
resi
du
al a
ccep
tan
ce o
fth
is t
hes
is, s
ince
sch
ola
rs h
ave
oft
en o
per
ated
on
th
e as
sum
pti
on
th
at W
est
Ger
man
y w
as “
cure
d”
of
this
pro
blem
wit
hth
e ad
ven
t o
fd
emo
crac
y.4
6O
r, i
n t
he
case
of
Eas
t G
erm
any,
was
blo
cked
fro
m e
xpre
ssin
g ra
cist
val
ues
an
d b
ehav
iors
pu
blic
ly b
y th
e re
pre
ssiv
e st
ate
stru
ctu
res
of
soci
alis
m—
at le
ast
wh
ile t
hes
e w
ere
in p
lace
. Th
e la
ck o
fh
is-
tori
cal
atte
nti
on
to
po
stw
ar p
roce
sses
of
raci
aliz
atio
n e
vin
ces
an u
nq
ues
-ti
on
ing
acce
pta
nce
of
the
myt
ho
logy
of
Wes
tern
dem
ocr
acy,
wh
ich
su
g-ge
sts
that
dem
ocr
acy
actu
ally
en
acts
—an
d d
oes
n’t
just
rep
rese
nt
itse
lfas
asp
irin
g to
—p
olit
ical
an
d s
oci
al e
qu
alit
y. I
n t
he
case
of
Wes
t G
erm
any,
tak
ing
the
dis
cou
rse
of
dem
ocr
atiz
atio
n a
t fa
ce v
alu
e h
as m
ade
it d
if‹
cult
to g
rasp
th
e w
ays
in w
hic
h a
ssu
mp
tio
ns
of
dif
fere
nce
co
nti
nue
to s
hap
e so
-ci
al p
olic
y, s
oci
al p
ract
ices
, an
d c
ult
ura
l rep
rese
nta
tio
n.
Wh
ile s
cho
lars
hav
e n
ote
d h
ow G
erm
an l
aw h
as d
raw
n e
xclu
sive
bo
un
dar
ies
aro
un
d c
itiz
ensh
ip a
nd
nat
ion
al b
elo
ngi
ng
to e
xclu
de
mig
ran
tla
bo
rers
, th
ey h
ave
add
ress
ed t
his
pat
tern
in t
erm
s o
fec
on
om
ic a
nd
lab
or
nee
ds
or
imm
igra
tio
n la
w. T
her
e h
as g
ener
ally
bee
n v
ery
littl
e sc
ho
larl
y d
is-
cuss
ion
cas
tin
g th
e is
sue
in t
erm
s o
fra
cial
ized
co
nce
pti
on
s o
fn
atio
n, o
fa
lon
ger
his
tory
of
raci
al e
xclu
sio
n.4
7Y
et d
emo
crac
y an
d r
ace
wer
e in
ter-
twin
ed i
n W
est
Ger
man
y in
at
leas
t tw
o r
esp
ects
. O
ne
of
the
key
fou
nd
a-ti
on
s fo
r es
tabl
ish
ing
dem
ocr
acy
in t
he
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic w
as b
uild
ing
ast
ron
g an
d s
tabl
e ec
on
om
y. T
his
go
al w
as a
pri
ori
ty fo
r W
este
rn fo
rces
an
dG
erm
an le
ader
s al
ike
bec
ause
of
the
way
s th
at e
con
om
ic v
ola
tilit
y h
ad u
n-
der
min
ed t
he
Wei
mar
Rep
ubl
ic.
As
rela
tio
ns
amo
ng
the
Alli
ed p
ower
ssh
ifte
d w
ith
th
e em
erge
nce
of
the
Co
ld W
ar, m
ore
over
, eco
no
mic
pro
sper
-it
y b
ecam
e a
key
com
po
nen
t o
fth
e A
mer
ican
an
d B
riti
sh e
ffo
rts
to p
re-
clu
de
com
mu
nis
t ta
keov
er a
nd
en
cou
rage
dem
ocr
acy
in t
hei
r o
ccu
pat
ion
zon
es.
Wit
h i
ts u
nex
pec
ted
ly q
uic
k e
con
om
ic r
ecov
ery,
how
ever
, th
e F
ed-
eral
Rep
ubl
ic r
equ
ired
mo
re m
anp
ower
th
an t
he
nat
ive
po
pu
lati
on
co
uld
pro
vid
e, if
it w
as a
lso
to
fu
l‹ll
the
con
serv
ativ
e so
cial
age
nd
a o
fre
turn
ing
Ger
man
wo
men
to
th
e h
om
e. T
o a
ddre
ss t
he
sho
rtag
e o
fac
cep
tabl
e w
ork
-er
s, t
he
gove
rnm
ent
emb
arke
d i
n 1
955
on
an
eig
hte
en-y
ear
per
iod
of
for-
eign
lab
or
recr
uit
men
t fr
om
man
y so
uth
ern
Med
iter
ran
ean
co
un
trie
s, i
n-
clu
din
g It
aly,
Sp
ain
, P
ort
uga
l, G
reec
e, Y
ugo
slav
ia,
and
Mu
slim
Tu
rkey
.U
ltim
atel
y, t
he
dec
isio
n t
o f
uel
th
e ec
on
om
ic m
irac
le w
ith
gu
est
wo
rker
sm
ean
t th
at t
he
pro
cess
of
forg
ing
Wes
t G
erm
an d
emo
crac
y n
eces
sari
ly in
-vo
lved
a r
enew
ed e
nga
gem
ent
wit
h d
iffe
ren
ce.
Intr
oduc
tion
21
Bu
t th
e su
cces
sfu
l bu
ildin
g o
fG
erm
an d
emo
crac
y al
so r
equ
ired
an
-o
ther
, ver
y sp
eci‹
c re
lati
on
ship
to
rac
e: r
epu
dia
tio
n o
fN
azi r
acis
m a
nd
re-
mem
bra
nce
of
Ger
man
co
mp
licit
y in
th
at r
acia
l pro
ject
. By
the
tim
e W
est
Ger
man
y b
ecam
e an
of‹
cial
sta
te,
fed
eral
lea
der
s su
ch a
s K
on
rad
Ad
e-n
auer
un
der
sto
od
th
at a
ccep
tan
ce a
s a
full
par
tner
in
th
e W
este
rn d
emo
-cr
atic
alli
ance
dem
and
ed p
ubl
ic a
dm
issi
on
of
Ger
man
y’s
resp
on
sib
ility
for
the
Ho
loca
ust
.48
Fo
r th
e 19
68 g
ener
atio
n a
dec
ade
and
a h
alf
late
r, i
t w
asth
eir
par
ents
’st
ubb
orn
sile
nce
ab
ou
t th
e d
etai
ls o
fth
e N
azi
per
iod
th
atp
rove
d t
he
tho
rou
gh c
orr
up
tio
n o
fW
est
Ger
man
dem
ocr
acy.
Tru
e d
emo
c-ra
cy, a
cco
rdin
g to
man
y o
fth
ese
you
ng
peo
ple
, was
gro
un
ded
in a
nd
co
uld
on
ly b
e ac
hie
ved
by
seri
ou
s Vergangenheitsbew
ältigung.
Th
is l
efti
st g
ener
atio
nal
cri
tiq
ue
hel
ped
so
lidif
y th
e d
eep
co
nn
ecti
on
bet
wee
n—
ind
eed
, th
e in
sep
arab
ility
of—
the
Wes
t G
erm
an d
emo
crat
icac
hie
vem
ent
and
rej
ecti
on
of
the
raci
st p
ast
(alo
ng
wit
h a
n e
mb
race
of
its
mo
re p
osi
tive
var
ian
t, H
olo
cau
st r
emem
bra
nce
). I
nd
eed
, o
ne
of
the
rea-
son
s C
han
cello
r H
elm
ut
Ko
hl
pro
voke
d s
uch
an
ou
tcry
du
rin
g th
e 19
85B
itbu
rg a
ffai
r w
as t
he
imp
licit
su
gges
tio
n t
hat
fo
ur
dec
ades
of
dem
ocr
atic
com
mit
men
t h
ad b
ou
ght
Wes
t G
erm
any
the
righ
t to
ab
and
on
its
self
-co
n-
scio
usl
y ci
rcu
msp
ect
po
stu
re o
fre
mo
rse
for
the
pas
t. H
is in
vita
tio
n t
o U
.S.
pre
sid
ent
Ro
nal
d R
eaga
n t
o la
y a
wre
ath
at
the
Bit
burg
mili
tary
cem
eter
yin
sp
ite
of
the
pre
sen
ce o
fS
S g
rave
s w
as r
ou
nd
ly c
on
dem
ned
—in
lar
gep
art
bec
ause
it s
eem
ed t
o a
sser
t th
at Vergangenheitsbew
ältigung
no
lon
ger
nee
d b
e at
the
cen
ter
of
Ger
man
dem
ocr
acy.
Th
e fa
ct th
at a
pro
per
att
itu
de
tow
ard
th
e N
azi
pas
t h
as r
emai
ned
a c
orn
erst
on
e o
fG
erm
an d
emo
crac
yw
as s
tark
ly il
lust
rate
d in
th
e re
cen
t re
spo
nse
to
th
e H
itle
r sa
lute
mim
ed b
yN
iger
ian
so
ccer
pla
yer
Ad
ebow
ale
Ogu
ngb
ure
. L
oca
l au
tho
riti
es c
on
-d
emn
ed h
is i
llega
l ge
stu
re a
s im
pro
per
an
d a
nti
thet
ical
to
a d
emo
crat
icG
erm
an s
oci
ety,
mo
re c
on
cern
ed w
ith
th
e le
galit
y o
fh
is a
ct t
han
th
e fa
ctth
at O
gun
gbu
re w
as r
esp
on
din
g to
un
dis
guis
ed a
cts
of
raci
sm.
Th
is in
cid
ent
mak
es c
lear
th
at t
he
dem
ocr
atic
imp
uls
e to
elim
inat
e al
ltr
ace
of
Naz
i ra
cism
has
no
t ro
ote
d o
ut
raci
st a
ctio
n o
r ra
cial
ized
un
der
-st
and
ings
of
dif
fere
nce
fro
m G
erm
an d
emo
crat
ic s
oci
ety.
Th
e sa
me
is t
rue
for
the
hab
itu
al c
om
mem
ora
tio
ns
of
the
Ho
loca
ust
sin
ce t
he
1980
s. T
he
po
stw
ar G
erm
an in
clin
atio
n t
o d
e‹n
e a
new
, dem
ocr
atic
nat
ion
al id
enti
tyin
term
s o
f“c
olle
ctiv
e gu
ilt”
and
a “
com
mu
nit
y o
ffa
te”
rein
scri
bed
an
eth
-n
ical
ly e
xclu
sive
no
tio
n o
fb
elo
ngi
ng.
On
ly t
ho
se w
ho
co
uld
cla
im a
ge-
nea
logi
cal c
on
nec
tio
n to
the
per
pet
rato
rs ‹
t wit
hin
this
co
nce
pti
on
of
Ger
-m
an
iden
tity
. S
om
ewh
at
iro
nic
ally
, th
en,
the
very
ef
fort
to
em
bra
ced
emo
crac
y by
ato
nin
g fo
r th
e N
azi p
ast
inad
vert
entl
y b
ecam
e a
too
l fo
r re
-
22A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
con
stit
uti
ng
a h
om
ogen
eou
s G
erm
an n
atio
n.
Th
e p
reo
ccu
pat
ion
wit
hH
olo
cau
st r
emem
bra
nce
pre
ven
ted
Ger
man
s fr
om
see
ing
oth
er,
mo
re i
m-
med
iate
form
s o
fra
ce t
hin
kin
g an
d r
acis
m t
hat
per
sist
in t
hei
r d
emo
crac
y.
Fro
m P
ost
fasc
ist
to P
ost
–C
old
War
and B
eyond
Wh
at w
ork
do
es fo
cus
on
“ra
ce”
as a
cat
ego
ry d
o?
We
wan
t to
su
gges
t th
atit
wo
uld
bo
th p
rovi
de
a b
ette
r u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
Ger
man
his
tory
an
d c
on
-te
mp
ora
ry s
oci
al p
robl
ems
and
allo
w c
om
par
iso
ns
bet
wee
n t
he
Ger
man
exp
erie
nce
an
d t
hat
of
oth
er E
uro
pea
n (
and
no
n-E
uro
pea
n)
cou
ntr
ies.
An
inte
rnat
ion
al p
ersp
ecti
ve a
llow
s u
s to
pla
ce t
he
Ger
man
cas
e in
dia
logu
ew
ith
oth
er n
atio
nal
deb
ates
ab
ou
t ra
ce a
nd
dif
fere
nce
—n
ot
on
ly B
rita
in,
Fra
nce
, an
d o
ther
Eu
rop
ean
co
un
trie
s th
at h
ave
stru
ggle
d w
ith
div
ersi
tyaf
ter
Wo
rld
War
II4
9bu
t al
so t
he
Un
ited
Sta
tes,
Can
ada,
an
d A
ust
ralia
.A
tten
tio
n t
o t
he
cate
gory
of
race
an
d t
he
pro
cess
es o
fra
cial
izat
ion
also
off
ers
an o
pp
ort
un
ity
to r
efra
me
the
po
stw
ar p
erio
d a
nd
su
bst
anti
ally
reth
ink
its
de‹
nin
g n
arra
tive
s. S
ince
th
e 19
50s,
Wes
t G
erm
ans
con
stru
cted
for
them
selv
es a
nd
po
ster
ity
the
per
cep
tio
n o
fh
avin
g p
rod
uce
d a
“ra
ce-
less
”p
olit
y an
d s
oci
ety
thro
ugh
th
e re
ady
ado
pti
on
of
dem
ocr
atic
fo
rms
and
val
ues
. A
lth
ou
gh r
acis
t b
ehav
iors
an
d r
acia
lized
so
cial
an
d e
con
om
icp
olic
ies
per
sist
ed a
fter
194
5, t
hey
wer
e ra
rely
rec
ogn
ized
as
such
. T
o b
esu
re,
his
tori
ans
hav
e n
ote
d “
epis
od
es”
of
anti
sem
itis
m a
nd
xen
op
ho
bia
sin
ce 1
945,
bu
t th
ese
hav
e b
een
un
der
sto
od
as
per
iod
ic p
hen
om
ena
mar
-gi
nal
to
th
e b
road
er t
raje
cto
ries
of
the
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
ic’s
his
tory
, w
hic
hte
nd
s to
be
nar
rate
d t
hro
ugh
a m
ore
po
siti
ve fo
cus
on
dem
ocr
atiz
atio
n, r
e-co
nst
ruct
ion
, pro
sper
ity,
Atl
anti
cism
, an
d E
uro
pea
n in
tegr
atio
n.5
0
Giv
en th
is p
ersp
ecti
ve, i
t is
per
hap
s n
ot s
urp
risi
ng
that
wit
h th
e en
d o
fth
e C
old
War
, th
e d
emis
e o
fth
e E
ast
Ger
man
so
cial
ist
stat
e, a
nd
th
e ad
-ve
nt
of
Ger
man
un
i‹ca
tio
n i
n 1
990,
in
cid
ents
of
raci
st a
nd
xen
op
ho
bic
slu
rs a
nd
vio
len
ce—
like
tho
se d
irec
ted
at
socc
er p
laye
r A
deb
owal
e O
gun
g-bu
re—
wer
e at
trib
ute
d t
o t
he
raci
st p
rocl
ivit
ies
of
form
er E
ast
Ger
man
s. I
nth
is s
cen
ario
, a p
rogr
essi
ve W
est
Ger
man
so
ciet
y n
ow h
ad t
o c
on
ten
d w
ith
its
pre
jud
iced
Eas
t G
erm
an c
ou
nte
rpar
t. S
ince
199
0, t
hen
, ra
cism
an
dxe
no
ph
ob
ia h
ave
bee
n i
nte
rpre
ted
mo
re o
ften
th
an n
ot
as a
n i
rasc
ible
in
-h
erit
ance
of
a n
ow d
efu
nct
Eas
t G
erm
an s
oci
alis
t o
rgan
izat
ion
an
d p
olit
i-ca
l id
eolo
gy.
