ChineseCompton Verney

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Chinese historical periods and dynasties

Neolithic Period: about 4500-about 2000 BC

Shang Dynasty: about 1500-about 1050 BC

Western Zhou Dynasty: about 1050-about 771 BC(Early Western Zhou: about 1050-about 950 BC)(Middle Western Zhou: about 950-about 850 BC)(Late Western Zhou: about 850-about 771 BC)

Eastern Zhou Dynasty: 770-221 BC(Spring and Autumn Period: 770-475 BC)(Warring States Period: 475-221 BC)

Qin Dynasty: 221-207 BC

Han Dynasty: 206 BC-AD 220 (Western Han: 206 BC-AD 24)

Other Dynasties: AD 220-1368 (Tang Dynasty: AD 618-906)(Song Dynasty: AD 960-1279)

Ming Dynasty: AD 1368-1644

Qing Dynasty: AD 1644-1911

1. Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 220): Heavenly Horse, tian ma. Bronze.H: 116 cmThis large horse would have been afunerary offering for the tomb of an éliteChinese man, the intention being for the owner of the tomb to use the horse to pull his chariot in the afterlife. Such large bronze horses were very rare during theWestern Han period, becoming more

popular during the Eastern Han. It was extremely difficult to produce such large bronze figures in one mould, therefore this stallion is cast in nine close fitting pieces and joined together, an expensive method in terms of labour and material.

2. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual food vessel and cover, dui. Bronze. H: 24 cm This unusual bronze is spherical and is made of two symmetrical vessels. It could stand either way up and the top could also stand separately. It is a grain container called a dui, a shape which replaced early bronze types such as the gui and fu. It has a design of interlocking scrolls and was originally decorated with copper and malachite inlay.

3. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC) or Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220): Ritual vessel and cover, hu. Bronze. H: 42 cm This ritual vessel would have been used for holding wine. It is unusual in retaining its original cover, handle and chain. The rings are held on the shoulders by cast monster mask motifs known as taotie.

4. Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220): Ear Cup. Pottery. H: 6 cm This glazed pottery oval cup known as an ‘ear cup’ because of its shape,

was modelled on a lacquer cup. Vessels like this were called er bei (eared cups), and many such cups have been found in Han tombs, often in sets.

5. Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220): Bird-shaped finial. Bronze on a wooden stand. H: 9.5 cmDuring the Han dynasty, men reaching 70 years of age were awarded with a wang chang, or king’s staff, which was topped with a dove-shaped finial. This reward earned them certain advantages and a greater respect amongst the community.

6. Han Dynasty (206 BC - AD 220): Incense burner, boshanlu. Bronze. H: 27.6 cmThis censer takes the traditional form of a Han dynasty boshanlu, with its conical cover in the form of a mountain range. The cover is pierced, for the release of incense smoke, with a band of lappets beneath the mountain peaks in which four animals, including a bear and a boar, reside. It has been suggested that the mountain range

represents Mount Penglai, the home of the Daoist Immortals.

7. Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 9): Incense burner, boshanlu. Bronze. H: 18 cmThis fine bronze incense burner in the form of a mountain range is richly decorated with a number of smaller scenes including fighting animals, a man fighting a dragon, a figure pulling a bullock cart and an archer shooting an arrow at a creature in a tree. It has been suggested that the base of the incense burner, while certainly catching ash, could also have been filled with water, allowing the vapour to rise to create the impression of a misty mountain scene.

8. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Spring and Autumn period (770-475 BC): Ritual vessel, liding. Bronze. H: 18 cm A liding was a ritual vessel used for cooked food with a round body and three legs. This vessel is very plainly decorated, with just three bovine

animals cast in the round on the lid. Vessels like this have been

discovered in excavations in the central Chinese provinces of Shanxi and Henan.

9. Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220): Tripod kettle and cover, he. Bronze. H: 14 cm This ritual tripod kettle (or ewer) and cover, known as a he, would frequently be paired with a large ritual basin or pan. The vessel is sparsely decorated, with the spout in the form of an animal head with a hinged cover and incised scaled neck. The three legs are shaped as crouching bears.

10. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual wine ewer and cover, he. Bronze. H: 20.5 cm By this period the he was no longer used to hold water to dilute wine, but to contain water for ritual hand-

washing, and was often paired with a large bronze basin or pan. This ewer is decorated with a bird-headed spout and a hinged arched handle.

11. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual cocoon-shaped wine vessel, hu, about 500-300 BC. Bronze. W: 33 cm The hu is an example of a vessel made with reference to the leather containers of the nomadic people on China’s border. Here, the rounded

shape and vertical, plain lines indicate that the bronze copies a leather container which may have had bindings in twine or strap-work. The animal faces holding rings, however, are Chinese in taste and origin, as is the scroll design between the plain bands.

12. Western Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 9): Painted grey cocoon-shaped jar, about 100 BC. Pottery. H: 30 cm This pottery wine vessel would have substituted for a bronze container in the tomb of one of the less high-ranking

members of the élite. Where members of the élite could afford elaborate bronze vessels, these were buried in tombs, but for many, ceramic replicas had to take their place. These were often beautifully painted as here. In this example, the red and white decoration recalls not bronze but lacquer vessels, which at this time were high status vessels.

13. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Silver and copper-inlaid bronze wine vessel, hu. Bronze. H: 34.5 cmThis hu, or ritual wine vessel, is decorated with recessed panels cast in low relief surrounded by ‘rope twist’ borders, a form of decoration thought to have been influenced by the rope-slung containers carried by nomads, and evident on a number of vessels dating from the earlier Spring and Autumn period (770-475 BC). The long neck, rarely found in vessels of this type, is finely decorated with bands of silver inlay.

14. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual food vessel and cover, dou, about 400-300 BC. Bronze. H: 24 cm A dou was a ritual vessel for offering food, shaped as a tall stand with a cover. It was a very common form in pottery and lacquer.

This bronze example is decorated with fine interlaced patterns around the middle of the body, which may have been developed through stamping or repeated impressions in the mould, a form of mass-production for this ornament.

15. Eastern Zhou dynasty, (770-221 BC): Warring States Period (475-221 BC); Vesseland cover, dou. Black pottery. H: 20.7 cmThe dou vessel, used for displaying food at aceremonial banquet, originated in ceramic and was also often made in lacquer. It was only developed in bronze from about 900 BC. This example, with its black burnished surface, mimics the appearance of lacquer.

16. Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220): Wine vessel and cover, zun, about 200 BC. Bronze. H: 29 cm This circular vessel or zun was used for holding wine. It stands on three legs and is decorated with bands enclosing incised motifs. The mountain-shaped top, here with a cast bird

at its apex, reflects the interest of the period in immortals, who were deemed to live in tall, craggy recesses in the major peaks. These mountain shapes were used not only on wine vessel covers but also as incense burners.

17. Western Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 24): Burner. Bronze. H: 63.5 cm During the period 300-200 BC methods of cooking food changed. Therefore, new types of cooking vessels were introduced and also buried in élite tombs. This is one of the new forms.

18. Eastern Han dynasty, (AD 25-220): Hill jar and cover. Pottery. H: 22.8 cm This glazed cylindrical jar, supported on three moulded feet, is decorated with a broad central frieze showing a hunting scene. This shape was often made in bronze. The

cover is moulded with decoration representing five mountains. Mountains were thought to be the abode of the immortals.

19. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual vessel and cover, hu. Bronze. H: 41.5 cm This rare large bronze vessel in the shape of a bird was used for holding wine. The body of the vessel at the rim forms a broad spout in imitation of the lower half of a bird’s beak, whilst the upper half of the beak consists of a hinged section of the slightly domed cover. Raised sections on either side act as the eyes and two of the three upright rings on the cover form the ears.

20. Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel and cover, lei, about 1200-1100 BC. Bronze. H: 32.5 cm This rare bronze wine vessel combines a bird’s head with a standard jar shaped vessel. It is decorated with whorl bosses, two of which serve as the bird’s eyes on the cover. The two handles on the sides of the vessel may suggest wings. There is a three-character inscription,

which reads shan fu wu (clan sign - ‘mountain’ Father Wu).

21. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual vessel, fanghu, about 400-300 BC. Bronze. H: 55.3 cm This is a magnificent example of the wine flasks of the Eastern Zhou period. From about 400 BC patterns inlaid with silver and precious stones became popular. They were often arranged on the diagonal as here and the entire design seems to refer to the exquisite and often flamboyant textiles that were made at this time. The four bird finials on the lid, however, recall the very fine casting of the earlier part of the Eastern Zhou period.

22. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States period (475-221 BC): Ritual vessel, hu. Bronze. H: 35.5 cmA hu was a ritual vessel for holding wine. This elegant hu has a flattened oval body which stands on a rectangular foot and is decorated with shallow relief panels on the sides. These

are arranged in a pattern that resembles brick masonry. The panels are divided by raised borders inlaid with silver that has now turned black.

23. Late Western Zhou dynasty, (about 850-771 BC): Ritual foodvessel, xu, about 800 BC. Bronze.H: 18.3 cmThis ritual vessel of an approximaterectangular form derives from another type of xu in the shape of a rounded basin. It has very typical decorative grooves and scale patterns. The four flanges on the lid would enable it, when taken off the basin, to stand as an open tray or shallow dish into which the food from the main basin might be ladled. The vessel has a long dedicatory inscription inside, which reads: ‘Jin, the Shu, made this small tureen to be used at the inspection ritual and to pray for the essence of virtue, longevity and abundant happinessthat will last for 10,000 years without end’.

24. Qing dynasty (AD 1644-1911): Moonflask, bao yue ping, about AD 1700. Cloisonné enamel. H: 42.5 cmThe two faces of this flask are decorated with the eight Buddhist emblems. These were first used as a decorative motif during the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) and before about 1400

the order of the symbols was random. Different arrangements were used in the period after 1400, and by the mid-1600s (the Qing dynasty), the order was as seen here. Anti-clockwise from bottom right, the symbols are: the Chakra or Flaming Wheel, crushing all delusions and superstitions; the Conch Shell, a

symbol of royalty, dignity and high rank; the Umbrella, a symbol of spiritual authority and charity; the Canopy or Bell, implying respect, and the sound that disperses evil spirits; the Lotus Flower, a symbol of truth, fertility and purity; the Vase, symbolising perpetual harmony; a pair of Fish, a symbol of marriage and fertility; and the Endless Knot, a symbol of longevity, infinity, and eternity.

25. Ming dynasty (AD 1368-1644): Stem cup. Cloisonné enamel on gilt-bronze. H: 10 cmThe cloisonné decoration on this delicategilt-bronze stem cup is achieved using a specialised process for firing different coloured enamels, a technique which originated in the Near East. The cup is decorated with six lotus flowers amid scrolling lotus leaves. The foot is decorated with grapes on a rich turquoise background.

