The Health Benefits of Traditional Chinese Plant Medicines: Weighing the scientific evidence

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation by Graeme E. Thomson

February 2007 RIRDC Publication No 06/128 RIRDC Project No DAV-227A

2007 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved.

ISBN 1 74151 391 X ISSN 1440-6845 The Health Benefits of Traditional Chinese Plant Medicines: Weighing the scienfitic evidence Publication No. 06/128 Project No.DAV-227A The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable industries. The information should not be relied upon for the purpose of a particular matter. Specialist and/or appropriate legal advice should be obtained before any action or decision is taken on the basis of any material in this document. The Commonwealth of Australia, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, the authors or contributors do not assume liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from any person's use or reliance upon the content of this document. This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details Graeme Thomson Department of Primary Industries, Victoria 621 Burwood Highway, Knoxfield Phone: Fax: Email: 03 9210 9222 03 9800 3521 graeme.thomson@dpi.vic.gov.au

In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form. RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: Fax: Email: Web: 02 6272 4819 02 6272 5877 rirdc@rirdc.gov.au. http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in February 2007 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

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ForewordOver the past decade, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation has strongly supported research focussed on Asian foods and new plant products. Within these programs, Asian vegetables and to a lesser extent, medicinal herbs, have been of major interest. It seems logical then that this new report should amalgamate some of this existing knowledge and explore new opportunities in Chinese medicinal plants. Plants were originally the basis of all human health care and Chinese traditional medicine has used hundreds of species for over 2,000 years. In addition to their potential to alleviate chronic disease in Australia, medicinal herbs offer us more opportunities than most horticultural crops in their potential for development as value-added products. This report explores options for new medicinal plants through an examination of evidence-based medical efficacy. RIRDC invests in new and emerging industries on behalf of government and industry stakeholders. New industries provide opportunities to be captured by investors and rural producers, and provide avenues for farmers to manage change and diversify. The establishment of new industries contributes to regional development and community resilience. This project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds (which are provided by the Australian Government) and by the Department of Primary Industries, Victoria. This report, an addition to RIRDCs diverse range of over 1600 research publications, forms part of our Asian Foods R&D program, which aims to foster new Australian industries producing innovative, high quality foods and consumable products with Asian origins. Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website: downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter OBrien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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AcknowledgmentsJingye Zhang, Slobodan Vujovic, Murat Top, Jane Parker

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ContentsForeword ............................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................. iv Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. vi 1. Introduction & Objectives ................................................................................................................ 1 2. Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Species review - boundaries of the investigation .................................................................................4 The search ............................................................................................................................................4 What constitutes good evidence ? ........................................................................................................5 3. Results ................................................................................................................................................ 8 General observations ............................................................................................................................8 4. Species review .................................................................................................................................. 10 5. Discussion....................................................................................................................................... 134