As
such
, th
ey m
ark
a p
ersi
sten
t “d
iffe
ren
ce”
fro
m t
he
Wes
tG
erm
an d
emo
crat
ic e
tho
s. I
t is
no
tew
ort
hy t
hat
th
is a
nal
ysis
co
nti
nues
to
mar
gin
aliz
e th
e p
lace
of
raci
sm i
n G
erm
an s
oci
ety,
if
in a
so
mew
hat
dif
-
Introduction
23
fere
nt
way
th
an b
efo
re 1
990.
Rat
her
th
an lo
cate
rac
ism
in t
he
acti
on
s o
fa
han
dfu
l o
fh
atef
ul
extr
emis
ts,
as h
ad b
een
do
ne
sin
ce t
he
1950
s in
Wes
tG
erm
any,
it
is n
ow l
oca
ted
in
th
e G
erm
an E
ast
wh
ere
wes
tern
(G
erm
an)
dem
ocr
atic
cu
ltu
re h
as n
ot
yet
“tak
en.”
(Aft
er a
ll, if
ther
e is
an
arg
um
ent
for
“co
nti
nuit
y”in
po
stw
ar G
erm
an h
isto
ry i
t is
evi
den
t in
sch
ola
rsh
ipco
nn
ecti
ng
the
Naz
i dic
tato
rsh
ip w
ith
th
e “s
eco
nd
dic
tato
rsh
ip”
of
the
So
-ci
alis
t U
nit
y P
arty
, or
SE
D.)
Su
ch c
on
cep
tual
fra
min
g o
fth
e p
ost
–Co
ld W
ar o
rder
see
min
gly
de-
rive
s fr
om
, an
d
per
pet
uat
es,
a ce
leb
rato
ry
nar
rati
ve
of
the
stab
ility
,st
ren
gth
, an
d s
ucc
ess
of
Wes
t G
erm
an c
apit
alis
t d
emo
crac
y. I
t o
nce
aga
ind
isco
ura
ges
a cr
itic
al s
elf-
exam
inat
ion
am
on
g (W
est)
Ger
man
s w
hen
it
com
es t
o i
ssu
es o
fn
ativ
e ra
cial
id
eolo
gy a
nd
pra
ctic
e. I
n f
act,
on
e m
igh
tsa
y th
at u
ni‹
cati
on
allo
wed
cit
izen
s an
d s
cho
lars
of
the
Fed
eral
Rep
ubl
icto
per
sist
in
ign
ori
ng
issu
es o
fco
nti
nuit
y ac
ross
194
5 by
off
-lo
adin
g co
n-
cern
s ab
ou
t ra
cism
to
co
llect
ive
han
d-w
rin
gin
g ov
er t
he
resi
du
al e
ffec
ts o
fso
cial
ism
’s c
orr
osi
ve im
pac
t o
n s
oci
al b
ehav
iors
an
d v
alu
es. T
he
lack
of
am
ore
gen
eral
ized
att
enti
on
to
“ra
ce”
in t
he
con
tem
po
rary
Fed
eral
Rep
ub
-lic
may
wel
l be
a fu
nct
ion
, in
par
t, o
fW
este
rn t
riu
mp
hal
ism
fo
llow
ing
the
Co
ld W
ar.
Th
is i
s n
ot
to a
rgu
e th
at t
he
Ger
man
Dem
ocr
atic
Rep
ubl
ic a
nd
Eas
tG
erm
an s
oci
ety
sho
uld
be
exem
pt
fro
m c
riti
cal
scru
tiny
. It
is
wo
rth
co
n-
sid
erin
g w
hy q
ues
tio
ns
of
“rac
e”ar
e n
ot
freq
uen
tly
po
sed
in
rel
atio
n t
oE
ast
Ger
man
his
tory
—o
r ev
en p
ost
war
Eas
tern
Eu
rop
ean
his
tory
mo
rege
ner
ally
. In
th
e ca
se o
fE
ast
Ger
man
y, t
his
to
o m
ay b
e a
lega
cy o
fC
old
War
po
litic
s. A
fter
all,
th
e S
oci
alis
t U
nit
y P
arty
(S
ED
) by
th
e la
te 1
940s
in-
crea
sin
gly
refu
sed
to
sp
eak
th
e la
ngu
age
of
“rac
e”in
pu
blic
in
rel
atio
n t
oit
s ow
n s
oci
ety.
In
stea
d, t
hey
en
gage
d in
an
ideo
logi
cal s
trat
egy
of
pro
ject
-in
g “r
ace”
and
its
soci
al il
ls o
nto
th
e co
nte
mp
ora
ry c
apit
alis
t W
est
and
its
con
tem
pti
ble
Naz
i pre
dec
esso
r.5
1H
owev
er, d
esp
ite
of‹
cial
SE
D d
enu
nci
a-ti
on
s o
fW
este
rn a
nd
esp
ecia
lly A
mer
ican
rac
ism
an
d r
acis
t p
ract
ices
, th
ep
olit
ics
of
dif
fere
nce
per
sist
ed a
fter
194
5 in
Eas
t G
erm
any
as w
ell:
wh
eth
erin
ear
ly p
ost
war
rea
ctio
ns
to p
erce
ived
rac
ializ
ed r
ape
by S
ovie
t so
ldie
rsan
d d
ebat
es a
bo
ut
wh
o s
ho
uld
cov
er t
he
cost
s an
d c
are
of
un
wan
ted
“Rus
senk
inde
r”o
fS
ovie
t p
ater
nit
y o
r in
late
r in
stan
ces
of
anti
sem
itis
m in
pu
rges
of
the
Eas
t G
erm
an s
oci
alis
t le
ader
ship
.52
By
the
1970
s, t
he
SE
Dp
arti
cip
ated
in t
he
of‹
cial
rec
ruit
men
t o
f“c
on
trac
t w
ork
ers”
fro
m P
ola
nd
,V
ietn
am,
Cu
ba,
An
gola
, an
d M
oza
mb
iqu
e, w
ho
wer
e se
greg
ated
in
tow
ork
ers’
ho
usi
ng
and
del
iber
atel
y is
ola
ted
fro
m th
e d
aily
live
s o
fth
eir
Ger
-m
an c
ou
nte
rpar
ts, b
ut
wh
o n
on
eth
eles
s fu
eled
Eas
t G
erm
any’
s m
ino
r ec
o-
24A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
no
mic
mir
acle
.53
We
nee
d t
o k
now
mo
re p
reci
sely
how
an
d t
o w
hat
po
liti-
cal a
nd
so
cial
eff
ect
the
GD
R m
ob
ilize
d a
so
cial
ist
dis
cou
rse
and
pra
ctic
eo
fd
iffe
ren
ce.
Yet
eve
n th
is c
urs
ory
gla
nce
yie
lds
intr
igu
ing
anal
ytic
al p
oss
ibili
ties
. It
is w
ort
h n
oti
ng,
fo
r ex
amp
le,
that
lik
e ca
pit
alis
t W
est
Ger
man
y, s
oci
alis
tE
ast
Ger
man
y to
o s
ou
ght
to c
ult
ivat
e p
ost
war
pro
sper
ity
thro
ugh
th
e u
seo
fm
igra
nt
fore
ign
lab
or
and
po
licie
s fa
vori
ng
thei
r so
cial
iso
lati
on
rat
her
than
in
tegr
atio
n.
Bo
ldly
pu
t, o
ne
cou
ld a
rgu
e th
at b
oth
Co
ld W
ar G
er-
man
ys u
ltim
atel
y st
ruct
ure
d e
thni
cize
d ec
onom
ies
to m
eet
lab
or
nee
ds
and
sup
ply
th
eir
nat
ion
al p
op
ula
tio
ns
wit
h a
ccep
tabl
e le
vels
of
con
sum
ergo
od
s. Y
et t
he
fact
, an
d h
isto
rica
l ef
fect
, o
fth
ese
eth
nic
ally
art
icu
late
dec
on
om
ic p
olic
ies—
and
th
e et
hn
ical
ly s
egm
ente
d e
con
om
ies
they
pro
-d
uce
d—
has
no
t re
gist
ered
in
bu
rgeo
nin
g so
cial
an
d c
ult
ura
l h
isto
ries
of
con
sum
pti
on
an
d c
on
sum
eris
m i
n t
he
Ger
man
an
d E
uro
pea
n c
on
text
.54
Rat
her
th
an i
nfo
rm t
he
bro
ader
his
tori
ogra
phy
an
d h
isto
riog
rap
hic
al d
e-b
ates
of
the
po
stw
ar p
erio
d,
dis
cuss
ion
s o
ffo
reig
n l
abo
r ar
e m
ost
ly c
on
-si
gned
to
th
e n
arro
wer
pu
rvie
w o
fm
ino
rity
, la
bo
r, a
nd
to
a l
esse
r ex
ten
t,ec
on
om
ic h
isto
ry.5
5
The
Ger
man
exp
erie
nce,
and
its
Col
d W
ar f
ram
ing,
may
be
inst
ruct
ive
whe
n co
nsid
erin
g E
urop
e as
a w
hole
. Aft
er a
ll, t
he im
puls
e fo
r ra
cial
rec
on-
stru
ctio
n w
as h
ardl
y a
uniq
uely
Ger
man
ent
erpr
ise
afte
r 19
45.
An
impo
r-ta
nt le
gacy
of
Naz
i mili
tary
agg
ress
ion,
bey
ond
the
ideo
logi
cal d
ivis
ion
ofE
urop
e in
to t
wo
Col
d W
ar c
amps
, was
its
dem
ogra
phic
and
eth
nic
reor
der-
ing.
One
way
of
thin
king
abo
ut t
his
is t
o po
se a
pro
voca
tive
que
stio
n: H
oww
ould
we
wri
te t
he p
ostw
ar h
isto
ry o
fth
e N
azi
raci
al e
mpi
re i
n E
urop
e?H
ow w
ould
we
inve
stig
ate
the
afte
rmat
h of
raci
al a
nd e
ugen
ic i
deol
ogie
s,po
licie
s, a
nd p
ract
ices
tha
t ac
hiev
ed s
uch
radi
cal a
nd m
urde
rous
exp
ress
ion
unde
r th
e N
azi
regi
me
and
its
aggr
essi
ve w
ar o
fco
nque
st?
The
con
se-
quen
ces
ofth
e N
azi
impe
rial
izin
g pr
ojec
t in
Eur
ope
are
only
beg
inni
ng t
obe
exp
lore
d by
his
tori
ans,
and
mor
e at
tent
ion
need
s to
be
devo
ted
to t
hew
ar’s
aft
erm
ath
as a
con
stit
utiv
e pe
riod
of
cont
empo
rary
Ger
man
y an
d E
u-ro
pe. S
ome
hist
oric
al a
tten
tion
has
bee
n de
vote
d to
the
post
war
exp
erie
nces
ofin
divi
dual
gro
ups
ofpe
rsec
uted
min
orit
ies
acro
ss E
urop
e, i
nclu
ding
Jew
s, S
inti
, an
d R
oma.
56
Her
e ag
ain,
em
ploy
ing
“rac
e”as
an
anal
ytic
alfr
amew
ork
(foc
usin
g on
wha
t B
ruba
ker
has
calle
d “p
roce
sses
ofra
cial
iza-
tion
, eth
nici
zati
on, a
nd n
atio
naliz
atio
n”)
seem
s es
peci
ally
pro
duct
ive.
57
Aft
er a
ll, d
uri
ng
Wo
rld
War
II,
Eu
rop
ean
co
un
trie
s ex
per
ien
ced
his
-to
rica
lly
un
pre
ced
ente
d
forc
ed
po
pu
lati
on
tr
ansf
ers
and
lo
sses
, an
dw
arti
me
dis
pla
cem
ents
cre
ated
a d
emog
rap
hic
rev
olu
tio
n a
cro
ss m
uch
of
Intr
oduc
tion
25
Eu
rop
e, b
ut
par
ticu
larl
y in
th
e E
ast.
58
By
war
’s e
nd
, Eu
rop
ean
s as
a w
ho
leen
gage
d i
n t
he
pro
ject
of
reo
rder
ing
nat
ion
al s
oci
etie
s. W
ith
th
e ex
plic
itag
reem
ent
of
Wes
tern
dem
ocr
atic
nat
ion
s lik
e th
e U
nit
ed S
tate
s an
dB
rita
in,
mas
s ex
pu
lsio
ns
of
eth
nic
Ger
man
s o
ccu
rred
fro
m C
zech
osl
ova-
kia
, Hu
nga
ry, R
om
ania
, Yu
gosl
avia
, Po
lan
d, a
nd
th
e B
alti
c st
ates
. In
add
i-ti
on
, H
un
gari
ans
wer
e d
epo
rted
fro
m C
zech
osl
ovak
ia;
Slo
vak
s w
ere
de-
po
rted
fro
m H
un
gary
; U
kra
inia
ns
and
Bel
oru
ssia
ns
wer
e d
epo
rted
fro
mP
ola
nd
to
th
e S
ovie
t U
nio
n; P
ole
s w
ere
dep
ort
ed f
rom
th
e S
ovie
t U
nio
n t
oP
ola
nd
. Vio
len
t p
ost
war
pog
rom
s d
rove
Jew
s o
ut
of
Po
lan
d a
nd
th
e S
ovie
tU
kra
ine
and
in
to o
ccu
pie
d G
erm
any.
Wit
hin
th
e S
ovie
t U
nio
n,
the
Red
Arm
y an
d S
ecre
t P
olic
e u
nd
erto
ok
rig
oro
us
eth
nic
cle
ansi
ng
agai
nst
na-
tio
nal
gro
up
s in
th
e w
est
and
so
uth
wes
t,5
9an
d c
on
sign
ed t
ho
usa
nd
s o
fo
ther
eth
nic
itie
s to
pri
son
cam
ps
and
sla
ve la
bo
r.6
0
Th
is w
as n
otp
rim
arily
th
e re
sult
of
po
stw
ar c
hao
s. R
ath
er, t
he
vict
o-
rio
us
Alli
ed g
over
nm
ents
of
Wo
rld
War
II
agre
ed i
n p
rin
cip
le t
hat
eth
nic
mix
ing
had
his
tori
cally
cau
sed
co
n›
ict
in E
uro
pe.
Th
e “o
rder
ly m
igra
tio
n”
of
min
ori
ties
to th
eir
nat
ion
al h
om
es w
as e
xpec
ted
to s
ecu
re p
eace
an
d E
u-
rop
ean
sta
bili
ty. A
s W
inst
on
Ch
urc
hill
pu
t it
, “th
ere
will
be
no
mix
ture
of
po
pu
lati
on
s to
cau
se e
nd
less
tro
ubl
e .
. .