26. Ming dynasty (AD 1386-1644): Incense burner, about AD 1400-1450. Cloisonné enamel on gilt-bronze. W: 19 cmThis tripod is very similar in form to earlier bronze ritual vessels. It is made

of brass and decorated with cloisonné, that is, with glass inlays. These render an elaborate lotus scroll, a form of decoration developed in silver ware and ceramics, from about 700 AD onwards. By this date the original use of the tripod as a food vessel had been forgotten and it was popular as the central vessel in altar sets. It held sand in which stood sticks of incense. The other vessels in the set comprised two flower vases and two candlesticks.

27. Qing dynasty (AD 1644-1911), Qianlong period (AD 1736-1795): Vessel and cover, xu. Cloisonné enamel on gilt-bronze. W: 29.4 cmThis fine cloisonné enamel vessel shows the interest of the Emperor Qianlong (reigned AD 1736-95) in ancient bronzes of the Western Zhou period (about 1050-771 BC). This piece is in the shape of an ancient bronze xu or food basin, an early example of which you can see in this collection (number 23). It has looped handles which issue from dragons’ mouths, and is decorated with an updated design for a taotie or animal mask motif. This form of cloisonné vessel shows the reverence extended to ancient bronzes in China in a much later era.

28. Tang dynasty (AD 618-906): Set of twelve painted equestrian figures, about AD 700-800. Pottery. H: 49 cmThese horsemen statues were madeto be buried in a tomb. They wouldhave been placed with a numberof other figures to accompany the

deceased in the afterlife. Each horse is finely modelled withan expressive head and a long mane, which is composed of anumber of strands of applied clay. The individual riders are eachseated on a saddle cloth, which is painted as the skin of a tiger ora leopard. Riders and horses are painted with red, white, greenand black pigments.

New acquisition29. Late Shang or Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC or about 1050-771 BC): Two-sided chariot fitting. Bronze. H: 11.5 cmHorses and chariots first appear in the Chinese archaeological record during the Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC). They played an important role in warfare, and also functioned as a status symbol; appointments within government would often be marked with the presentation of a horse and chariot. For this reason, horses, chariots and charioteers were buried in the tombs of Chinese nobles, in order to accompany their masters into the afterlife. This piece is decorated on both sides with taotie (animal) masks, which may have been designed to face both the driver and the direction of travel.

30. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Chariot fitting. Bronze. H: 21 cmThis large chariot fitting is richly decorated with a taotie mask, with a pair of stylised dragons cast around the sides. In the Western Zhou dynasty, burials of horses and chariots became more common, both in the number of tombs containing chariots and horses, and in the number of chariots

and horses found within individual tombs. At least in part, this reflects the increasing importance of chariots in warfare; Zhou skill in the use of war chariots may have played an important role in their conquest of the Shang.

New acquisition31. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Pair of chariot wheel linchpins. Bronze. H: 12.7 cm.Bronze was the most common material used in chariot decoration, both for its strength and as an indication of wealth. Linchpins were designed to go through aligned mortises in both the axle cap and the axle, keeping the wheel in place. These examples are cast in high relief with the figure of a kneeling man. Human likenesses are extremely rare on ritual bronzes, although they occur more frequently on military bronzes such as chariot pieces and weapons.

New acquisition32 & 34. Zhou dynasty (about 1100-256 BC): Two pairs of harness cheek pieces. Bronze. H: 12.7 cm

Chariots would have been driven by two horses during the Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC) but by the Eastern Zhou dynasty, Spring and Autumn period (770-475 BC), four horses were often used in order to increase a chariot’s speed in combat. The exact method used to harness horses is unknown, but these pieces are likely to have been used on the bridle, and are richly decorated.

New acquisition33. Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD): Harness jingle. Bronze. L: 39.8 cmThe precise function of the harness jingle is unknown, but it derives its name from the many early examples which included bells at each end. This example is decorated with stylised horse heads.

34 see 32.

35. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Spring and Autumn period (770-475 BC): Winevessel, fou. Bronze. H: 29.7 cmThis wine vessel is supported on a rounded foot decorated with a rope-twist band, a design mirrored in the body of

the vessel, where twisted rope separates oblong panels of dense geometric motif. Each of the large S-shaped handles is cast in the form of a scaly, bat eared animal whose lower half merges with the form of a small feline with tiger like stripes.

36. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Spring and Autumn Period (770-475 BC):Ritual vessel, yi. Bronze. H: 20.4 cmThis type of vessel, called a yi, couldfrequently be found paired with ashallow basin or pan instead of a ewer (or he) for ritual hand-washing. This yi has an interesting spout in the shape of a monster’s head with spiral horns. The handle is cast as a dragon with spiral horns and

the sides of the body were formerly inlaid with a scrolling birddesign. The animal stands on three bovine legs.

37. Early Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-221 BC): Ritual ewer and cover, he, between 800-700 BC. Bronze. H: 30 cmThis round disc-shaped vessel has a very angular neck and lid. It is enlivened by extraordinary animal-shaped feet (perhaps a feline seated

on a four-legged creature) and by animals on the lid, spout and handle. The body is covered with a dense pattern. Vessels of this type may have been used for wine, but they were also often used for water and paired with a water basin, or pan. These energetic designs were very popular in northern central China, in what is today Shaanxi Province.