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Executive SummaryWhat the report is about There is growing public utilisation of complementary medicines in Australia, of which herbal medicines are a major component. The projected value of the global herbal medicine industry is expected to reach $USD 5 trillion annually by the year 2050. As part of the process for Australian producers to benefit from this developing industry, a clear picture of the current Australian industry is required so that a strategic approach can be developed. This project provides an important source of information for current and future industry investors and is designed to fill a knowledge gap on the current status of research and make recommendations for future research. The aim has been to critically examine the all the current science-based medical evidence supporting the use of Chinese medicinal plants. It has been designed to present results from a comprehensive, up-to-date literature review. This review targeted those Chinese medicinal plant species that have been documented to possess curative, preventive or palliative functions relevant to important chronic ailments in Australia. The study predominantly focussed on plants used in Chinese medicine and on plants with their genetic origins in Asia. Asian plants used in non-Chinese folk medicine were sometimes included when relevant. Who is the report targeted at? This report is aimed at growers, researchers and investors as a reference of supporting science-based medical evidence on a range of medicinal plants. Background Plants have always been a source of medicine and a major resource for human health care. Chinese traditional medicine has documented the use of botanicals for over 2,000 years. Natural products and mainly plants (greater than 80%) are the basis of traditional Chinese medicine. About 500 species are commonly prescribed by Chinese medical practitioners but up to 2,000 plants have a history of recorded use. The scientific study of substances used medicinally by different ethnic or cultural groups is viewed by researchers as an increasingly relevant and important source of new medicinal products. Chinese medicinal herbals make up a large proportion of the over US$15 billion annual worldwide sales of natural medicines. Chinese medicines have been developed to treat all important diseases including chronic ailments. In Australia the most important of these include coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, dementia and respiratory disease (including asthma). Total health expenditure (around 10% of gross domestic product) is an increasing burden on the Australian economy and one that continues to increase with pressure from an ageing population. Studies show that 60% of Australian consumers have spent some of their health dollars on supplements and natural remedies. In 2004, Australians spent AU$1.8 billion on complementary medicines and therapies. There is a willingness to believe that some of these alternative remedies may be effective options to mainstream Western treatments. Methods used All the screened literature pertaining to human health effects was science-based and published either in recognised science and medical journals, or review text books. Scientific and medical data were primarily sourced from the PubMed electronic database which also covers relevant Chinese journals. Results from human trials were given most weight in evaluation. The study considered around 500 Asian medicinal plant species and directly reviewed and documented information on over 400 with links to some of Australias chronic diseases. Ninety-eight percent of these were higher plants (ie. angiosperms and gymnosperms). Over 3,500 scientific reference items were reviewed and over 1,000 of these were directly referenced in species summaries. There were more species (around 165) associated with anticancer effects than any other chronic disease, suggesting that if Asian and in particular Chinese medicinal species are to make new impacts on human health in Australia, there is a strong chance that this will be as anticancer agents.

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Results There is a general lack of human efficacy testing associated with the use of most Asian medicinal plants. Conclusive positive human results from randomised, double blind, placebo-controlled experiments were only available for a limited number of crops. Table 1. below lists existing Australian commercial crops that are important Chinese medicinal plants with strong support from medical efficacy trials. Many are relatively small, new crops in Australia. However, given the strength of their efficacy data and the considerable recent Australian investment (research and economic) that most of these plants have attracted, there are good opportunities to develop these into much more important commercial crops. Table 1: Existing Australian commercial crops with supporting medical efficacy trial data Common name Garlic Ginger Tumeric Green tea Ginseng Scientific name Allium sativum Zingiber officinale Curcuma longa Camellia sinensis Panax ginseng Used for. Cholesterol control, anti-cancer properties Pain & inflammation control, nausea prevention Anti-inflammatory & rheumatoid arthritis control Anti-cancer properties, antioxidant Anti-fatigue properties, improve mental reactions, anti-cancer, antihypertension Reducing blood pressure Disease prevention Alzheimers, hearing loss and strokes

Flat stem milk vetch Ginkgo

Astragalus membranaceus Ginkgo biloba

Recommendations 1) There is a need to keep surveying the medical literature with the view of capturing the latest research into a single easily accessible source for the benefit of the developing Australian industry. The beneficiaries of this would be producers, researchers, and investors looking to capture a sector of the growing herbal market that is expected to reach $USD 5 trillion in 2050. 2) One of the outputs of this project is a database, and it is recommended that this should be maintained for public access. Beneficiaries of this information should be encouraged to contribute financially towards the updating and maintenance of this database. 3) During the compilation of the database, a number of crops were identified that are recommended for further research. These crops were considered to be close to commercial exploitation in Australia but in need of some further research into health related data or economic production systems. In the following tables (2,3,4,5), these crops are collated under headings that indicate the level of available efficacy data and production taking place in Australia.