A c
lean
sw
eep
will
be
mad
e.”6
1
Fo
llow
ing
on
the
hee
ls o
fN
azi G
erm
any’
s d
emog
rap
hic
rev
olu
tio
n in
Cen
-tr
al a
nd
Eas
tern
Eu
rop
e, e
arly
po
stw
ar e
ffo
rts
succ
eed
ed in
pro
du
cin
g et
h-
nic
ally
ho
mog
eneo
us
nat
ion
s. T
he
succ
ess
of
this
pro
cess
of
eth
nic
ho
-m
ogen
izat
ion
w
as
assu
red
by
S
ovie
t m
igh
t an
d
may
h
ave
aid
ed
the
esta
blis
hm
ent o
fC
om
mu
nis
t ru
le th
rou
gho
ut E
aste
rn a
nd
Cen
tral
Eu
rop
e.T
he
aim
, acc
ord
ing
to h
isto
rian
Mar
k K
ram
er, w
as t
o “
resh
ape
the
eth
nic
con
tou
rs o
fth
e re
gio
n p
sych
olo
gica
lly a
s w
ell a
s p
hysi
cally
.”6
2
So
far
, th
ese
forc
ed p
op
ula
tio
n t
ran
sfer
s in
Cen
tral
an
d E
aste
rn E
u-
rop
e af
ter
Wo
rld
War
II
hav
e b
een
an
alyz
ed b
y sp
ecia
lists
as
exam
ple
s o
f“e
thn
ic c
lean
sin
g”an
d a
n in
tern
atio
nal
str
ateg
y w
ith
tw
o d
isti
nct
age
nd
as:
‹rs
t, t
o e
nsu
re p
olit
ical
sta
bili
ty i
n a
his
tori
cally
vo
lati
le r
egio
n,
and
sec
-o
nd
, to
fac
ilita
te S
ovie
t co
ntr
ol a
nd
th
e in
stal
lati
on
of
com
mu
nis
t go
vern
-m
ents
th
rou
gho
ut
the
regi
on
.63
How
ever
, th
is h
eavy
-han
ded
att
emp
t to
def
use
th
e n
atio
nal
-eth
nic
dem
and
s o
fm
ino
riti
es w
ith
in n
atio
ns
thro
ugh
forc
ible
exp
uls
ion
par
adox
ical
ly r
ein
forc
ed a
co
mm
itm
ent
to e
thn
ic n
a-ti
on
alis
m d
emog
rap
hic
ally
, an
d p
erh
aps
po
litic
ally
an
d p
sych
olo
gica
lly. B
ysu
gges
tin
g th
at “
mix
ture
”w
as p
olit
ical
ly d
ange
rou
s an
d d
esta
bili
zin
g, t
he
po
stw
ar p
olit
ical
str
ateg
y o
fet
hn
ic c
lean
sin
g co
ntr
ibu
ted
to th
e cu
ltiv
atio
no
fa
cult
ure
of
pu
rity
.64
Cer
tain
ly t
he
rigo
rou
s at
tem
pts
by
num
ero
us
nat
ion
s to
ho
mog
eniz
e
26A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
thei
r p
op
ula
tio
ns
beg
the
qu
esti
on
of
no
t wh
eth
er, b
ut in
wha
t spe
ci‹
c w
ays,
the
bro
ader
Eu
rop
ean
pro
ject
of
po
stw
ar r
eco
nst
ruct
ion
was
rac
ializ
ed.
How
did
pre
war
rac
ial
ideo
logi
es a
nd
war
tim
e N
azi
raci
al p
olic
ies
affe
ctp
ost
war
nat
ion
al r
eco
nst
ruct
ion
s?6
5O
n t
he
inti
mat
e so
cial
sca
le o
fth
efa
mily
, fo
r ex
amp
le, i
t w
ou
ld b
e in
stru
ctiv
e to
follo
w t
he
po
stw
ar le
gal d
is-
po
siti
on
an
d g
eogr
aph
ical
dis
per
sio
n o
fw
ar c
hild
ren
, nu
mb
erin
g in
th
eh
un
dre
ds
of
tho
usa
nd
s, w
ho
se ‹
nal
pla
cem
ent s
om
etim
es to
ok
a g
oo
d h
alf
dec
ade
and
th
e n
ego
tiat
ion
of
mu
ltip
le n
atio
nal
leg
al c
od
es t
o d
eter
min
e.T
his
am
orp
ho
us
cate
gory
of
child
ren
en
com
pas
sed
th
e ill
egit
imat
e ch
il-d
ren
fat
her
ed b
y G
erm
an t
roo
ps
in t
he
con
qu
ered
an
d o
ccu
pie
d t
erri
tori
eso
fw
arti
me
Eu
rop
e; t
he
pre
do
min
antl
y C
zech
an
d P
olis
h c
hild
ren
kid
-n
app
ed, “
Ary
aniz
ed,”
and
ad
op
ted
by
Ger
man
fam
ilies
in N
azi-
do
min
ated
Eu
rop
e; c
hild
ren
of
vari
ou
s n
atio
nal
itie
s an
d e
thn
icit
ies,
incl
ud
ing
Jew
ish
,w
ho
mir
acu
lou
sly
surv
ived
bei
ng
targ
eted
fo
r d
epo
rtat
ion
, sl
ave
lab
or,
or
dea
th; a
nd
the
po
stw
ar o
ccu
pat
ion
ch
ildre
n o
fA
llied
pat
ern
ity
bo
rn to
Eu
-ro
pea
n w
om
en o
fva
rio
us
nat
ion
alit
ies.
Th
e in
tern
atio
nal
deb
ates
an
d n
a-ti
on
al p
olit
ics
con
cern
ing
the
“pro
per
pla
cem
ent”
of
such
ch
ildre
n a
re o
nly
beg
inn
ing
to b
e ex
plo
red
by
his
tori
ans.
Yet
th
ese
neg
oti
atio
ns
con
stit
ute
ari
ch t
rove
of
evid
ence
an
d a
ssu
mp
tio
ns
rega
rdin
g em
ergi
ng
po
stw
ar n
o-
tio
ns
of
nat
ion
al a
nd
eth
nic
bel
on
gin
g in
Eu
rop
ean
so
ciet
ies.
As
such
, th
eym
ay s
ugg
est
the
lega
cy o
fN
azi v
iole
nce
an
d r
acia
l hie
rarc
hie
s fo
r po
stfa
s-ci
st s
oci
al id
eolo
gies
th
rou
gho
ut
con
tin
enta
l Eu
rop
e.6
6
Wh
at w
ou
ld h
app
en t
o o
ur
un
der
stan
din
g o
fp
ost
war
Eu
rop
ean
his
-to
ry,
and
ou
r co
nce
ptu
aliz
atio
n o
f“E
uro
pe”
mo
re g
ener
ally
, if
we
at-
ten
ded
to
th
e m
om
ents
wh
en “
race
”—in
th
e fo
rm o
fra
cial
ized
lan
guag
e,p
olic
y, s
oci
al b
ehav
iors
, an
d v
alu
ativ
e d
isti
nct
ion
s—ge
ts e
nga
ged
? H
oww
ou
ld w
e p
erio
diz
e th
e so
cial
po
litic
s o
fra
ce in
Eu
rop
e? W
ou
ld a
tten
tio
nto
su
ch a
n a
lter
nat
ive
chro
no
logy
alt
er t
he
his
tori
cal n
arra
tive
s o
fp
ost
war
Eu
rop
ean
rec
on
stru
ctio
n?
Th
e h
isto
rica
l n
arra
tive
s o
fC
old
War
po
litic
s?O
fca
pit
alis
t an
d s
oci
alis
t ec
on
om
ies?
An
d m
ost
par
ticu
larl
y, o
fd
emo
c-ra
cy a
nd
th
e p
roce
sses
of
dem
ocr
atiz
atio
n, w
het
her
po
stw
ar o
r p
ost
–Co
ldW
ar?
We
thin
k s
o. F
ocu
sin
g o
n p
roce
sses
of
eth
nic
izat
ion
an
d r
acia
lizat
ion
may
be
a u
sefu
l w
ay t
o b
egin
to
syn
thes
ize
wh
at h
ave
bee
n r
elat
ivel
y d
is-
cret
e h
isto
rica
l n
arra
tive
s re
gard
ing
po
pu
lati
on
d
isp
lace
men
ts,
eth
nic
clea
nsi
ng,
dec
olo
niz
atio
n a
nd
po
stco
lon
ial a
dju
stm
ents
, im
mig
rati
on
, an
dla
bo
r m
igra
tio
n.
Un
til
now
, h
isto
ries
of
soci
al i
nte
grat
ion
an
d s
oci
al d
isar
ticu
lati
on
hav
e co
nti
nued
to
be
stru
ctu
red
in a
cco
rdan
ce w
ith
th
e p
olit
ical
geo
grap
hyo
fth
e C
old
War
. Th
ere
has
bee
n o
ne
nar
rati
ve m
od
el fo
r W
este
rn E
uro
pe,
Intr
oduc
tion
27
typ
ical
ly k
eyed
to th
e ch
alle
nge
s o
fp
ost
gen
oci
dal
Jew
ish
-Gen
tile
rel
atio
ns,
po
stco
lon
ial
imm
igra
tio
n,
lab
or
mig
rati
on
, an
d a
gro
win
g m
ult
icu
ltu
ral
po
pu
lati
on
.67
An
d a
no
ther
, p
oss
ibly
mo
re c
on
ten
tio
us
nar
rati
ve f
or
Eas
t-er
n E
uro
pe,
wh
ich
has
deb
ated
th
e so
cial
ly s
tab
ilizi
ng
effe
cts
of
soci
alis
tre
gim
es,
the
soci
ally
des
tab
ilizi
ng
effe
cts
of
thei
r d
emis
e, a
nd
wh
eth
er o
rw
hy E
aste
rn E
uro
pe
sin
ce 1
990
has
bee
n m
ore
pro
ne
than
its
Wes
tern
nei
ghb
ors
to
pu
rsu
e co
nte
mp
ora
ry p
olit
ics
of
eth
nic
, rat
her
th
an c
ivic
, na-
tio
nal
ism
. Th
e te
rms
of
such
deb
ates
su
gges
t th
at a
rig
oro
us
reth
ink
ing
of
ideo
logi
cal b
iase
s m
ay b
e in
ord
er. A
fter
all,
th
e co
nce
ptu
al d
ich
oto
my
of
“civ
ic”
vers
us
“eth
nic
”n
atio
nal
ism
, in
wh
ich
th
e fo
rmer
des
crib
es t
he
ra-
tio
nal
po
stw
ar W
est
wh
ile t
he
latt
er d
amn
s th
e fr
acti
ou
s p
ost
–Co
ld W
arE
ast,
bet
ter
serv
es p
urp
ose
s o
fm
ora
lizin
g th
an h
isto
rica
l an
alys
is.6
8A
t-te
nd
ing
to t
he
his
tori
cal p
roce
sses
of
raci
aliz
atio
n a
nd
eth
nic
izat
ion
acr
oss
po
stw
ar E
uro
pe
wo
uld
leve
l th
e id
eolo
gica
l pla
yin
g ‹
eld
bet
wee
n E
ast
and
Wes
t. I
nd
eed
, it m
ay p
rove
pro
du
ctiv
e in
bre
akin
g th
e st
ran
gleh
old
of
Co
ldW
ar c
on
cep
tual
izat
ion
s an
d y
ield
un
pre
dic
tabl
e an
swer
s to
rec
ent
qu
es-
tio
ns
rega
rdin
g th
e h
isto
rica
l, p
olit
ical
, so
cial
, an
d c
ult
ura
l co
her
ence
of
“Eu
rop
e”it
self.
At
the
very
lea
st i
t w
ou
ld a
llow
us
to b
egin
to
ske
tch
am
ore
exp
ansi
ve E
uro
pea
n h
isto
ry t
hat
no
t o
nly
in
clu
des
Wes
tern
(an
d s
e-le
ct a
reas
of
Cen
tral
) E
uro
pe
but
can
acc
om
mo
dat
e th
e B
alti
c st
ates
to
Bu
lgar
ia a
nd
bey
on
d (
to T
urk
ey).
A f
ocu
s o
n t
he
po
stw
ar p
olit
ics
of
dif
-fe
ren
ce w
ou
ld p
rovi
de
on
e u
sefu
l co
mp
arat
ive
fram
ewo
rk fo
r in
vest
igat
ing
soci
al fo
rmat
ion
s, s
oci
al c
lass
i‹ca
tio
ns,
so
cial
pra
ctic
es, s
oci
al u
nd
erst
and
-in
gs, a
nd
so
cial
rep
rese
nta
tio
ns
acro
ss th
e E
uro
pea
n c
on
tin
ent a
s a
who
le.6
9
To
cit
e a
con
tem
po
rary
exa
mp
le: G
erm
any
is n
ot
un
iqu
e in
str
ugg
ling
wit
h a
mo
re v
isib
le M
usl
im p
rese
nce
, wh
eth
er in
th
e as
sess
men
ts o
fm
ain
-st
ream
po
litic
ian
s, e
xper
ts, a
nd
med
ia c
over
age
or
in t
he
per
ceiv
ed a
nd
ac-
tual
so
cial
, po
litic
al, a
nd
rel
igio
us
pra
ctic
es a
nd
pre
scri
pti
on
s o
fE
uro
pea
nM
usl
ims.
70
Isn’
t th
e ch
alle
nge
at
the
mo
men
t h
ow t
o d
escr
ibe,
in
terp
ret,
rep
rese
nt,
an
d e
valu
ate
diff
eren
ce?
Wh
at, f
or
exam
ple
, do
es t
his
dif
fere
nce
mea
n f
or
de‹
nit
ion
s o
fE
uro
pe
in a
leg
al,
soci
al,
po
litic
al,
and
cu
ltu
ral
sen
se?
To
wh
at e
xten
t ar
e th
ese
con
cep
tio
ns
his
tori
cally
un
iqu
e? T
o w
hat
exte
nt
are
they
im
plic
ated
in
a l
on
ger
his
tory
of
raci
aliz
atio
n a
nd
eth
ni-
ciza
tio
n i
nte
nd
ed t
o p
rote
ct,
pre
serv
e, o
r p
rod
uce
sp
eci‹
c n
oti
on
s o
fn
a-ti
on
al o
r re
gio
nal
id
enti
ty i
n o
pp
osi
tio
n t
o g
rou
ps
jud
ged
to
be
dif
fere
nt
fro
m,
inas
sim
ilabl
e in
, o
r d
estr
uct
ive
of
tho
se v
isio
ns?
Wo
uld
we
lear
nso
met
hin
g by
co
nsi
der
ing
the
curr
ent
situ
atio
n i
n a
bro
ader
co
nce
ptu
alfr
ame
that
wo
uld
allo
w u
s to
co
mp
are
con
tem
po
rary
ass
essm
ents
of
“th
eM
usl
im p
robl
em”
wit
h d
iver
se E
uro
pea
n a
rtic
ula
tio
ns
of
“th
e Je
wis
h
28A
fter
th
e N
azi R
acia
l Sta
te
pro
blem
”ov
er t
he
cou
rse
of
the
nin
etee
nth
an
d t
wen
tiet
h c
entu
ries
?W
het
her
su
ch c
om
par
iso
ns
wo
uld
ult
imat
ely
emp
has
ize
po
ints
of
over
lap
or
div
erge
nce
is
som
eth
ing
we
wo
n’t
con
ject
ure
her
e. O
ur
sim
ple
po
int
isth
at s
uch
an
ap
pro
ach
wo
uld
at
leas
t p
rovi
de
a hi
stor
ical
con
tex
tin
wh
ich
to m
ake
sen
se o
fth
e co
nte
mp
ora
ry s
itu
atio
n. S
uch
a h
isto
rica
l per
spec
tive
wo
uld
per
mit
us
to r
ead
cu
rren
t co
nce
rns
in r
elat
ion
to
lon
ger
ideo
logi
cal
and
cu
ltu
ral
form
atio
ns
and
str
ateg
ies—
wh
eth
er n
atio
nal
, E
uro
pea
n,
or
tran
satl
anti
c in
sco
pe—
rega
rdin
g d
iffe
ren
ce.