38. Early Eastern Zhou dynasty (about 770-221 BC): Ritual vessel, ding, about 700 BC. Bronze. H: 16.5 cmA ding was a ritual vessel for cookedfood. This particular ding is unusual in that it has a rectangular spout and two arch handles. It is decorated with strong cast bands of stylised dragon motifs and curling scrolls.

39. Early Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-475 BC): Ritual vessel and cover, fang hu. Bronze. H: 20 cmThis vessel is cast in relief with interlacedribbon-like dragons and a pair of loop handlessurmounted by animal masks. This example of an intertwined dragon motif heralded the

beginnings of a new decorative tradition and is echoed in many later bronzes of the Eastern Zhou period.

40. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Spring and Autumn period (770-475 BC): Ritual vessel, pan. Bronze. H: 13.1 cmA pan was a shallow basin used as aritual vessel for holding water. It was often paired with a ewer or he. This vessel has widely flaring sides, with cast decoration on the shoulders of stylised dragon and phoenix patterns and a pair of rope-twist handles at the sides. The interior is cast with an inscription, reading ‘Zi Shu X [personal name] made his wife this precious ritual vessel and their descendants will forever use it’.

41. Middle Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual vessel, li.Bronze. H: 14.2 cmThe shape of this tripod vessel was basedon a ceramic original. It would have beenused as a ritual food container. The body is decorated with parallel ridges and has two small loop handles.

42. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Springand Autumn Period (770-475 BC): Ritual food vessel, fu, about 600-500 BC. Bronze. H: 25 cmThis magnificent ritual vessel usedfor holding food has two equalparts. The upper part or lid couldstand beside the lower one, making a pair of offering dishes. The two parts have strong loop handles as well as angular feet. The vessel appears to have been owned by two sons from the same family as of the two six-character inscriptions incised on the interior, one reads: ‘Da, son of the Ni family, owns this food container’ and the other: ‘Xin, son of the Ni family, owns this food container’.

43. Early Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-221 BC): Ritual vessel, lei, between 600-500 BC. Bronze. H: 39.2 cmThis vessel derives from a ceramic form and has a large lid topped with an open-work knop. Two

large handles carry chains by which this vessel might have been suspended over a fire or carried. Around the body are fine dragon patterns. These surface designs are typical of the east, from which area this vessel may have come. The vessel is inscribed ‘this accompanying container belongs to Zi Huang, the grandson of the Shu of the Chu state’.

44. Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-221 BC): Warring States Period (about 475-221 BC); Archaic ritual basin, jian.Bronze. W: 68 cmThis impressive bronze basin or jian, with its deep bowl and steeply rounded sides, would have been used as a vessel for holding water. Despite its simple silhouette the jian is richly decorated, encircled by three C-scroll bands in high relief. The two large loop handles, fitted with rings, are modelled in the form of stylised dragon heads, a symbol that features heavily in Chinese culture.

45. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual food vessel, gui. Bronze. H: 25 cmThis substantial covered food basin, or gui, is a form made popular after the ritual changes in the period 900-800 BC. At this date,

gui were normally made with lids. The deep ribbing pattern copies the groove on ceramics of the same date. The vessel bears a fourteen-character inscription on the base of the interior, replicated inside the cover: ‘Brother Xiangfu made thisritual food basin for his new sister-in-law. May her descendants forever treasure and utilise it’.

46. Late Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel, hu, about 900-800 BC. Bronze. H: 30.4 cmThis wine container is a product of changes that took place during the latter part of the Western Zhou period. At that

time, wine containers were enlarged,and new forms of decoration developed,including wave patterns, seen here. Huwine containers were usually used in pairs, and, being large and highly decorated, seem to have been highly prized. This object isinscribed inside the neck with ‘The King of Lü made his consort Da this ritual hu-vessel. May it be forever used for sacrifice’.

47. Shang or Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC or about 1050-950 BC): Ritual vessel, ding. Bronze. H: 22.8 cmA ding was a vessel for cooked food with around body and three legs. This example has two upright loop handles and crisp casting below the rim, which is decorated with coiled bird motifs and whorl bosses. The three character inscription cast inside reads: ‘zuo bao ding’ (‘made this precious tripod vessel’).

48. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel, zun. Bronze. H: 17.2 cmThe shape of the zun evolved slowly between the earlier Shang and later Western Zhou periods. Its basic form was that of a jar with a widely flared lip

standing on a foot, and it was used for wine. This piece has a band of cast decoration and a mottled patina. An inscription inside the vessel reads ‘to make this precious ritual vessel’.

49. Middle Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel andcover, you. Bronze. H: 18.5 cmA you is a ritual wine vessel. This fineexample is highly decorated with pairsof stylised birds facing each other on thebody. The ring handles terminate in animalheads looking like tapirs. The decoration of the domed cover matches the main vessel. Inside the vessel and cover is a three-character inscription that reads ‘zuo bao yi’ (‘made this precious vessel’).

50. Early Western Zhoudynasty (about 1050-771 BC):Ritual food vessel, gui. Bronze. H: 13.9 cmThis ritual vessel was used foroffering food. The decoration

on the body and handles is typical of vessels of this period. Theinterior of the vessel has an inscription that translates as ‘Earlmade this precious ritual vessel’.

51. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050- 771 BC): Ritual vessel, gui. Bronze. H: 16 cmA gui was a ritual vessel for offering food. During the earlier, Shang period, they were usually made without handles, but from late Shang and throughout the Zhou dynasty, these were added, as in this example. The cast decoration shows stylised dragons in relief and

taotie or stylised monster masks, and is inscribed ‘X made fatherDing this precious ritual tureen, May his descendants eternallyuse it for ten thousand years. Zhou’. The clan name ‘Zhou’suggests that it came from a prominent aristocratic family.

52. Middle Western Zhou dynasty (about 950-about 850 BC): Ritual food vessel, gui, about 900 BC. Bronze. H: 22 cmA gui was a ritual vessel foroffering food, which would have

been part of a set of vessels. This gui is a rare and important piece and has an unusual shape, since gui did not originally have feet, but were set on circular or square bases. It was in the second half of the early Western Zhou and during the middle Western Zhou period that they appeared cast with feet. The four feet of this vessel end in hooves and the legs are decorated with scales. The looped handles of the vessel are decorated with the characteristic Western Zhou decoration of animal masks. This piece was formerly in the Qing palace collection and is illustrated in the catalogue of the collection commissioned by the Emperor Qianlong (reigned 1736-1795).

53. Late Shang or Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC or about 1050-771 BC): Large bell, nao, about 1100-1000 BC. Bronze. H: 61 cmSuch large bells are typical of SouthernChina, and were sometimes used in rituals for performing sacrifices to ancestors. The bells gave two notes when they were struck with a

mallet, one at the centre of the rim and one at the corner. This bell is decorated with three rows of nippled bosses known as mei. The rim is decorated with a cast pattern derived from the monster mask motif or taotie design. It has a very long inscription which was added later.

54. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual vessel, hu. Bronze. H: 41.3 cmThis bronze hu was used for holding wine. Ithas an unusual pear shape and the sides arecast with four rows of large fish scales or feather patterns. The lug handles protrude from the base of the neck.

55. Middle Western Zhou dynasty (1050-771 BC): Wine vessel and cover, bo hu. Bronze. H: 49.5 cmThis pear-shaped vessel would originally havebeen used for ritual offerings of wine. Thedecorative bands that adorn the neck of thevessel incorporate the forms of long tailed birdswith backward facing heads, a design whichextends to the small lug handles on either side.

56. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1100-771 BC): Ritual food vessel, Teng Hu gui, about 1100 BC.Bronze. H: 23.8 cmThis food basin, standing on a square pedestal, is one of the most important in Compton Verney’s collection. The major food vessels, gui and ding, were among the most popular and

relatively important food vessel types made under the Zhou dynasty. The square base was also introduced during this period. Earlier, some vessels may have stood on stands, but these were separately made, possiblyin wood. This piece belongs to the

second stage of early Zhou casting and displays elegant birds with long, sweeping, hooked tails. The vessel is famous for its inscription, which records that it was made for offerings to the dead and for a relatively high ranking ancestor in the feudal court of Teng, which is located in the modern province of Shandong in north-eastern China.

57. Middle or Late Western Zhou dynasty (about 950-771 B.C): Ritual vessel, hu, about 900-800 BC. Bronze. H: 60 cmThis piece is typical of the new tall wine flasks with covers which developed around 850 BC. On it, a taotie face has been executed in relief. Round eyes can be identified on either side of the belly of the vessel while down the middle broad ribbons indicate the nose and below are the curls of the jaw. An inscription on the vessel states that this ‘precious ritual tureen’ was made for Father Ding, ‘May his descendants eternally use it for ten thousand years’. It also bears the clan name ‘Zhou’, which was the name of the ruling dynasty of the period, suggesting that it came from an important aristocratic family in Zhouyuan (modern Baoji), to the west of present-day Xi’an in the province of Shaanxi.

58. Late Shang Dynasty (about 1550-1050 BC): Wine vessel and cover, fangjia. Bronze. H: 30.7 cmFangjia are among the rarest vessels fromthe Shang Dynasty and only a few otherexamples can be seen around the worldin museums and private collections. Thiselaborately cast fangjia is richly decoratedwith an owl motif on three of the four

sides; a bird considered to be an omen of good fortune by the ancient Chinese. This vessel may once have been owned by royalty or a particularly high-ranking official and is likely to have been used at banquets in temples, when sacrifices of food and wine were offered to the ancestors.

59. Western Zhou dynasty (about1050-771 BC): Ritual vessel, lei. Bronze.H: 45 cmLei vessels with such dense overalldecoration are rare, and although finedetail is lacking here, the repetativepatterns are animated. The eight blade-shaped panels on the main body depict kuei (two-legged) dragons, with further stylised dragons between the whorl patterns on the shoulder. The inscription on the interior of the neck is the character ge, the name for an ancient dagger-axe weapon, which in this instance probably denotes a clan name.

60. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050- 950 BC): Ritual wine vessel and cover, you. Bronze. H: 42.8 cmThe pear-shaped body of this highly decorative vessel is divided into four sections by hooked ridges, with four horned dragons on the outer edges and top curves of the handle. The finial of the cover depicts six long-eared animal masks and the horn-like protrusions on the

sides are cast with a taotie monster mask pattern.

61. Late Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050- 771 BC): Ritual vessel and cover, hu. Bronze.H: 48 cmA hu was a ritual vessel for holding wine.From the late Western Zhou period it wasusual to find large hu in pairs. This impressiveobject retains its original cover and has reliefdecoration of grooved bands and narrowstylised scroll borders, with horned animal mask handles.