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Table 2: Existing crops that require human trial testing Common name Fenugreek Shiitake mushroom Lotus Peach Litchi Pointed pepper Mangosteen Indian pennywort Houttuynia Holy basil Longan Perilla Scientific name Trigonella foenumgraecum Lentinus edodes Nelumbo nucifera Prunus persica Litchi chinensis Piper sarmentosum Garcinia mangostana Centella asiatica Houttuynia cordata Ocimum tenuiflorum Dimocarpus longan Perilla frutescens Used for.. Glucose tolerance properties Anti-cancer properties Antihypertensive with potential antiobesity properties Cough and asthma treatment Anti-cancer and antioxidant properties Anti malaria, hypoglycaemic effect, antioxidant activity Bactericide, anti-cancer properties Wound healing properties Anti viral, antiinflammatory properties Antiinflammatory, bactericide, diabetes treatment Antimutagens Anti-cancer

Table 3. Current ornamentals grown in Australia that could be developed for medicinal properties Common name Madagascar periwinkle Gardenia Mondograss Common garden peony Mountain peony Chinese foxglove Scientific name Catharanthus roseus Gardenia jasmoides Ophiopogon japonicus Paeonia lactiflora Paeonia suffruticosa Rehmannia glutinosa Used for.. Antidiabetic, anti-cancer, anti-malaria properties Antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, hypotensive, laxative, sedative properties Cardioprotective properties Antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antihepatic, immunoregulatory properties Antioxidant, antimutagenic, antiproliferative properties Hypoglaecimic properties, neuroprotective actions

Table 4: Potential new commercial crops for Australian producers that are supported by good efficacy data Common name Dogbane Bellflower Chinese knotweed Toothed club moss Wolfberries Chinese boxthorn Stephania Chinese cucumber Korean mistletoe Chinese dodder Red yeast Scientific name Apocynum venetum Codonopsis pilosula Fallopia multiflora Huerzia serrata Lycium barbarum Lycium chinense Stephania tetrandra Trichosnathes kirilowii Viscum coloratum Cuscuta chinensis Monascus purpureus Used for. Antioxidant, antihypertension, anticholerssterol Dementia Anticholesterol, antidementia Antidementia Anticholesterol, antidiabetic, anti-cancer, cardiovascular properties Liver function properties Antiarthritic, cardiovascular properties Anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, osteoarthritis, cardiovascular, HIV effective properties Antihypertensive, anti-cancer properties Antitumour, immune enhancement properties Anticholesterol properties

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Table 5: Australian indigenous species with potential medicinal properties Common name Bacopa Java brucea Noni Scientific name Bacopa monnieri Brucea javanica Morinda citrifolia Used for. Nootropic action Anti-cancer properties Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antitumour, antihelmin, analgesic, hypotensive, antiinflammatory, immune enhancing properties Hypoglycaemic, hypotriglyceride, heart health properties Antibacterial, antihypertensive properties