Aft
er 1
945,
th
e p
olit
ics
of
dif
fere
nce
rem
ain
ed a
co
nst
itu
ent
par
t o
fth
e m
od
ern
nat
ion
, b
oth
in
Ger
man
y an
d i
nd
eed
th
rou
gho
ut
Eu
rop
e.R
ath
er t
han
be
con
sign
ed t
o t
he
mar
gin
aliz
ed s
ub
dis
cip
lines
of
min
ori
tyo
r (i
m)m
igra
tio
n s
tud
ies,
qu
esti
on
s o
fra
ce a
nd
dif
fere
nce
sh
ou
ld b
e m
ain
-st
ream
ed in
his
tori
cal i
nq
uir
y an
d r
ecog
niz
ed a
s ce
ntr
al t
o t
he
larg
er p
olit
-ic
al,
soci
al,
and
cu
ltu
ral
arti
cula
tio
n o
fn
atio
nal
an
d E
uro
pea
n i
den
titi
es,
inst
itu
tio
ns,
eco
no
mie
s, a
nd
so
ciet
ies.
On
ly t
hen
can
we
asse
ss t
he
his
tori
-ca
l lim
its,
›u
idit
y, a
nd
po
ssib
iliti
es o
fd
e‹n
ing
and
div
ersi
fyin
g b
oth
Ger
-m
any
and
Eu
rop
e.
Intr
oduc
tion
29
No
tes
IN
TR
OD
UC
TIO
N
1.Je
re L
on
gman
, “S
urg
e in
Rac
ist
Mo
od
Rai
ses
Co
nce
rn o
n E
ve o
fW
orl
dC
up,
”N
ew Y
ork
Tim
es (
4 Ju
ne
2006
): 1
.2.
Wo
rld
-cu
p t
ou
rist
s w
ere
advi
sed
th
at c
erta
in p
arts
of
Po
tsd
am s
ho
uld
be
con
sid
ered
a “
no
-go
zo
ne,
”fo
r ex
amp
le.
3.F
or
an e
xpan
ded
dis
cuss
ion
, se
e ch
apte
r 4
in t
his
vo
lum
e. I
n m
akin
g th
isp
oin
t ab
ou
t h
ow G
erm
ans
hav
e u
nd
erst
oo
d—
and
th
e m
edia
has
rep
rese
nte
d—
the
geog
rap
hy o
fra
cism
aft
er u
ni‹
cati
on
, w
e ar
e n
ot
den
yin
g th
e ex
iste
nce
of
raci
stb
ias,
an
tago
nis
m, o
r vi
ole
nce
in e
aste
rn G
erm
any.
No
net
hel
ess,
it is
wo
rth
po
inti
ng
ou
t th
at w
hile
xen
op
ho
bic
an
d a
nti
sem
itic
vio
len
ce a
pp
ears
to
hav
e in
crea
sed
aft
er19
90 in
east
ern
Ger
man
y, it
was
in w
este
rn G
erm
an
y (
So
lin
gen
an
d M
öll
n)
that
the
ho
rri‹
c, l
eth
al
‹re
bo
mb
ings
of
Tu
rkis
h h
om
es o
ccu
rred
. (S
ee H
erm
an
n K
urt
hen
,
Wer
ner
Ber
gm
an
n,
an
d R
ain
er E
rb,
eds.
, A
ntis
emit
ism
and
Xen
opho
bia
in G
erm
any
afte
r U
ni‹
cati
on [
New
Yo
rk:
Oxfo
rd U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 19
97],
263–85,
for
an
ite
m-
ized
lis
t o
fri
gh
t-w
ing e
xtr
emis
t vio
len
ce a
gain
st p
rop
erty
an
d p
eop
le b
etw
een
1989
an
d
1994.
Wes
t G
erm
an
in
cid
ents
d
om
inate
th
e li
st.)
B
un
des
ver
fass
un
gss
-
chu
tzb
eric
hte
th
rou
gh
2006 h
ave
do
cum
ente
d c
rim
inal act
s o
fex
trem
e-ri
gh
t an
d/o
r
xen
op
ho
bic
vio
len
ce i
n b
oth
wes
tern
an
d e
ast
ern
Län
der
. In
2006,
in f
act
, w
este
rn
state
s to
pp
ed t
he
list
wit
h t
he
hig
hes
t n
um
ber
of
inci
den
ts p
er L
and
(146 i
n N
or-
drh
ein
-Wes
tfale
n a
nd
138 in
Nie
der
sach
sen
), a
lth
ou
gh
Sach
sen
-An
halt
(w
ith
111
in
-
cid
ents
) h
ad
th
e h
igh
est
per
-cap
ita “
po
liti
call
y m
oti
vate
d [
righ
t-w
ing]
crim
inali
ty”
wit
h
4.4
9
per
10
0,0
00
po
pu
lati
on
. R
epo
rts
of
the
geo
gra
ph
ic
dis
trib
uti
on
o
f
Gew
altt
äten
(vio
len
t cr
imes
) p
rovid
e n
um
ber
s o
nly
; th
ere
is n
o a
naly
sis
of
wh
eth
er
cert
ain
so
rts
of
crim
es a
re m
ore
hig
hly
rep
rese
nte
d i
n p
art
icu
lar
are
as.
Th
is m
ak
es
east
-wes
t co
mp
ari
son
s ch
all
engin
g w
ith
ou
t re
sort
to
oth
er f
orm
s o
fre
po
rtin
g.
Th
e
Ver
fass
ungs
schu
tzbe
rich
te a
re
avail
able
o
nli
ne
at
htt
p:/
/ver
fass
un
gss
chu
tz.d
e/d
e/
pu
bli
kati
on
en (
last
acc
esse
d 2
3 M
ay 2
007).
Fo
r a g
oo
d o
ver
vie
w o
fG
erm
an
so
cial
scie
nti
sts’
ass
essm
ents
of
the
incr
ease
in
xen
op
ho
bia
, ri
gh
t-w
ing e
xtr
emis
m, an
d v
i-
ole
nce
am
on
g E
ast
Ger
man
yo
uth
aft
er 1
990 (
an
d f
or
som
e b
rief
ob
serv
ati
on
s o
n
the
role
of
the
med
ia i
n p
rop
agati
ng p
ub
lic
per
cep
tio
ns)
see
Ku
rth
en,
Ber
gm
an
n,
an
d E
rb,
eds.
, A
ntis
emit
ism
and
Xen
opho
bia.
Fo
r an
an
aly
sis
that
emp
hasi
zes
the
role
of
East
Ger
man
male
yo
uth
, se
e W
ilfr
ied
Sch
ub
art
h,
“X
eno
ph
ob
ia a
mo
ng
East
Ger
man
Yo
uth
,”in
th
at
vo
lum
e, 1
43–58.
Als
o P
eter
Fö
rste
r et
al.
, Ju
gend
Ost
:
183
Zw
isch
en H
off
nung u
nd G
ewalt
(O
pla
den
, 19
93);
Wo
lfgan
g M
elze
r, J
ugen
d u
nd P
oli
-
tik
in D
euts
chla
nd.
Ges
ells
chaft
lich
e E
inst
ellu
ng,
Zuk
unft
sori
enti
erungen
und R
echt-
sex
trem
ism
usp
ote
nti
al
Jugen
dli
cher
in O
st-
und W
estd
euts
chla
nd (
Op
lad
en,
1992);
Deu
tsch
es J
ugen
din
stit
ut,
Sch
ule
r an d
er S
chw
elle
zur
deu
tsch
en E
inhei
t (O
pla
den
,
1992);
Wil
frie
d S
chu
bart
h a
nd
Do
rit
Ste
nk
e, “
‘Au
slän
der
-bil
der
bei
ost
deu
tsch
en
Sch
üle
rin
nen
u
nd
S
chü
lern
”in
D
euts
chla
nd
Arc
hiv
12
(1
992):
12
47–54;
Gis
ela
Tro
mm
sdo
rfan
d H
an
s-Jo
ach
im K
orn
ad
t, “
Pro
soci
al
an
d A
nti
soci
al
Mo
tivati
on
of
Ad
ole
scen
ts i
n E
ast
an
d W
est
Ger
man
y,”
in A
fter
the
Wall
: F
am
ily A
dapta
tions
in E
ast
and W
est
Ger
many,
ed
. Ja
mes
Yo
un
iss,
30–56.
(San
Fra
nci
sco
: Jo
ssey
-Bass
,
1995);
Mer
edit
h W
att
s, X
enophobia
in U
nit
ed G
erm
any:
Gen
erati
ons,
Moder
niz
a-
tion,
and I
deo
logy (
New
Yo
rk:
St.
Mart
in’s
Pre
ss,
1997);
an
d R
ich
ard
Alb
a,
Pet
er
Sch
mid
t, a
nd
Mart
ina W
asm
er,
eds.
, G
erm
ans
or
Fore
igner
s? A
ttit
udes
Tow
ard
Eth
-
nic
M
inori
ties
in
P
ost
-Reu
ni‹
cati
on G
erm
any (
New
Y
ork
: P
alg
rave
Macm
illa
n,
2003).
On
East
Ger
man
exce
pti
on
ali
sm i
n G
erm
an
his
tori
ogra
phy,
see
Pau
l B
etts
an
d K
ath
erin
e P
ence
, “In
tro
du
ctio
n,”
in S
oci
ali
st M
oder
n:
East
Ger
man E
very
day
Cult
ure
and P
oli
tics
,ed
. P
au
l B
etts
an
d K
ath
erin
e P
ence
(A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an
Pre
ss,
2008),
1–34.
4.
Lo
ngm
an
, “S
urg
e in
Raci
st M
oo
d R
ais
es C
on
cern
on
Eve
of
Wo
rld
Cu
p,”
1, S
port
sSunday,
6.
5.
See
, fo
r ex
am
ple
, M
ich
ael
P.
Nik
ola
i, “
No
t E
mp
ty W
ord
s: G
erm
an
y I
s W
el-
com
ing t
he
Wo
rld
,”A
tlanti
c T
imes
3,
no
. 6 (
Jun
e 2006),
2.
6.
Dav
id G
old
ber
g,
Raci
st C
ult
ure
(O
xfo
rd:
Bla
ckw
ell,
1993),
91,
qu
ote
d i
n
Joh
n S
olo
mo
s an
d L
isa S
chu
ster
, “H
ate
Sp
eech
, V
iole
nce
, an
d C
on
tem
po
rary
Raci
sms,
”in
Euro
pe’
s N
ew R
aci
sm?
Cause
s, M
anif
esta
tions,
Solu
tions,
ed
. E
van
s
Fo
un
dati
on
(N
ew Y
ork
: B
ergh
ah
n B
oo
ks,
2002),
46–47.
7.
Geo
rge
M.
Fre
der
ick
son
, R
aci
sm:
A S
hort
His
tory
(P
rin
ceto
n:
Pri
nce
ton
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2002),
168,
men
tio
ns
the
“b
ifu
rcati
on
of
stu
die
s o
fw
hit
e su
-
pre
macy
an
d a
nti
sem
itis
m.”
Th
ou
gh
he
is r
efer
rin
g m
ost
ly t
o t
he
Am
eric
an
co
n-
text,
th
is h
old
s fo
r E
uro
pea
n s
cho
lars
hip
as
wel
l, a
s w
e d
iscu
ss l
ate
r. O
n t
he
po
st-
1945 s
oft
enin
g o
fJe
wis
hn
ess
fro
m r
ace
to
eth
nic
ity,
see
, fo
r ex
am
ple
, M
att
hew
Fry
e
Jaco
bse
n’s
Whit
enes
s of
a D
iffe
rent
Colo
r: E
uro
pea
n I
mm
igra
nts
and t
he
Alc
hem
y o
f
Race
(C
am
bri
dge:
Harv
ard
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
1998).
8.
See
Eri
c W
eitz
’s u
sefu
l, b
rief
dis
cuss
ion
of
“et
hn
icit
y,”
“n
ati
on
ali
ty,”
an
d
“ra
ce”
in “
Raci
al P
oli
tics
wit
ho
ut
the
Co
nce
pt
of
Race
: R
eevalu
ati
ng S
ovie
t E
thn
ic
an
d N
ati
on
al
Pu
rges
,”in
Sla
vic
Rev
iew
61,
no
. 1
(Sp
rin
g 2
002):
1–29;
her
e, 6
–7.
9.
Geo
rge
M.
Fre
der
ick
son
, R
aci
sm:
A S
hort
His
tory
(P
rin
ceto
n:
Pri
nce
ton
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2002),
qu
ota
tio
ns
fro
m 1
55,
151;
mo
re g
ener
all
y, s
ee 1
40–55.
Als
o
Fre
der
ick
son
, T
he
Com
para
tive
Im
agin
ati
on:
On t
he
His
tory
of
Raci
sm,
Nati
onal-
ism
, and S
oci
al
Mov
emen
ts (
Ber
kel
ey:
Un
iver
sity
of
Cali
forn
ia P
ress
, 19
97),
esp
e-
ciall
y 7
7–83.
10.
On
th
e o
ther
han
d,
his
tori
an
s h
ave
exp
lore
d t
he
per
sist
ence
of
an
tise
mit
ism
aft
er 1
945.
Ho
wev
er,
thes
e in
ves
tigati
on
s h
ave
bee
n u
nco
up
led
fro
m d
iscu
ssio
ns
of
“ra
ce”—
an
an
aly
tica
l m
ove
that
call
s fo
r so
me
retr
osp
ecti
ve
his
tori
cal an
aly
sis.
See
chap
ter
4 i
n t
his
vo
lum
e; a
lso
Fra
nk
Ste
rn,
The
Whit
ewash
ing o
fth
e Y
ello
w B
adge:
Anti
sem
itis
m a
nd P
hil
ose
mit
ism
in P
ost
war
Ger
many,
tra
ns.
Wil
liam
Tem
ple
r (N
ew
184
No
tes
to P
ages
3–5
Yo
rk:
Per
gam
on
, 19
92);
Wo
lfga
ng
Ben
z, e
d.,
Ant
isem
itis
mus
in
Deu
tsch
land
: Z
urA
ktua
litä
t ei
nes
Vor
urte
ils
(Mu
nic
h:
Deu
tsch
er T
asch
enbu
ch V
erla
g, 1
995)
; an
dB
enz,
Jah
rbuc
h fü
r A
ntis
emit
ism
usfo
rsch
ung
(Mu
nic
h:
Deu
tsch
er T
asch
enbu
chV
erla
g),
the
‹rs
t an
nual
iss
ue
app
eare
d i
n 1
992;
Y.
Mic
hal
Bo
dem
ann
, Je
ws,
Ger
-m
ans,
Mem
ory:
Rec
onst
ruct
ions
of
Jew
ish
Lif
e in
Ger
man
y (A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an P
ress
, 199
6); J
effr
ey M
. Pec
k, B
eing
Jew
ish
in t
he N
ew G
erm
any
(New
Bru
nsw
ick
: R
utg
ers
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2006
); a
nd
th
e va
rio
us
pu
blic
atio
ns
by s
oci
-o
logi
sts
Wer
ner
Ber
gman
n a
nd
Rai
ner
Erb
, in
clu
din
g B
ergm
ann
an
d E
rb, e
ds.
, An-
tise
mit
ism
us i
n de
r po
liti
sche
n K
ultu
r na
ch 1
945
(Op
lad
en:
Wes
tdeu
tsch
er V
erla
g,19
90).
In a
ddit
ion
, so
me
soci
al a
ctiv
ists
an
d s
oci
al s
cien
tist
s h
ave
beg
un
to
ch
arac
-te
rize
vio
len
ce t
owar
d e
thn
ic m
ino
riti
es a
s “r
acis
m”
in c
on
tem
po
rary
Ger
man
y.S
ee,
for
exam
ple
, S
anem
Kle
ff,
Ed
ith
Bro
szin
sky-
Sch
wab
e, M
arie
-Th
ere
Alb
ert,
Hel
ga M
arbu
rger
, an
d M
arie
-Ele
no
ra K
arst
en,
BR
D-D
DR
. A
lte
und
neue
Ras
sis-
men
im
Zug
e de
r de
utsc
h-de
utsc
hen
Ein
igun
g (B
erlin
: V
erla
g fü
r In
terk
ult
ure
lleK
om
mu
nik
atio
n,
1990
); A
. K
alp
ak a
nd
N.