62. Late Shang or Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1500-1050 or about 1050-950 BC): Ritual wine vessel, fang lei. Bronze. H: 44 cmThis square lei, or fang lei, is a bronze version of a very common circular ceramic vessel and was used for holding wine. Bronze was a more expensive material and therefore enjoyed a higher status. Square-shaped containers were

difficult to achieve in ceramic as they were likely to crack at the

corners so the imposing appearance and sharp angular corners of this vessel make it clear that it is a bronze. The roundels on the lid and on the body are typical of this type of vessel and the decoration also includes animal motifs such as bovine masks.

New acquisition63. Tang dynasty (AD 618-906): Lobed mirror. Bronze. D: 22.8 cm Although the earliest known mirrors date to around 2000 BC, it wasn’t until the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) that mirrors began to be produced in

significant numbers, coinciding with the decline in production of ritual bronzes. This mirror, dating from the Tang dynasty, is decorated with an elaborate dragon motif surrounded by trailing clouds.

New acquisition64. Tang dynasty (AD 618-906): Animal and grapevine mirror. Bronze. D: 13.7 cmThe decorated side of this mirror features a lion and grape motif, one of the most common designs of the Tang dynasty. During this period, new varieties of grape began to be imported from Central Asia, and about the year AD 640 the Chinese learned from the people of Turkestan the art of fermenting them to make wine.

New acquisition65. Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25-220): Mirror. Bronze. D: 19.2 cmAs well as being functional and ornamental, mirrors also reflected religious and spiritual beliefs, and were believed to ward off evil. The designs found on Han

mirrors in particular are influenced by contemporary interests in religion and cosmology. The main frieze on this mirror is cast with the Daoist deities Wu Wang and Xiwangmu, surrounded by a border of abstract dragons. Two of the Animals of the Four Quarters also feature – the Azure Dragon and White Tiger – representing the Eastern and Western quadrants of Heaven respectively.

New acquisition66. Song dynasty (AD 960-1279): Lobed mirror. Bronze. D: 14.5 cmThis mirror is cast in the form of a six-petalled flower, featuring four boys surrounded by lotus scrolls and floral designs. In common with most mirrors, this piece features a loop (or ‘knop’) set into the decorated side, through which a cord would have been threaded to hold the mirror.

New acquisition67. Eastern Zhou dynasty, Warring States Period (475-221 BC): Five T mirror. Bronze. D:15.5 cmThis mirror is cast with five bold T-shapes, a design known as the shan (or mountain) design, popular during the Warring

States Period. Mirrors from the later Han dynasty also use geometric shapes, to divide the decorated surface of the mirror into regions which have cosmological significance.

New acquisition68. Tang dynasty (AD 618-906): Square flying deity and crane mirror. Bronze. 11.8 cm squareThe predominant shape for mirrors until the Tang dynasty was round. During the Tang more shapes appear, including lobed (as can be seen in numbers 63, 66 and 70) and, as in this case, square. This unusual example features a crane, a phoenix and two flying deities, surrounded by cloud scrolls. Cloud designs relate to the belief that the soul could travel on a cloud to join the world of immortal beings.

New acquisition69. Western Han dynasty (206 BC- AD 24): Mirror. Bronze. D: 13.9 cmThe so-called caoye (grass and leaf) mirror was one of the most popular designs in the Western Han dynasty, decorated with symmetrically-placed clusters of stylised grasses and leaves. The square frieze in the centre, in common with other mirrors of this type, bears an inscription which reads: jian ri zhi guang fu le wei lai (as you look upon the light of the sun, wealth and pleasure lie ahead). The

square-like characters used are known as lishu, a clerical script introduced in the Qin dynasty.

New acquisition70. Tang dynasty (AD 618-906): Phoenix mirror. Bronze. D: 16 cmMirrors were luxury items and status symbols of the privileged classes. Although they remained the preserve of the elite, by the time this mirror was produced

they had become more widespread, and their ownership had broadened to include the rising merchant classes. The central design of this mirror features two phoenix, surrounded by motifs of insects and floral sprays.

New acquisition71. Western Han dynasty (206 BC- AD 24): xingyun (star and cloud) mirror. Bronze. D: 15.9 cmThis mirror is particularly striking for the contrast of bright silvery-white details against a black background, with the central knop cast in the form of a mountain. Mountains were very important in Chinese cosmological thinking. There were five sacred mountains (the four cardinal directions plus the centre). During the Han dynasty, one of the Emperor’s most solemn duties was the performance of rituals on Taishan, the sacred mountain of the east. Mountains were also associated with Daoist tradition and the search for immortality and feature on many ritual bronzes; for example the incense burners in this collection (numbers 6 & 7).

New acquisition72. Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25-220): Immortal and beast mirror. Bronze. D: 22.6 cmThis mirror features the Daoist deities Xiwangmu (the Queen Mother of the West) and Daongwanggong (the King Father of

the East), with the Azure Dragon and the White Tiger, which also feature on another mirror in this collection (number 65). The Queen Mother of the West was said to rule over paradise in the Kunlun Mountains of Western China (in present-day Xinjiang province), with her consort the Royal Duke of the East.

New acquisition73. Tang dynasty (AD 618-906): Gold-sheet-applied mirror. Bronze. D: 22 cmThis mirror is richly decorated with an animal and foliage design surrounded by scrolls. Mirrors were valuable objects and were buried in tombs for use in the afterlife. The use of gold in this mirror attests the wealth and status of the original owner.

74. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual cooking vessel, yan. Bronze. H: 41.2 cmThis ritual vessel is in the shape of a steamer with three legs supporting a two-handled basin. The interior of the piece has a dividing grille which is hinged at one side and pierced with five narrow cross-shaped holes to let the steam go through.

75. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel, jia. Bronze. H: 33 cmThe jia was an early form of ritual vessel forwine drinking, which was no longer found after about 850 BC. The mouth is circular rather than spouted and the vertical posts with finials at the lip are typical of this type of wine vessel. The bovine mask-headed loop handle covers an inscription spelling the clan’s name, ‘Fu yi’.

76. Late Shang or Early Western Zhoudynasty (about 1500-1050 BC or about1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel andcover, you, about 1100-1000 BC.Bronze. H: 29.8 cmThis finely cast vessel is decorated withlarge taotie monster mask motifs formedby a pair of dragons with large rounded

eyes facing each other, with raised hooked tails. Above and below them are small serpent-like dragons. A two character inscription reads either ‘zi yu’ (‘son’ ‘rain’) or ‘Prince Yu’ (name of the owner) and can be found both inside the vessel and, unusually, on the outside of the cover.

77. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel, zhi. Bronze. H: 16.1 cmA zhi was a ritual wine vessel in a form which was inherited by the Zhou dynasty from its predecessors, the Shang, and was

commonly found until about 900 BC. A few of these vessels have handles. This piece has distinctive cast horns. Inside, cast in the centre, is a six-character inscription which reads: ‘Zhen zuo fugui zun yi’, or ‘Made by royal commission this fugui vessel’.

New acquisition78. Western Zhou Dynasty (about 1050- about 771 BC) Ge-halberd blade. Bronze. L: 23.1 cm

This blade, with a ridge on both sides is richly decorated with a large animal head. The blade also has a socket at one end, which is likely to have held a long wooden pole.

79. Shang dynasty (about 1500- 1050 BC): Ritual vessel in the form of anowl, xiaoyou, about 1300-1100 BC.Bronze. W: 22.9 cmThe body of the vessel is formed bytwo back-to-back owls whose simplifiedwings sweep back to a pair of ringsattached to the rope-twist handle. Thecover is cast at each end with the owls’ heads, including short hooked beaks, small ears and domed eyes. The two character pictogram inside the vessel reads ‘long’ and consists of a dragon head and two hands. It is used here as a clan name.

80. Late Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual basin, pan. Bronze. D: 33.5 cmThis ritual basin or pan is raised on a conical foot which, like the body

of the basin, is decorated with a frieze of raised bosses or whorls. The interior of the basin has an inscription which reads ‘Ya mo’, indicating that it was made for and used by the Mo clan.

81. Late Shang dynasty (about 1500- 1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel and cover, you, about 1100 BC. Bronze. H: 36 cmThis is a standard form of wine vessel adaptedfrom a simple pottery flask. Indeed, the twisted handle copies a rope handle of a type that mayhave been used on pottery versions. The narrowbands of decoration show taotie or animal facesexecuted as an almost abstract pattern of finespirals and quills. When lifted off the body, the lid could be used as a saucer. An inscription on the base and lid reveals that ‘Fu made this sacred vessel for Father Gui’.

82. Shang dynasty (about 1200- 1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel and cover, you. Bronze. H: 32 cmThe body of this wine vessel is decoratedaround the rim and on the shallow dome of the cover with a diamond-lozenge motif. The band around the rim is interrupted at the centre with a taotie monster mask and further divided at the

sides by two loops which support a ‘high swing’ handle. This handle is in the form of a twisted rope which is similar to the handle seen on number 81.

83. Early Shang dynasty (about1500-1050 BC): Ritual cookingvessel, ding. Bronze. H: 47.5 cmA ding is a three-legged vessel forcooked food, but such a large formis extremely rare. Each of the threethick bulbous legs is decorated withcast patterns and a central flange,similar to the flanges on the sidesof the vessel itself. The girth of the

vessel has cast panels adorned with taotie or stylised monster masks. The lipped rim is set with two sturdy looped handles.

84. Late Shang or Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC or about 1050-771 BC): Ritual wine vessel, zun. Bronze. H: 23.5 cmThis early wine vessel dates from around1200-1000 BC. It has a wide flared lip and issupported on a tall foot ring, which was typical of the early vessels of this type. It is decorated with angular spirals cast in low relief and known as leiwen, andhas a pictograph of a bird and two other characters cast in theinterior of the mouth. They read as the name ‘Father Ding Niao’.

85. Late Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel, zun, about 1200-1100 BC. Bronze. H: 32.5 cmThis bronze is a wine vessel; and, like many others, is derived from a ceramic form. Yet the sharp angles of the bodyand the flanges emphasise its metallic character. The earlier ceramic versions would have been much more rounded,

and stood on a low sloping foot, rather than on the taller one seen here. The decoration is extremely fine, with taotie faces against a detailed spiral background. This very delicate decoration was possible because the Chinese used a very fine sandy clay for the moulds in which these bronzes were cast. There is a pictogram on the inside of

the base which shows a utensil for holding arrows and translates as the clan name ‘Fu’.

86. Late Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel, gu. Bronze. H: 27.7 cm This vessel is of the same shape and type as number 87. The decoration is characteristic of the Shang gu, with carved angular spiral patterns or leiwen, and particularly crisply moulded taotie or stylised monster masks. The interior of the foot has a two character inscription, which is translated as ‘xin yu’ (a personal name).

87. Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel, gu. Bronze. H: 26 cmThis tall wine vessel, with a slim waist and flaringlip, is one of the most ancient forms of ritual vesselin China and was particularly common during theShang dynasty. The cross-shaped apertures between the central section and the foot were

probably left by the projecting ceramic spurs which were used to separate the moulds and the foot core during casting. The tall trumpet neck is undecorated.

88. Late Shang dynasty (about 1500- 1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel, jue, about 1200 BC. Bronze. H: 23 cmLike the gui, the jue is a very ancient vesseltype. It seems to have formed a pair, or set,with the gu from at least 1500 BC. By theend of the Shang dynasty, when this piecewas made, jue were used in large numbers,often in groups of five or more in tombs of the highest élite. The overall shape is among the earliest surviving bronze forms. Around the centre are taotie faces executed in fine scrolls, the face and its features disappearing among a detailed background pattern. Two posts, one on each side of the lip, were possibly used for holding the vessel when lifting it from over a fire.

89. Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual covered wine vessel, fangyi, about1300-1100 BC. Bronze. H: 23.7 cmThis type of wine vessel was made in the Shangperiod. The rectangular cross-section and sidesare unusual in bronze casting but evidently popular in the Shang dynasty. The foot is

decorated with two small dragons with hooked tails; above these are large taotie or cast monster mask motifs and below the rim are two further small dragons. The cover is also decorated with cast monster mask taotie motifs. The inside of the interior has an inscription which is partly obscured.

90. Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual wine vessel and cover, guang, about 1100-1200 BC. Bronze. L: 20.3 cmThis form of wine vessel only existed fromthe Anyang period of the Shang dynasty to the middle Western Zhou dynasty. The shape of the vessel helped to pour the wine and the cover sealed in warmth and kept out contaminants. These vessels are called ‘zoomorphic’ (shaped as an animal), and usually had the head of a tiger or a dragon forming the front of the cover. The cover on this bronze has the head of a bottle-horn dragon with sharp serrated teeth, the body ending in a coiled tail.

91. Neolithic (about 4500-2000 BC):Tripod vessel, li. Pottery. H: 30.7 cmTripod vessels with bulging legs wereone of the main categories of Neolithicceramic in ancient China. The bulbousbody would have held water or food tobe cooked over a flame. The large surface

area would have ensured that heat reached all parts of the food inside the vessel. This kind of pottery vessel inspired many of the later bronze vessels, which were cast as ritual food containers by the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

92. Late Shang dynasty (about 1500- 1050 BC): Ritual food vessel, ding, about 1200 BC. Bronze. H: 24.5 cmThis sophisticated and carefully made tripodvessel, known as a ding, is of a size usual for anoble member of the Shang élite. The animal

face, taotie, design is clearly rendered, and strongly presented against the background of angular scrolls, also known as leiwen, or ‘thunder pattern’, a later term. The face can also be read as two confronted dragons each seen in side view with long sharply rising tails. We do not know whether such complex designs had symbolic meanings.

93. Shang dynasty (about 1500-1050 BC): Ritual vessel, pou. Bronze. H: 19 cmThe pou was an early form of ritual vesselfor holding wine. This vessel is decoratedwith geometric diaper patterns and raised

bosses. The foot is pierced with three rectangular holes above adecorated key-fret border, which may have helped in carryingthe vessel.

94. Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual food vessel, gui. Bronze. D: 24 cmThis food vessel is cast with two ‘animalband’ friezes; the higher one divided front and back by two tiger masks. These tiger masks are also seen on the tops of the two large handles. Food vessels were among the most popular of all Zhou ritual bronzes.

95. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BC): Ritual food vessel, gui, about 1000 BC. Bronze. H: 19 cm This globular food vessel, with its smooth and almost continuously rounded outline, closely resembles a ceramic container. It

has a neatly fitted lid and is one of the many examples of the diversity of forms that became popular around the time of the conquest of the Shang by the Zhou. Here, the taotie face is shown in layered relief against a plain background, unlike the earlier versions where angular spirals are used to bring out the definition of the motif.

96. Late Shang dynasty (about 1700-1050 BC): Ritual food vessel, gui, about 1100 BC. Bronze. H: 15.3 cmThis food basin, standing on a highfoot with two handles, was to become a type very popular with the successors of the Shang, the Zhou. The bosses within diamond patterns are typical of the Shang tradition, as are the fine narrow handles below the heads at the junction with the neck. Just below the neck, around the body, is a band displaying dragons, and similar dragons decorate the foot.

97 & 98. Ming dynasty(AD 1368-1644): Two Guardians, between AD 1400-1500. Gilt-bronze. H: 111.5 cmThese imposing figures, cast in bronze and gilded, represent two of the Four Heavenly Kings (si da tian wang), or

Guardians of the Four Quarters. Of Buddhist origin, the figures took the form of warriors in Chinese culture and would have

been situated at the entrance to a temple in order to protect against evil spirits and Barbarian invasion. The imagery of the Four Heavenly Kings was also adopted into the Daoist tradition, from which these figures originate. One bears a sword and may be identified with the Guardian of the West (called Ma), while the other holds a stupa (a small pyramid or shrine) and is thought to be the Guardian of the East (called Li). The two remaining guardians, known by the names of Chao and Wên, would have held two swords and a spiked club respectively.

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