Rät
hze
l, ed
s.,
Die
Sch
wie
rigk
eit,
nic
htra
ssis
tisc
h zu
sei
n (L
eer:
Mu
nd
o V
erlig
, 19
90);
S.
Jäge
r, B
rand
Sät
ze-R
assi
smus
im
All
tag
(Du
isbu
rg:
Du
isbu
rger
In
stit
ut
für
Sp
rach
- u
nd
So
zial
fors
chu
ng,
199
3);
Nic
ola
Pip
er,
Rac
ism
, N
atio
nali
sm,
and
Cit
izen
ship
: E
thni
c M
inor
itie
s in
Bri
tain
and
Ger
man
y (B
roo
k‹
eld
, V
T:
Ash
gate
, 19
98),
33–
43;
Su
san
Arn
dt,
ed
., A
frik
a-B
ilde
r:
Stu
dien
zu
R
assi
smus
in
D
euts
chla
nd
(Mü
nst
er:
Un
rast
V
erla
g,
2001
);Je
rom
e S.
Leg
ge,
Jr.,
Jew
s, T
urks
, an
d O
ther
Str
ange
rs:
The
Roo
ts o
fP
reju
dice
in
Mod
ern
Ger
man
y (M
adis
on
: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fW
isco
nsi
n P
ress
, 20
03);
an
d H
elen
aF
lam
, ed
., M
igra
nten
in
Deu
tsch
land
. S
tati
stik
en-F
akte
n-D
isku
rse.
(C
on
stan
ce:
UV
K V
erla
gsge
sells
chaf
t, 2
007)
. F
or
a co
mp
arat
ive
dis
cuss
ion
on
Fra
nce
an
dB
rita
in, s
ee G
eoff
Ele
y’s
dis
cuss
ion
in c
hap
ter
5 o
fth
is v
olu
me.
11.
Ro
ber
t M
oel
ler,
“In
tro
du
ctio
n:
Wri
tin
g th
e H
isto
ry o
fW
est
Ger
man
y”in
Ro
ber
t M
oel
ler,
ed
., W
est
Ger
man
y un
der
Con
stru
ctio
n: P
olit
ics,
Soc
iety
, an
d C
ul-
ture
in
the
Ade
naue
r E
ra(A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an P
ress
, 19
97),
1–3
0;h
ere,
3–1
2.12
.H
eid
e F
ehre
nb
ach
, Rac
e af
ter
Hit
ler:
Bla
ck O
ccup
atio
n C
hild
ren
in P
ostw
arG
erm
any
and
Am
eric
a (P
rin
ceto
n: P
rin
ceto
n U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
5); A
tin
a G
ross
-m
ann
, Je
ws,
Ger
man
s, a
nd A
llie
s: C
lose
Enc
ount
ers
in O
ccup
ied
Ger
man
y (P
rin
ce-
ton
: P
rin
ceto
n U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 20
07);
Rit
a C
hin
, T
he G
uest
Wor
ker
Que
stio
n in
Pos
twar
Ger
man
y (C
amb
rid
ge: C
amb
rid
ge U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
7).
13.
Ara
s Ö
ren
, W
as w
ill
Niy
azi
in d
er N
auny
nstr
aße
(Ber
lin:
Ro
tbu
ch V
erla
g,19
73).
Fo
r an
an
alys
is o
fÖ
ren’
s w
ork
s, s
ee C
hin
, The
Gue
st W
orke
r Q
uest
ion,
esp
e-ci
ally
ch
apte
r 1;
an
d L
eslie
A. A
del
son
, The
Tur
kish
Tur
n in
Con
tem
pora
ry G
erm
anL
iter
atur
e: T
owar
d a
New
Cri
tica
l G
ram
mar
of
Mig
rati
on(N
ew Y
ork
: P
algr
ave
Mac
mill
an,
2005
), c
hap
ter
3. T
he
sam
e ye
ar a
bo
ok
ch
ron
iclin
g th
e ex
per
ien
ce o
fB
lack
s in
Wes
t G
erm
any
app
eare
d, K
aren
Th
imm
an
d D
uR
ell E
cho
ls, S
chw
arze
inD
euts
chla
nd (
Mu
nic
h: P
roto
kolle
, 197
3).
14.
Kat
har
ina
Ogu
nto
ye,
May
Op
itz
(lat
er A
yim
), a
nd
Dag
mar
Sch
ult
z, F
arbe
beke
nnen
: af
ro-d
euts
che
Fra
uen
auf
den
Spu
ren
ihre
r G
esch
icht
e(B
erlin
: O
rlan
da
Ver
lag,
198
6),
tran
s. b
y A
nn
e V
. A
dam
s as
Sho
win
g O
ur C
olor
s: A
fro-
Ger
man
Wom
en S
peak
Out
(Am
her
st: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
assa
chu
sett
s P
ress
, 199
2), x
xi–x
xii.
Not
es t
o P
ages
5–8
185
15.
Zaf
er S
eno
cak
, A
tlas
des
tro
pisc
hen
Deu
tsch
land
s(B
erlin
: B
abel
, 19
92),
tran
s. b
y L
eslie
A. A
del
son
as
Atl
as o
fa
Tro
pica
l G
erm
any:
Ess
ays
on P
olit
ics
and
Cul
ture
, 199
0–19
98(L
inco
ln: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fN
ebra
ska
Pre
ss, 2
000)
, 1–2
. 16
.F
or
exam
ple
, P
eter
Wei
nga
rt,
Jürg
en K
roll,
an
d K
urt
Bay
ertz
, R
asse
, B
lut
und
Gen
e. G
esch
icht
e de
r E
ugen
ik u
nd R
asse
nhyg
iene
in D
euts
chla
nd (
Fra
nk
furt
am
Mai
n:
Su
hrk
amp,
198
8),
Pau
l W
ein
dlin
g, H
ealt
h, R
ace,
and
Nat
iona
l P
olit
ics
be-
twee
n N
atio
nal U
ni‹
cati
on a
nd N
azis
m, 1
870–
1945
(N
ew Y
ork
: Cam
bri
dge
Un
iver
-si
ty P
ress
, 19
89),
as
wel
l as
th
e re
cen
t w
ork
of
Fat
ima
El-
Tay
eb,
Lo
ra W
ilden
thal
,T
ina
Cam
pt,
Pas
cal
Gro
sse,
an
d I
sab
el H
ull,
am
on
g o
ther
s. O
n t
he
qu
esti
on
of
colo
nia
list
con
tinu
itie
s, s
ee B
irth
e K
un
dru
s, “
Ko
nti
nuit
äten
, P
aral
lele
n,
Rez
epti
o-
nen
. Ü
ber
legu
nge
n
zur
‘Ko
lon
isie
run
g’d
es
Nat
ion
also
zial
ism
us,
”W
erks
tatt
-G
esch
icht
e 43
(20
06):
45–
62.
17.
Cla
ud
ia K
oo
nz,
The
Naz
i C
onsc
ienc
e (C
amb
rid
ge: H
arva
rd B
elk
nap
Pre
ss,
2003
); S
tern
, Whi
tew
ashi
ng. H
ann
a S
chis
sler
, “In
tro
du
ctio
n,”
in T
he M
irac
le Y
ears
,ed
. H. S
chis
sler
(P
rin
ceto
n: P
rin
ceto
n U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
0).
18.
Uta
G. P
oig
er, J
azz,
Roc
k, a
nd R
ebel
s: C
old
War
Pol
itic
s an
d A
mer
ican
Cul
-tu
re i
n D
ivid
ed G
erm
any
(Ber
kele
y: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fC
alif
orn
ia P
ress
, 20
00);
als
oP
oig
er,
“Im
per
ialis
m a
nd
Em
pir
e in
Tw
enti
eth
-Cen
tury
Ger
man
y,”
His
tory
and
Mem
ory
(200
6);
Mar
ia H
öh
n,
GIs
and
Frä
ulei
ns:
Ger
man
-Am
eric
an E
ncou
nter
in
1950
s W
est
Ger
man
y (C
hap
el H
ill:
Un
iver
sity
of
No
rth
Car
olin
a P
ress
, 20
02);
Feh
ren
bac
h,
Rac
e af
ter
Hit
ler;
Gro
ssm
ann
, Je
ws,
Ger
man
, A
llie
s. O
ther
rec
ent
pu
blic
atio
ns
(no
t al
l by
his
tori
ans)
th
at d
evo
te s
om
e at
ten
tio
n t
o t
he
issu
e o
fd
if-
fere
nce
in p
ost
-194
5 G
erm
any
are
Rog
ers
Bru
bak
er, C
itiz
ensh
ip a
nd N
atio
nhoo
d in
Fra
nce
and
Ger
man
y (C
amb
rid
ge:
Har
vard
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
1992
); T
ina
Cam
pt,
Pas
cal
Gro
sse,
an
d Y
ara-
Co
lett
e L
emke
-Mu
niz
de
Far
ia,
“Bla
cks,
Ger
man
s, a
nd
the
Po
litic
s o
fth
e Im
per
ial
Imag
inat
ion
, 19
20–1
960,
”T
he I
mpe
rial
ist
Imag
inat
ion:
Ger
man
Col
onia
lism
and
Its
Leg
acy,
ed
. S
ara
Fri
edri
chsm
eyer
, S
ara
Len
nox
, an
dS
usa
nn
e Z
anto
p (
An
n A
rbo
r: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
ich
igan
Pre
ss,
1998
), 2
05–2
9; P
atri
-ci
a M
azó
n a
nd
Rei
nh
ild S
tein
gröv
er, e
ds.
, Not
So
Pla
in a
s B
lack
and
Whi
te:
Afr
o-G
erm
an H
isto
ry a
nd C
ultu
re f
rom
189
0–20
00 (
Ro
ches
ter:
Un
iver
sity
of
Ro
ches
ter
Pre
ss, 2
005)
; Kat
rin
Sie
g, E
thni
c D
rag:
Per
form
ing
Rac
e, N
atio
n, S
exua
lity
in P
ost-
war
Ger
man
y (A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an P
ress
, 200
2); N
eil G
rego
r, N
ilsR
oem
er,
and
Mar
k R
ose
man
, G
erm
an H
isto
ry f
rom
the
Mar
gins
(B
loo
min
gto
n:
Un
iver
sity
of
Ind
ian
a P
ress
, 200
6).
19.
Y.
Mic
hel
Bo
dem
ann
an
d G
ök
ce Y
urd
aku
l, ed
s.,
Mig
rati
on,
Cit
izen
ship
,E
thos
(N
ew Y
ork
: Pal
grav
e M
acm
illan
, 200
6); C
hin
, The
Gue
st W
orke
r Q
uest
ion
inP
ostw
ar G
erm
any.
20.
In t
his
co
nn
ecti
on
, it
is
no
tabl
e th
at h
isto
rian
s o
fG
erm
any
hav
e n
ot
yet
pro
du
ced
a s
ynth
etic
inte
rpre
tati
on
of
the
role
of
dif
fere
nce
in t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
the
Ger
man
nat
ion
co
mp
arab
le t
o J
aco
bse
n’s
Whi
tene
ss o
fa
Dif
fere
nt C
olor
,wh
ich
span
s fr
om
th
e in
cep
tio
n o
fth
e A
mer
ican
Rep
ubl
ic t
hro
ugh
th
e la
te t
wen
tiet
h c
en-
tury
. T
his
is
cert
ain
ly n
ot
du
e to
th
e p
auci
ty o
fm
igra
tio
n t
o G
erm
any
or
to t
hat
mo
der
n n
atio
n’s
nee
d t
o in
tegr
ate
min
ori
ty p
op
ula
tio
ns.
21.
Ger
man
His
tori
cal
Inst
itu
te D
atab
ase,
Ger
man
His
tory
in
Doc
umen
ts a
ndIm
ages
.“R
epo
rt o
fth
e D
istr
ict
Gov
ern
men
t o
fth
e P
russ
ian
Dis
tric
t o
fK
obl
enz
on
th
e Je
wis
h P
op
ula
tio
n,”
1820
. F
rom
Vo
rmär
z to
Pru
ssia
n D
om
inan
ce (
1815
–
186
No
tes
to P
ages
9–1
2
1866
): D
ocu
men
ts—
Gov
ern
men
t an
d A
dm
inis
trat
ion
: E
man
cip
atio
n o
fth
e Je
ws.
htt
p:/
/ger
man
his
tory
do
cs.g
hi-
dc.
org
/su
b_d
ocu
men
t.cf
m?d
ocu
men
t_id
=43
4 (a
c-ce
ssed
16
May
200
7).
22.
Rec
entl
y, h
isto
rian
s o
fG
erm
any
hav
e b
egu
n t
o r
eexa
min
e th
e ro
le o
fre
li-gi
on
, an
d t
hei
r as
sum
pti
on
s re
gard
ing
secu
lari
zati
on
, in
th
e co
nst
itu
tio
n o
fG
er-
man
mo
der
nit
y an
d t
he
nat
ion
. S
ee,
for
exam
ple
, R
udy
Ko
shar
, “T
he
His
tory
of
Ch
rist
ian
ity
Bey
on
d t
he
Res
idu
al”
H-N
et B
oo
k R
evie
w o
fS
her
idan
Gill
ey a
nd
Bri
an S
tan
ley,
ed
s., W
orld
Chr
isti
anit
ies,
c.
1815
–c.1
914.
Vo
l. 8.
Cam
bri
dge
His
tory
of
Ch
rist
ian
ity
(Cam
bri
dge
: C
amb
rid
ge
Un
iver
sity
P
ress
, 20
06)
and
H
ugh
McL
eod
, ed
., W
orld
Chr
isti
anit
ies,
c.
1914
–c.
2000
,vo
l. 9.
Cam
bri
dge
His
tory
of
Ch
rist
ian
ity.
(C
amb
rid
ge: C
amb
rid
ge U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
6), d
ated
Ju
ly 2
007.
23.
Fo
r an
ear
ly e
xam
ple
of
this
th
esis
, see
Fri
tz S
tern
, The
Pol
itic
s of
Cul
tura
lD
espa
ir:
A S
tudy
in t
he R
ise
ofG
erm
anic
Ide
olog
y(B
erke
ley:
Un
iver
sity
of
Cal
ifo
r-n
ia P
ress
, 19
74).
Mo
re r
ecen
t ex
amp
les
incl
ud
e P
hili
pp
e B
urr
in,
Naz
i A
nti-
Sem
i-ti
sm:
Fro
m P
reju
dice
to
the
Hol
ocau
st(N
ew Y
ork
: New
Pre
ss, 2
005)
, an
d S
hu
lam
itV
olk
ov, G
erm
ans,
Jew
s, a
nd A
ntis
emit
es:
Tri
als
in E
man
cipa
tion
(N
ew Y
ork
: Cam
-b
rid
ge U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
6).
24.
See
Art
. 3 o
fth
e W
est
Ger
man
Bas
ic L
aw (
Gru
ndge
setz
)an
d A
rts.
6 a
nd
11
of
the
Eas
t G
erm
an c
on
stit
uti
on
(V
erfa
ssun
g).
25.
Fo
r an
exp
and
ed d
iscu
ssio
n,
see
Ch
in,
The
Gue
st W
orke
r Q
uest
ion,
esp
e-ci
ally
ch
aps.
3–4
.26
.M
arti
n B
arke
r, T
he N
ew R
acis
m(L
on
do
n:
Jun
ctio
n B
oo
ks,
198
0);
Pau
lG
ilroy
, T
here
Ain
’t N
o B
lack
in
the
Uni
on J
ack;
and
Eti
enn
e B
alib
ar,
“Is
Th
ere
aN
eo-R
acis
m,”
in E
tien
ne
Bal
ibar
an
d I
mm
anu
el W
alle
rste
in, R
ace,
Nat
ion,
Cla
ss:
Am
bigu
ous
Iden
titi
es (
Lo
nd
on
: Ver
so, 1
991)
, 21–
23.
27.
Fo
r an
in
tere
stin
g d
iscu
ssio
n o
fh
isto
rica
l an
d c
ult
ura
l u
nd
erst
and
ings
in
-fo
rmin
g N
azi
po
licie
s in
so
rtin
g G
erm
ans
fro
m C
zech
s, i
n e
ffec
t d
ecid
ing
wh
o o
fth
e la
tter
wer
e “A
ryan
izab
le,”
see
Tar
a Z
ahra
, “Y
ou
r C
hild
Bel
on
gs t
o t
he
Nat
ion
:N
atio
nal
izat
ion
, G
erm
aniz
atio
n,
and
D
emo
crac
y in
th
e B
oh
emia
n
Lan
ds,
1900
–194
5”(d
oct
ora
l dis
s., U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
ich
igan
, 200
5), 5
03ff
. 28
.H
ere
we
agre
e w
ith
Rog
ers
Bru
bak
er w
ho
has
arg
ued
, “E
thn
icit
y, r
ace,
an
dn
atio
n s
ho
uld
be
con
cep
tual
ized
no
t as
su
bst
ance
s o
r th
ings
or
enti
ties
or
org
an-
ism
s o
r co
llect
ive
ind
ivid
ual
s—as
th
e im
ager
y o
fd
iscr
ete,
co
ncr
ete,
tan
gibl
e,b
ou
nd
ed a
nd
en
du
rin
g ‘g
rou
ps’
enco
ura
ges
us
to d
o—
but
rath
er i
n r
elat
ion
al,
pro
cess
ual
, dy
nam
ic,
even
tfu
l, an
d d
isag
greg
ated
ter
ms.
Th
is m
ean
s th
ink
ing
of
eth
nic
ity,
rac
e, a
nd
nat
ion
no
t in
ter
ms
of
sub
stan
tial
gro
up
s o
r en
titi
es b
ut
inte
rms
of
pra
ctic
al c
ateg
ori
es,
situ
ated
act
ion
s, c
ult
ura
l id
iom
s, c
ogn
itiv
e sc
hem
as,
dis
curs
ive
fram
es, o
rgan
izat
ion
al r
ou
tes,
inst
itu
tio
nal
form
s, p
olit
ical
pro
ject
s, a
nd
con
tin
gen
t ev
ents
. It
mea
ns t
hink
ing
ofet
hnic
izat
ion,
rac
iali
zati
on, a
nd n
atio
nali
za-
tion
as
poli
tica
l, s
ocia
l, c
ultu
ral,
and
psy
chol
ogic
al p
roce
sses
. And
it m
eans
tak
ing
asa
basi
c an
alyt
ical
cat
egor
y no
t th
e ‘g
roup
’ as
an
enti
ty b
ut g
roup
ness
as
a co
ntex
tu-
ally
›uc
tuat
ing
conc
eptu
al v
aria
ble”
(em
ph
asis
add
ed).
Rog
ers
Bru
bak
er,
Eth
nici
tyw
itho
ut G
roup
s (C
amb
rid
ge: H
arva
rd U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
4), 1
1.29
.B
rub
aker
hel
pfu
lly a
rgu
es t
hat
“by
tre
atin
g et
hn
icit
y as
a w
ay o
fu
nd
er-
stan
din
g, in
terp
reti
ng,
an
d f
ram
ing
exp
erie
nce
, [co
gnit
ive]
per
spec
tive
s p
rovi
de
anal
tern
ativ
e to
su
bst
anti
alis
t o
r gr
ou
pis
t o
nto
logi
es.
Th
ey a
ffo
rd s
tro
ng
reas
on
s fo
r
Not
es t
o P
ages
12–
1418
7
trea
tin
g et
hn
icit
y, r
ace,
an
d n
atio
nal
ism
as
on
e d
om
ain
rat
her
th
an s
ever
al.”
Bru
bak
er, E
thni
city
wit
hout
Gro
ups,
86.
30.
Max
im S
ilver
man
, D
econ
stru
ctin
g th
e N
atio
n: I
mm
igra
tion
, R
acis
m,
and
Cit
izen
ship
in M
oder
n F
ranc
e(L
on
do
n: R
ou
tled
ge, 1
992)
, 129
0.31
.A
s B
rub
aker
pu
ts i
t, r
acia
l an
d e
thn
ic “
com
mo
n s
ense
”—“t
he
ten
den
cy t
op
arti
tio
n t
he
soci
al w
orl
d in
to p
uta
tive
ly d
eep
ly c
on
stit
ute
d, q
uas
i-n
atu
ral i
ntr
insi
ck
ind
s . .
.—is
a k
ey p
art
of
wh
at w
e w
ant
to e
xpla
in, n
ot
wh
at w
e w
ant
to e
xpla
inth
ings
wit
h; i
t b
elo
ngs
to
ou
r em
pir
ical
dat
a, n
ot
ou
r an
alyt
ical
to
olk
it.”
Bru
bak
er,
Eth
nici
ty w
itho
ut G
roup
s,9.
Bru
bak
er n
ote
s th
at “
‘Gro
up
nes
s’is
a v
aria
ble,
no
t a
con
stan
t”(4
).32
.B
rub
aker
, C
itiz
ensh
ip a
nd N
atio
nhoo
d;B
alib
ar a
nd
Wal
lers
tein
, R
ace,
Na-
tion
, C
lass
;A
. R
atts
ani
and
S.
Wes
two
od
, ed
s.,
Rac
ism
, M
oder
nity
, an
d Id
enti
ty(C
amb
rid
ge:
Po
lity
Pre
ss,
1994
); P
iper
, R
acis
m,
Nat
iona
lism
, an
d C
itiz
ensh
ip;
I.P
inn
an
d M
. Neb
elu
ng,
Vom
“kl
assi
chen
” zu
m a
ktue
llen
Ras
sism
us in
Deu
tsch
land
.D
as
Men
schen
bil
d d
er B
evölk
erungst
heo
rie
und B
evölk
erungpoli
tik
(Du
isbu
rg: D
uis
-bu
rger
In
stit
ut
für
Sp
rach
- u
nd
So
zial
fors
chu
ng,
199
2). H
. Gle
nn
Pen
ny a
nd
Mat
tiB
un
zl,
eds.
, W
orl
dly
Pro
vinci
ali
sm:
Ger
man A
nth
ropolo
gy i
n t
he
Age
of
Em
pir
e
(An
n A
rbo
r: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
ich
igan
Pre
ss,
2003
); F
atim
a E
l-T
ayeb
, S
chw
arz
e
Deu
tsch
e. D
er D
isk
urs
um
Rass
e und n
ati
onale
Iden
titä
t (F
ran
kfu
rt a
m M
ain
Cam
-p
us,
200
1); A
nd
rew
Zim
mer
man
, Anth
ropolo
gy a
nd A
nti
hum
anis
m i
n I
mper
ial
Ger
-
many (
Ch
icag
o: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fC
hic
ago
Pre
ss, 2
001)
; Isa
bel
l Hu
ll, A
bso
lute
Des
truc-
tion:
Mil
itary
C
ult
ure
and th
e P
ract
ices
of
War
in Im
per
ial
Ger
many (I
thac
a:C
orn
ell U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
4); R
ein
er P
om
mer
in, S
teri
lisi
erung d
er R
hei
nla
ndbas-
tard
e. D
as
Sch
ick
sal
einer
farb
igen
deu
tsch
en M
inder
hei
t 19
18–19
37(D
üss
eld
orf
:D
rost
e, 1
979)
; T
ina
Cam
pt,
Oth
er G
erm
ans:
Bla
ck G
erm
ans
and t
he
Poli
tics
of
Race
, G
ender
, and M
emory
in t
he
Thir
d R
eich
(A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
anP
ress
, 200
3); M
azó
n a
nd
Ste
ingr
över
, ed
s., N
ot
So P
lain
as
Bla
ck a
nd W
hit
e;A
tin
aG
ross
man
n, R
eform
ing S
ex:
The
Ger
man M
ovem
ent
for
Bir
th C
ontr
ol and A
bort
ion
Ref
orm
, 19
20
–19
50 (
New
Yo
rk:
Oxf
ord
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
1995
); M
ich
elle
Mo
uto
n,
Fro
m N
urt
uri
ng t
he
Nati
on t
o P
uri
fyin
g t
he
Volk
: W
eim
ar
and N
azi
Fam
ily P
oli
cy,
1918
–19
45
(New
Yo
rk:
Cam
bri
dge
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2007
); U
we
Mai
, “R
ass
e und
Raum
”:
Agra
rpoli
tik
, S
ozi
al-
und R
aum
pla
nung i
m N
S-S
taat
(Mu
nic
h: S
chö
nin
gh,
2002
); B
ayer
tz, R
ass
e, B
lut
und G
ene;
Rog
er B
artl
ett
and
Kar
en S
chö
nw
ald
er, e
ds.
,T
he
Ger
man L
ands
and E
ast
ern E
uro
pe
(New
Yo
rk:
St.
Mar
tin’
s P
ress
, 19
99);
Ed
-u
ard
Mü
hle
, ed
., G
erm
any a
nd t
he
Euro
pea
n E
ast
in t
he
Tw
enti
eth C
entu
ry (
New
Yo
rk:
Ber
g, 2
003)
; an
d K
rist
a O
’Do
nn
ell,
Ren
ate
Bri
den
thal
, an
d N
ancy
Rea
gin
,ed
s.,
The
Hei
mat
Abro
ad:
The
Boundari
es o
fG
erm
annes
s (A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an P
ress
, 200
5).
33.
Geo
rge
Fre
dri
ckso
n h
as n
ote
d t
hat
rac
ism
“is
alw
ays
nat
ion
ally
sp
eci‹
c. I
tin
vari
ably
bec
om
es e
nm
esh
ed w
ith
sea
rch
es fo
r n
atio
nal
iden
tity
an
d c
oh
esio
n t
hat
vary
wit
h t
he
his
tori
cal e
xper
ien
ce o
fth
e co
un
try.
”R
aci
sm,
75.
34.
Geo
rge
M. F
red
rick
son
has
sim
ilarl
y o
bse
rved
th
at it
“is
hig
h t
ime
that
his
-to
rian
s d
evo
ted
th
e sa
me
effo
rt t
o u
nd
erst
and
ing
‘rac
e’as
a t
ran
snat
ion
al s
oci
alan
d h
isto
rica
l ph
eno
men
on
th
at t
hey
hav
e so
met
imes
ap
plie
d t
o c
lass
, gen
der
, an
dn
atio
nal
ism
.”T
he
Com
para
tive
Im
agin
ati
on:
On t
he
His
tory
of
Raci
sm,
Nati
onal-
ism
, and S
oci
al
Mov
emen
ts (
Ber
kele
y: U
niv
ersi
ty o
fC
alif
orn
ia P
ress
, 199
7), 7
7.
188
No
tes
to P
ages
15–
17
35.
Ro
ber
t B
ern
asco
ni,
“Aft
er t
he
Inve
nti
on
of
Rac
e: R
acia
l Dis
cou
rse
in G
er-
man
y fr
om
Kan
t to
Nat
ion
al S
oci
alis
m,”
talk
pre
sen
ted
at “
Rem
app
ing
Bla
ck G
er-
man
y”co
nfe
ren
ce, U
niv
ersi
ty o
fM
assa
chu
sett
s, A
mh
erst
, 22
Ap
ril 2
006.
36.
Fo
r th
e G
erm
an c
on
text
, se
e th
e w
ork
of
Mic
hae
l K
ater
, D
iffe
rent
Dru
m-
mer
s: J
azz
in t
he C
ultu
re o
fN
azi
Ger
man
y (N
ew Y
ork
: O
xfo
rd U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,19
92);
Uta
Po
iger
, Ja
zz,
Roc
k, a
nd R
ebel
s;K
atri
n S
ieg,
Eth
nic
Dra
g; a
nd
Dav
idC
iarl
o, “
Co
nsu
min
g R
ace,
Env
isio
nin
g E
mp
ire:
Co
lon
ialis
m a
nd
Ger
man
Mas
sC
ult
ure
, 18
87–1
914”
(do
cto
ral
dis
s.,
Un
iver
sity
of
Wis
con
sin
, M
adis
on
, 20
03),
amo
ng
oth
ers.
37.
See
, fo
r ex
amp
le,
Uta
G.
Po
iger
, “B
eau
ty,
Bu
sin
ess,
an
d G
erm
an I
nte
rna-
tio
nal
Rel
atio
ns,
”in
Wer
ksta
ttG
esch
icht
e 45
(20
07):
53–
71;
Aly
s W
ein
bau
m,
Lyn
nM
. T
ho
mas
, P
riti
Ram
amu
rthy
, U
ta G
. P
oig
er,
Mad
elei
ne
Yu
e D
on
g, a
nd
Tan
iB
arlo
w,
The
Mod
ern
Gir
l A
roun
d th
e W
orld
(D
urh
am:
Du
ke U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,20
08);
an
d H
eid
e F
ehre
nb
ach
an
d U
ta G
. P
oig
er,
Tra
nsac
tion
s, T
rans
gres
sion
s,T
rans
form
atio
ns:
Am
eric
an C
ultu
re i
n W
este
rn E
urop
e an
d Ja
pan
(New
Yo
rk:
Ber
ghah
n B
oo
ks,
200
0).
38.
Jan
Gro
ss,
Fea
r: A
ntis
emit
ism
in
Pol
and
afte
r A
usch
wit
z (N
ew Y
ork
: R
an-
do
m H
ou
se, 2
007)
.39
.P
oig
er,
Jazz
, R
ock,
and
Reb
els;
Mari
a H
öh
n,
GIs
and
Frä
ulei
ns;
Hei
de
Feh
ren
bach
, R
ace
afte
r H
itle
r.40.
See
, fo
r ex
am
ple
, Y
ou
ng-S
un
Ho
ng,
“ ‘
Th
e B
ene‹
ts o
fH
ealt
h M
ust
Sp
read
am
on
g A
ll’:
In
tern
ati
on
al
So
lid
ari
ty,
Hea
lth
, an
d R
ace
in
th
e E
ast
Ger
man
En
-
cou
nte
r w
ith
th
e T
hir
d W
orl
d,”
in K
ath
erin
e P
ence
an
d P
au
l B
etts
, ed
s.,
Soc
iali
stM
oder
n: E
ast
Ger
man
Eve
ryda
y C
ultu
re a
nd P
olit
ics
(An
n A
rbo
r: U
niv
ersi
ty o
f
Mic
hig
an
Pre
ss,
2008),
183–210
.
41.
See
ch
ap
ter
4 i
n t
his
vo
lum
e. A
lso
Mart
in K
lim
ke,
“T
he
‘Oth
er’
All
ian
ce:
Glo
bal
Pro
test
an
d S
tud
ent
Un
rest
in
Wes
t G
erm
an
y a
nd
th
e U
.S.,
1962–19
72”
(do
cto
ral
dis
s.,
Un
iver
sitä
t H
eid
elb
erg,
2005),
an
d V
icto
r G
ross
man
n,
“T
he
GD
R
New
spap
er J
unge
Wel
tan
d S
oli
dari
ty w
ith
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an
s (e
spec
iall
y i
n t
he
An
gel
a D
avis
case
),”
pap
er p
rese
nte
d a
t th
e 2006 G
erm
an
Stu
die
s A
sso
ciati
on
Mee
tin
g,
Pit
tsb
urg
h,
Oct
ob
er 2
006.
42.
Hö
hn
, G
Is a
nd F
räul
eins
; F
ehre
nb
ach
, R
ace
afte
r H
itle
r, e
sp.
chap
ter
1.
43.
Fra
nk
Ste
rn,
Whi
tew
ashi
ng;
Gro
ssm
an
n,
Jew
s, G
erm
ans,
and
All
ies.
Fo
r a
dis
cuss
ion
of
ho
w t
he
Nu
rem
ber
g T
rials
org
an
ized
kn
ow
led
ge
abo
ut
Nazi
cri
mes
an
d v
icti
ms,
see
Do
nald
Blo
xh
am
, G
enoc
ide
on T
rial
: W
ar C
rim
es T
rial
s an
d th
eF
orm
atio
n of
Hol
ocas
t H
isto
ry a
nd M
emor
y (N
ew Y
ork
: O
xfo
rd U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,
2003).
44.
Die
thel
m P
row
e, “
Th
e ‘M
iracl
e’o
fth
e P
oli
tica
l-C
ult
ure
Sh
ift:
Dem
ocr
ati
-
zati
on
bet
wee
n A
mer
ican
izati
on
an
d C
on
serv
ati
ve
Rei
nte
gra
tio
n,”
in S
chis
sler
, ed
.,
The
Mir
acle
Yea
rs,4
51–
58;
her
e, 4
56.
Als
o S
tern
, W
hite
was
hing
.45.
Fo
r an
exp
an
ded
dis
cuss
ion
, se
e ch
ap
ter
4 i
n t
his
vo
lum
e.
46.
Dan
iel G
old
hagen
has
bee
n a
pro
min
ent,
if
con
tro
ver
sial,
pro
po
nen
t o
fth
is
vie
w.
Fo
r m
ore
nu
an
ced
ver
sio
ns
that
dis
cuss
pro
ble
ms
of
imm
igra
tio
n a
nd
“fo
r-
eign
nes
s,”
alt
ho
ugh
no
t q
ues
tio
ns
of
race
aft
er 1
945,
see
Ko
nra
d H
. Ja
rau
sch
an
d
Mic
hael
G
eyer
, S
hatt
ered
P
ast:
R
econ
stru
ctin
g G
erm
an
His
tori
es
(Pri
nce
ton
:
Pri
nce
ton
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2003),
esp
ecia
lly t
he
chap
ter
on
“re
de‹
nin
g n
ati
on
al
Not
es t
o P
ages
17–
2118
9
iden
titi
es,”
221–
44,
esp.
235–41;
als
o K
on
rad
H.
Jara
usc
h,
Aft
er H
itle
r: R
eciv
iliz
ing
Ger
man
s, 1
945–
1995
, tr
an
s.
Bra
nd
on
H
un
zik
er
(New
Y
ork
: O
xfo
rd
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2006).
47.
A n
ota
ble
exce
pti
on
is
Fla
m,
ed.,
Mig
rant
en in
Deu
tsch
land
.48.
Ro
ber
t G
. M
oel
ler,
“R
emem
ber
ing t
he
War
in a
Nati
on
of
Vic
tim
s: W
est
Ger
man
Past
s in
th
e 19
50s,
”in
Sch
issl
er,
ed.,
The
Mir
acle
Yea
rs,
83–10
9;
her
e,
86–87;
for
a m
ore
co
mp
reh
ensi
ve
dis
cuss
ion
see
R.
G.
Mo
elle
r, W
ar S
tori
es:
The
Sea
rch
for
a U
seab
le P
ast
in t
he F
eder
al R
epub
lic
ofG
erm
any
(Ber
kel
ey:
Un
iver
sity
of
Cali
forn
ia P
ress
, 19
99).
Als
o S
tern
, W
hite
was
hing
.49.
See
Geo
ffE
ley’s
dis
cuss
ion
in
ch
ap
ter
5.
50.
Fo
r a b
rief
, re
late
d d
iscu
ssio
n o
fw
het
her
th
e p
ost
-1945 r
ad
ical
righ
t sh
ou
ld
be
chara
cter
ized
as
“fa
scis
t,”se
e D
ieth
elm
Pro
we,
“T
he
Fasc
ist
Ph
an
tom
an
d A
nti
-
Imm
igra
nt
Vio
len
ce:
Th
e P
ow
er o
f(F
als
e) E
qu
ati
on
,”in
An
gel
ica F
enn
er a
nd
Eri
c
D. W
eitz
, F
asci
sm a
nd N
eofa
scis
m:
Cri
tica
l Wri
ting
s on
the
Rad
ical
Rig
ht in
Eur
ope
(New
Yo
rk:
Palg
rave
Macm
illa
n,
2004),
esp
ecia
lly 1
32–34.
51.
See
, fo
r ex
am
ple
, P
eter
Bet
hge,
“W
elch
en S
tan
d h
aben
au
slän
dis
che
Ar-
bei
ter
bei
un
s?”
Jung
e W
elt
(28 S
epte
mb
er 1
972)
in D
eniz
Gö
ktü
rk,
Dav
id G
ram
-
lin
g,
an
d A
nto
n K
aes
, ed
s.,
Ger
man
y in
Tra
nsit
: N
atio
n an
d M
igra
tion
, 19
55–2
005
(Ber
kel
ey:
Un
iver
sity
of
Cali
forn
ia P
ress
, 2007).
52.
Ati
na G
ross
man
n,
“A Q
ues
tio
n o
fS
ilen
ce,”
in R
ob
ert
G.
Mo
elle
r, W
est
Ger
man
y un
der
Con
stru
ctio
n (A
nn
Arb
or:
Un
iver
sity
of
Mic
hig
an
Pre
ss,
1997);
No
rman
Naim
ark
, R
ussi
ans
in G
erm
any:
A H
isto
ry o
fth
e S
ovie
t Z
one
ofO
ccup
a-ti
on, 1
945–
1949
(C
am
bri
dge:
Harv
ard
Bel
kn
ap
Pre
ss, 19
95),
ch
ap. 2; W
. K
ari
n H
all
,
“H
um
an
ity o
r H
egem
on
y:
Orp
han
s, A
ban
do
ned
Ch
ild
ren
, an
d t
he
So
vie
tiza
tio
n
of
the
Yo
uth
Wel
fare
Syst
em in
Mec
kle
nb
erg, G
erm
an
y, 1
945–19
52”
(do
cto
ral d
iss.
,
Sta
nfo
rd U
niv
ersi
ty, 19
98);
Jef
frey
Her
f, D
ivid
ed M
emor
y: T
he N
azi P
ast
in t
he T
wo
Ger
man
ies
(Cam
bri
dge,
1996).
53.
Her
man
n
W.
Sch
ön
mei
er,
ed.,
P
rüfu
ng
der
Mög
lich
keit
en
eine
sF
achk
räft
epro
gram
ms
Mos
ambi
k(S
aarb
ruck
en:
Ver
lag B
reit
enb
ach
, 19
91)
; E
va-
Mari
a E
lsn
er an
d L
oth
ar
Els
ner
, A
uslä
nder
und
Aus
länd
erpo
liti
k in
der
DD
R(B
erli
n:
Ges
ells
chaft
swis
sen
sch
aft
lich
es
Fo
rum
, 19
92);
E
va-M
ari
a
Els
ner
an
d
Lo
thar
Els
ner
, Z
wis
chen
Nat
iona
lism
us u
nd I
nter
nati
onal
ism
us:
Übe
r A
uslä
nder
und
Aus
länd
erpo
liti
k in
de
r D
DR
19
49–1
990
(Ro
sto
ck:
No
rdd
euts
cher
Ho
chsc
hu
lsch
rift
en V
erla
g,
1994);
Jan
C.
Beh
ren
ds,
Th
om
as
Lin
den
ber
ger
, an
d
Patr
ice
G.
Po
utr
us,
ed
s.,
Fre
mde
und
Fre
md-
Sei
n in
der
DD
R:
zu h
isto
risc
hen
Ur-
sach
en d
er F
rem
denf
eind
lich
keit
in
Ost
deut
schl
and
(Ber
lin
: M
etro
po
l, 2
003);
Eva
Ko
lin
sky,
“M
ean
ings
of
Mig
rati
on
in
E
ast
G
erm
an
y
an
d
the
Wes
t G
erm
an
Mo
del
,”in
Mik
e D
enn
is a
nd
Eva K
oli
nsk
y, e
ds.
, U
nite
d an
d D
ivid
ed:
Ger
man
ysi
nce
1990
(N
ew Y
ork
: B
ergh
ah
n B
oo
ks,
2004),
14
5–75;
Ch
rist
ian
M
üll
er an
d
Patr
ice
G.
Po
utr
us,
ed
s.,
Ank
unft
, A
llta
g, A
usre
ise:
Mig
rati
on u
nd i
nter
kult
urel
leB
egeg
nung
in d
er D
DR
-Ges
ells
chaf
t(C
olo
gn
e: B
öh
lau
, 2005);
Gö
ktü
rk,
Gra
mli
ng,
an
d K
aes
, ed
s.,
Ger
man
y in
Tra
nsit
,esp
ecia
lly c
hap
ter
2;
an
d H
on
g,
“‘T
he
Ben
e‹ts
of
Hea
lth
.’”
54.
Jon
ath
an
Zatl
in i
s a r
ecen
t ex
cep
tio
n;
see
his
“S
carc
ity a
nd
Res
entm
ent:
Eco
no
mic
So
urc
es o
fX
eno
ph
ob
ia i
n t
he
GD
R,
1971–
1989,”
in C
entr
al E
urop
ean
His
tory
40, n
o. 4 (
Dec
emb
er 2
007):
683–720, w
hic
h a
pp
eare
d a
fter
th
is in
tro
du
ctio
n
190
No
tes
to P
ages
21–
25
was
au
tho
red
. V
icto
ria
de
Gra
zia’
s m
agis
teri
al I
rres
isti
ble
Em
pire
: A
mer
ica’
s A
d-va
nce
thro
ugh
Tw
enti
eth
Cen
tury
Eur
ope
(Cam
bri
dge
: H
arva
rd U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,20
05)
do
es n
ot
con
sid
er t
he
role
of
fore
ign
lab
or.
55.
A n
ota
ble
rece
nt
exce
pti
on
is R
ita
Ch
in, T
he G
uest
Wor
ker
Que
stio
n.56
.S
ee G
ross
, F
ear;
Josh
ua
D.
Zim
mer
man
, ed
., C
onte
sted
Mem
orie
s: P
oles
and
Jew
s du
ring
the
Hol
ocau
st a
nd I
ts A
fter
mat
h (N
ew B
run
swic
k: R
utg
ers
Un
iver
-si
ty P
ress
, 20
03);
Peg
gy P
iesc
he,
et
al.,
Myt
hen,
Mas
ke,
und
Sub
jekt
e: K
riti
sche
Wei
ßsei
nsfo
rsch
ung
in D
euts
chla
nd (
Mü
nst
er: U
nra
st, 2
006)
. Sin
ce 2
005,
th
e B
lack
Eu
rop
ean
Stu
die
s In
itia
tive
(BE
ST
) has
beg
un
to h
old
a s
erie
s o
fin
tern
atio
nal
co
n-
fere
nce
s.57
.B
rub
aker
, Eth
nici
ty W
itho
ut G
roup
s,11
.58
.F
ive
mill
ion
Sla
vs w
ere
forc
ibly
tran
sfer
red
to th
e G
erm
an R
eich
as
slav
e la
-b
or
by t
he
Ger
man
mili
tary
; th
ou
san
ds
of
eth
nic
Ger
man
s se
ttle
d i
n w
este
rnP
ola
nd
an
d o
ther
Eas
tern
Eu
rop
ean
ter
rito
ries
; Jew
s w
ere
tran
spo
rted
by
the
mil-
lion
s to
gh
etto
s an
d c
on
cen
trat
ion
an
d d
eath
cam
ps,
lead
ing
to s
ix m
illio
n d
eath
s.In
add
itio
n, b
egin
nin
g in
193
9, w
ith
th
e d
ivis
ion
of
Po
lan
d b
etw
een
Naz
i Ger
man
yan
d t
he
US
SR
, S
ovie
t tr
oo
ps
dep
ort
ed 1
.5 m
illio
n p
eop
le f
rom
Po
lan
d,
incl
ud
ing
600,
000
Po
les,
as
slav
e la
bo
r to
Sib
eria
, Sov
iet
Cen
tral
Asi
a, a
nd
th
e S
ovei
t A
rcti
c,a
ten
th o
fw
ho
m d
ied
. A
fu
rth
er 3
0,00
0 P
ole
s w
ere
sho
t in
Po
lan
d.
See
Mar
kK
ram
er, “
Intr
od
uct
ion
,”R
edra
win
g N
atio
ns:
Eth
nic
Cle
ansi
ng i
n E
ast-
Cen
tral
Eu-
rope
, 194
4–19
48, e
d. P
hili
pp
Th
er a
nd
An
a S
iljak
(Lan
ham
, MD
: Row
man
an
d L
it-
tle‹
eld
, 200
1), 3
, 5. A
lso
Ulr
ich
Her
ber
t, H
itle
r’s
For
eign
Wor
kers
: E
nfor
ced
For
eign
Lab
or i
n G
erm
any
unde
r th
e T
hird
Rei
ch,
tran
s. W
illia
m T
emp
ler
(Cam
bri
dge
:C
amb
rid
ge U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 19
97);
Mar
k S
po
erer
, Z
wan
gsar
beit
unt
er d
em H
ak-
enkr
euz.
Aus
länd
isch
e Z
ivil
arbe
iter
, K
rieg
sgef
ange
ne u
nd H
äftl
inge
im
Deu
tsch
enR
eich
und
im
bes
etzt
en E
urop
a 19
39–1
945
(Stu
ttga
rt:
Deu
tsch
e V
erla
gs-A
nh
alt,
2001
); E
lizab
eth
Har
vey,
Wom
en a
nd t
he N
azi
Eas
t: A
gent
s an
d W
itne
sses
of
Ger
-m
aniz
atio
n (N
ew H
aven
: Yal
e U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
3); W
olf
gan
g Ja
cob
mey
er, V
omZ
wan
gsar
beit
er z
um H
eim
atlo
sen
Aus
länd
er:
die
Dis
plac
ed P
erso
ns i
n W
estd
euts
ch-
land
(G
ött
ingen
: V
an
den
ho
eck
un
d R
up
rech
t, 1
985);
Eu
gen
Lem
ber
g a
nd
Fri
edri
ch
Ed
din
g, D
ie V
ertr
iebe
nen
in W
estd
euts
chla
nd. I
hre
Ein
glie
deru
ng u
nd ih
r E
in›
uss
auf
Ges
ells
chaf
t, W
irts
chaf
t, P
olit
ik u
nd G
eist
esle
ben
(Kie
l: H
irt,
1959).
59.
Th
e gro
up
s aff
ecte
d w
ere
Ch
ech
ens,
In
gu
sh,
Kalm
yk
s, M
esk
het
ian
Tu
rks,
Kara
chais
, B
ash
kir
s,
Balk
ars
, V
olg
a
Ger
man
s,
an
d
Cri
mea
n
Tata
rs.
Fo
r an
over
vie
w o
fet
hn
ic c
lean
sin
g i
n E
ast
ern
Eu
rop
e, s
ee K
ram
er,
“In
tro
du
ctio
n,”
4–21;
her
e, 4
, 15
.
60.
Th
ose
aff
ecte
d w
ere
Gre
eks,
Bu
lgars
, K
urd
s, K
hem
shil
s, K
abard
ines
, P
ole
s,
Fin
ns,
Mo
ldav
ian
s, A
rmen
ian
s, L
ith
uan
ian
s, L
atv
ian
s, a
nd
Est
on
ian
s. K
ram
er,
“In
tro
du
ctio
n,”
4.
61.
Sp
eech
on
Po
lan
d,
15 D
ecem
ber
1944.
Qu
ote
d i
n K
ram
er,
“In
tro
du
ctio
n,”
6–7. 62.
See
Kra
mer
, “In
tro
du
ctio
n,”
17.
63.
See
th
e ex
cell
ent
essa
ys
in T
her
an
d S
ilja
k,
eds.
, R
edra
win
g N
atio
ns. F
or
the
exp
uls
ion
o
fG
erm
an
s fr
om
C
zech
osl
ovak
ia,
see
Eagle
G
lass
hei
m,
“N
ati
on
al
Myth
olo
gie
s an
d E
thn
ic C
lean
sin
g:
Th
e E
xp
uls
ion
of
Cze
cho
slo
vak
Ger
man
s af-
ter
1945,”
Cen
tral
Eur
opea
n H
isto
ry 3
3,
no
. 4 (
2000):
463–86.
Not
es t
o P
ages
25–
2619
1
64.
It m
igh
t b
e u
sefu
l to
ask
if
the
po
stw
ar
po
liti
cs o
fet
hn
ic c
lean
sin
g i
n E
u-
rop
e ‹
ts t
he
des
crip
tio
n o
f“d
iffe
ren
tiali
st r
aci
sm,”
wh
ich
Eti
enn
e B
ali
bar
de‹
nes
as
on
e “w
ho
se d
om
inan
t th
eme
is n
ot
bio
logic
al
her
edit
y b
ut
the
insu
rmo
un
tab
il-
ity o
fcu
ltu
ral
dif
fere
nce
s, a
raci
sm w
hic
h,
at
‹rs
t si
gh
t, d
oes
no
t p
ost
ula
te t
he
su-
per
iori
ty o
fce
rtain
gro
up
s o
r p
eop
les
in r
elati
on
to
oth
ers
bu
t ‘o
nly
’th
e h
arm
ful-
nes
s o
fab
oli
shin
g
fro
nti
ers,
th
e in
com
pati
bil
ity
of
life
-sty
les
an
d
trad
itio
ns.
”
Eti
enn
e B
ali
bar
an
d I
mm
an
uel
Wall
erst
ein
, R
ace,
Nat
ion,
Cla
ss,2
1.
65.
Fo
r th
e b
egin
nin
gs
of
a h
isto
rio
gra
phy o
n t
his
qu
esti
on
fo
r P
ola
nd
an
d e
ast
-
ern
Eu
rop
e, s
ee G
ross
, F
ear;
Ro
ber
t B
lob
au
m,
ed.,
Ant
isem
itis
m a
nd I
ts O
ppon
ents
in M
oder
n P
olan
d (I
thaca
: C
orn
ell
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2005);
Tim
oth
y S
nyd
er,
The
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
ofN
atio
ns:
Pol
and,
Ukr
aine
, L
ithu
ania
, B
elar
us,
1569
–199
9 (N
ew
Hav
en: Y
ale
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss, 2003);
an
d O
mer
Bart
ov,
Era
sed:
Van
ishi
ng T
race
s of
Jew
ish
Gal
icia
in
Pre
sent
-Day
Ukr
aine
(P
rin
ceto
n:
Pri
nce
ton
U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,
2007).
Pad
raic
Ken
ney
dis
cuss
es t
he
‹rs
t tw
o o
fth
ese
bo
ok
s in
an
ill
um
inati
ng
over
vie
w o
fre
cen
t h
isto
rio
gra
phy o
n m
od
ern
Po
lan
d,
“Aft
er t
he
Bla
nk
Sp
ots
are
Fil
led
: R
ecen
t P
ersp
ecti
ves
on
Mo
der
n P
ola
nd
”in
Jou
rnal
of
Mod
ern
His
tory
79
(Marc
h 2
007):
134–61.
In
his
ess
ay K
enn
ey o
bse
rves
ho
w t
he
wri
tin
g o
fP
oli
sh h
is-
tory
rem
ain
s gro
un
ded
in
un
exam
ined
eth
nic
id
enti
‹ca
tio
n.
Wh
ile
his
tori
ogra
phy
on
Po
lan
d i
s in
crea
sin
gly
co
nce
rned
wit
h i
ssu
es o
fd
iffe
ren
ce a
nd
nati
on
over
th
e
lon
gu
e d
uré
e—se
e, f
or
exam
ple
, th
e re
cen
t b
oo
k b
y J
oan
na B
eata
Mic
hli
c, P
olan
d’s
Thr
eate
ning
Oth
er:
The
Im
age
ofth
e Je
w f
rom
188
0 to
the
Pre
sent
(L
inco
ln:
Un
i-
ver
sity
of
Neb
rask
a P
ress
, 2006)—
it s
till
lack
s a s
yst
emati
c fo
cus
on
eth
nic
iza-
tio
n/r
aci
ali
zati
on
as
a b
road
er s
oci
al
an
d c
ult
ura
l p
roce
ss a
fter
1945.
On
th
e ex
pu
l-
sio
n o
fet
hn
ic G
erm
an
s fr
om
cen
tral
an
d e
ast
ern
Eu
rop
e an
d t
he
Yu
go
slav
wars
,
see
No
rman
Naim
ark
, F
ires
of
Hat
red:
Eth
nic
Cle
ansi
ng in
Tw
enti
eth-
Cen
tury
Eu-
rope
(C
am
bri
dge:
Harv
ard
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2001)
. A
lso
Pet
er G
atr
ell,
“In
tro
du
c-
tio
n:
Wo
rld
Wars
an
d P
op
ula
tio
n D
isp
lace
men
t in
Eu
rop
e in
th
e T
wen
tiet
h C
en-
tury
,”an
d G
atr
ell,
“D
isp
laci
ng a
nd
Re-
Pla
cin
g P
op
ula
tio
n in
th
e T
wo
Wo
rld
Wars
:
Arm
enia
an
d P
ola
nd
Co
mp
are
d,”
in C
onte
mpo
rary
Eur
opea
n H
isto
ry 1
6,
no
. 4
(2007):
415
–26,
511
–27.
66.
Hei
de
Feh
ren
bach
, “W
ar
Orp
han
s an
d P
ost
fasc
ist
Fam
ilie
s: K
insh
ip a
nd
Bel
on
gin
g a
fter
1945,”
in F
ran
k B
iess
an
d R
ob
ert
Mo
elle
r, e
ds.
, H
isto
ries
of
the
Af-
term
ath:
The
Leg
acie
s of
Wor
ld W
ar I
I in
Com
para
tive
Eur
opea
n P
ersp
ecti
ve (
New
Yo
rk:
Ber
gh
ah
n B
oo
ks,
fo
rth
com
ing 2
009).
Als
o K
jers
ti E
rics
son
an
d E
va S
imo
n-
sen
, ed
s.,
Chi
ldre
n of
Wor
ld W
ar I
I: T
he H
idde
n E
nem
y L
egac
y (N
ew Y
ork
: B
erg,
2005);
Dia
ne
L. W
olf
, B
eyon
d A
nne
Fra
nk:
Hid
den
Chi
ldre
n an
d P
ostw
ar F
amil
ies
inH
olla
nd (
Ber
kel
ey:
Un
iver
sity
of
Cali
forn
ia P
ress
, 2007);
an
d T
ara
Zah
ra,
“L
ost
Ch
ild
ren
: D
isp
lace
d F
am
ilie
s an
d t
he
Reh
abil
itati
on
of
Po
stw
ar
Eu
rop
e,”
in J
our-
nal o
fM
oder
n H
isto
ry81,
no
. 1
(Marc
h 2
009).
67.
Exam
ple
s o
fre
cen
t sc
ho
lars
hip
are
Kath
leen
Pau
l, W
hite
was
hing
Bri
tain
:R
ace
and
Cit
izen
ship
in
the
Pos
twar
Era
(It
haca
: C
orn
ell
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
1997);
Ale
c G
. H
arg
reav
es a
nd
Mark
McK
inn
ey,
eds.
, P
ost-
Col
onia
l C
ultu
res
in F
ranc
e(N
ew Y
ork
: R
ou
tled
ge,
1997);
Mau
d S
. M
an
del
, In
the
Aft
erm
ath
ofG
enoc
ide:
Ar-
men
ians
and
Jew
s in
Tw
enti
eth
Cen
tury
Fra
nce
(Du
rham
: D
uk
e U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,
2003);
P
au
l A
. S
ilver
stei
n,
Alg
eria
in
Fra
nce:
Tra
nspo
liti
cs,
Rac
e, a
nd N
atio
n(B
loo
min
gto
n:
Ind
ian
a U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 2004);
Her
man
Leb
ovic
s, B
ring
ing
the
192
No
tes
to P
ages
26–28
Em
pire
Bac
k H
ome:
Fra
nce
in t
he G
loba
l A
ge (
Du
rham
: D
uke
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2004
); D
avid
Ber
iss,
Bla
ck S
kins
, F
renc
h V
oice
s: C
arib
bean
Eth
nici
ty a
nd A
ctiv
ism
in U
rban
Fra
nce
(Bo
uld
er:
Wes
tvie
w P
ress
, 20
04);
To
dd S
hep
ard
, T
he I
nven
tion
of
Dec
olon
izat
ion:
The
Alg
eria
n W
ar a
nd t
he R
emak
ing
ofF
ranc
e (I
thac
a: C
orn
ell
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2006
); A
nd
rea
L.
Sm
ith
, C
olon
ial
Mem
ory
and
Pos
tcol
onia
l E
u-ro
pe:
Mal
tese
Set
tler
s in
Alg
eria
and
Fra
nce
(Blo
om
ingt
on
: In
dia
na
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss, 2
006)
.68
.F
or
a u
sefu
l dis
cuss
ion
of
the
ideo
logi
cal a
nd
co
nce
ptu
al p
robl
ems
info
rm-
ing
the
bin
ary
of
civi
c an
d e
thn
ic n
atio
nal
ism
, se
e B
rub
aker
, E
thni
city
wit
hout
Gro
ups,
135f
f.; fo
r a
dis
cuss
ion
that
favo
rs a
focu
s o
n “
liber
al s
tate
nes
s”to
avo
id th
eet
hn
ic/c
ivic
dic
ho
tom
y, s
ee C
hri
stia
n J
op
pke
, Sel
ecti
ng b
y O
rigi
n: E
thni
c M
igra
tion
in t
he L
iber
al S
tate
(C
amb
rid
ge:
Har
vard
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
2005
). F
or
an a
ttem
pt
to r
eth
eori
ze th
e re
lati
on
ship
bet
wee
n E
ast a
nd
Wes
t Eu
rop
e, s
ee A
ttila
Mel
egh
, On
the
Eas
t-W
est
Slo
pe:
Glo
bali
zati
on, N
atio
nali
sm, R
acis
m, a
nd D
isco
urse
s on
Cen
tral
and
Eas
tern
Eur
ope
(New
Yo
rk: C
entr
al E
uro
pea
n U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 200
6).
69.
Th
is
wo
uld
en
com
pas
s,
for
exam
ple
, st
ate
bel
on
gin
g an
d
citi
zen
ship
,p
roce
sses
of
soci
al a
nd
eco
no
mic
in
tegr
atio
n o
r se
greg
atio
n,
emp
loym
ent
and
la-
bo
r p
ract
ices
, im
mig
rati
on
an
d e
mig
rati
on
, sc
ho
ol,
soci
al w
elfa
re,
fam
ily a
nd
re-
pro
du
ctio
n p
olic
ies,
an
d p
roce
sses
of
ind
ivid
ual
an
d g
rou
p s
elf-
de‹
nit
ion
.70
.R
ecen
t sc
ho
larl
y p
ubl
icat
ion
s in
clu
de
Ste
ven
Ver
tove
c an
d C
eri P
each
, ed
s.,
Isla
m i
n E
urop
e: T
he P
olit
ics
ofR
elig
ion
and
Com
mun
ity,
Mig
rati
on
, M
ino
riti
es,
and
Cit
izen
ship
Ser
ies
(New
Yo
rk:
St.
Mar
tin’
s P
ress
, 19
97);
Jo
el S
. F
etze
r an
d J
.C
hri
sto
ph
er S
op
er,
eds.
, M
usli
ms
and
the
Sta
te i
n B
rita
in,
Fra
nce,
and
Ger
man
y(N
ew Y
ork
: C
amb
rid
ge U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
, 20
05);
Jo
nat
han
Lau
ren
ce a
nd
Ju
stin
Vai
sse,
In
tegr
atin
g Is
lam
: P
olit
ical
an
d R
elig
ious
C
hall
enge
s in
C
onte
mpo
rary
Fra
nce
(Was
hin
gto
n, D
C: B
roo
kin
gs I
nst
itu
tio
n, 2
006)
.
CH
AP
TE
R 1
1.T
he
liter
atu
re o
n t
his
su
bje
ct is
vas
t, t
ho
ugh
ch
ildre
n a
re r
arel
y it
s ex
clu
sive
focu
s. F
or
thes
e ex
amp
les,
see
Mic
hae
l B
url
eigh
an
d W
olf
gan
g W
ipp
erm
ann
, T
heR
acia
l S
tate
: G
erm
any,
193
3–19
45 (
New
Yo
rk:
Cam
bri
dge
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
1993
);M
ario
n K
apla
n, B
eyon
d D
igni
ty a
nd D
espa
ir (
New
Yo
rk: O
xfo
rd U
niv
ersi
ty P
ress
,19
98);
Ati
na
Gro
ssm
ann
, Ref
orm
ing
Sex
: T
he G
erm
an M
ovem
ent
for
Bir
th C
ontr
olan
d A
bort
ion
Ref
orm
, 19
20–1
950
(New
Yo
rk:
Oxf
ord
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss,
1995
), e
sp.
136–
65. N
azi a
men
dm
ents
to
ad
op
tio
n la
w in
clu
ded
“G
eset
z ü
ber
Ver
mit
tlu
ng
der
An
nah
me
an K
ind
esst
at v
om
19.
4.19
39,”
the
text
of
wh
ich
ap
pea
red
in
Rei
chsg
e-se
tzbl
att
I,79
5; c
om
men
tary
on
th
e la
w c
an b
e fo
un
d in
Deu
tsch
e Ju
stiz
(19
39):
701
.A
lso
“T
he
Law
to
Ch
ange
an
d S
up
ple
men
t th
e R
egu
lati
on
s o
n F
amily
Rel
atio
ns
and
to
Reg
ula
te t
he
Leg
al S
tatu
s o
fS
tate
less
Per
son
s”o
f14
Ap
ril 1
938
(Rei
chsg
e-se
tzbl
att
I, 3
80);
an
d “
Th
e M
arri
age
Law
of
6 Ju
ly 1
938”
(Rei
chsg
eset
zbla
tt I
, 807
).T
hes
e la
ws
wer
e p
rece
ded
in t
he
fall
of
1935
by
the
“Law
for
the
Pro
tect
ion
of
Ger
-m
an B
loo
d”
that
pro
hib
ited
sex
ual
rel
atio
ns
or
mar
riag
e b
etw
een
“A
ryan
”G
er-
man
s an
d “
Jew
s, N
egro
es, o
r G
ypsi
es [S
inti
an
d R
om
a] o
r th
eir
bas
tard
s.”
See
als
oM
ich
elle
Mo
uto
n,
“Res
cuin
g C
hild
ren
an
d P
olic
ing
Fam
ilies
: A
do
pti
on
Po
licy
in
Not
es t
o P
ages
28–
3019
3