Chinese celery Java tea

Oenanthe javanica Orthosiphon aristatus

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1. Introduction & ObjectivesPlants have been a source of medicine and a major resource for health care since ancient times, with some traditional herbal medicines having been in use for more than 2,000 years. Currently, the modern pharmaceutical industry is paying more and more attention to plants as scientists re-discover that plant life is an almost infinite resource for medicine development. One fourth of the modern medicines that are available on prescription today owe their origins of raw material to higher plants of tropical forests (1). Out of these, 74% are derived from plants that have some related use in traditional herbal medicine (1). Phytochemicals that improve human health can be consumed as fresh plant products like fruits and vegetables, or at the other extreme as highly value-added processed forms (eg. extracts/powders/pills). Where plant materials are concerned, it may be difficult to draw a sharp distinction between nutraceuticals, herbal medicines, functional foods and drugs, as they all can contain bioactive ingredients. However, they have in common the potential to enhance human health beyond the simple supply of fuel for metabolic processes. In the 1990s the sale of health-promoting chemical compounds extracted from food and plants increased dramatically in many countries (1). This was because pharmaceutical companies began to produce nutraceuticals and they were commonly sold in pharmacies (1). Many foods consumed in Asia have been traditionally used to cure specific human ailments and the philosophy behind Chinese medicine often reflects these usages. However, in the West where the potential value of functional foods (and herbal medicines) has only recently captured the imagination, these links to traditional uses remain largely unexplored. Natural products and mainly plants (greater than 80%) are the basis of traditional Chinese medicine (2). Approximately 5,000 plant species used in traditional Chinese medicine are believed to have therapeutic qualities (2). About 500 plants are commonly prescribed by doctors of Chinese medicine as Chinese Materia Medica, or traditional drugs, and these can be available in raw and processed or concentrated form (2). Hundreds of years of practical application and experience have gone into classifying the therapeutic use of herbs and their associated properties. Chinese medicine has over 2,000 years of written history. Chinese medicinal herbals make up a large proportion of the over US$15 billion annual worldwide sales of natural medicines (2) Medical practice has taught us to understand that ethnopharmacological data is an important source of new drugs. About 140 new drugs have originated directly or indirectly from Chinese medicinal plants by means of modern scientific methods, confirming that these plants are an important resource (3). Increasing emphasis on the use of medicinal plants in searching for new drugs is undoubtedly a correct strategy (3). In 200203, Australian expenditure on pharmaceuticals was approximately AU$10 billion (14% of total health spending) (4). There is a huge market for plant products, especially those that may be effective in treating our chronic diseases. Chinese medicines have been developed to treat all important diseases. Chronic diseases now affect one in four Australians which is partly due to the fact that more people are living to older ages (4). By their very definition, chronic diseases are those involving a long course in their development or their symptoms. They are a major health problem in all developed countries, accounting for a high proportion of deaths, disability and illness (4). Yet many of these diseases are preventable, or their onset can be delayed, by relatively simple measures. Most chronic diseases do not resolve spontaneously and are generally not cured completely. Some can be immediately lifethreatening, such as heart attack and stroke, others are often serious, including various cancers, depression and diabetes. However, they all tend to persist in an individual through life but are not always the cause of death.

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In addition to illness, pain and disability, chronic diseases are also a significant economic burden, both on those who suffer from them and for the wider community. In Australia, spending on health represents a large component of the economy; around AU$70 billion or approximately 10% of gross domestic product (2002-03) (4). Chronic diseases account for around 20% of the total allocated expenditure (4). Approximately 20% of our national health budget is spent in the Department of Health and Aging Portfolio (2004-05) (4). The top ten causes of disease burden in Australia are chronic diseases (4). These include coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, dementia, diabetes, asthma and osteoarthritis. In 2003, the top underlying causes of death in Australians were coronary heart disease followed by stroke (4). Cancer has now become the leading cause of death in Victoria (5). Around one million Australians are estimated to have diabetes with the number expecting to increase over the coming decade (4,6). Diabetes mellitus is predicted to soon become the biggest global epidemic in human history. The majority of plant materials used in traditional Chinese medicine have not yet been clinically evaluated in randomised, double-blind studies, and consequently Western medicine has not generally accepted the efficacy or safety of Chinese treatments (7). Also, up until the turn of this century, data about the safety and efficacy of medicinal herbs tended to be limited in a number of ways with the best data often years old, limited to in vitro or animal studies, and/or only available in non-English language journals (8). However, many of the old mysteries of Chinese medicine are now being elucidated on a biochemical basis with high quality evidence-based scientific trials on plant materials being undertaken both in the East and West. Nonetheless, only a handful of Chinese herbal products have been widely adopted by Australians without a Chinese background. This project aimed to conduct a comprehensive, up-to-date literature review which critically examined the evidence-based health benefits to consumers of plant products used in traditional Chinese medicine, and where relevant, plants from other Asian folk medicines. The focus has been on plant products with the potential to bring preventative, palliative and curative benefits to sufferers of chronic diseases in Australia. Practically all of the plant material used in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine in Australia is imported from China. Since many of the imported Chinese medicinal plant species are produced in environments similar to those found in Australia, there is potential for domestic production and supply. Domestic production of these botanicals would help ensure the safety, freshness and quality of the material. In addition, China only cultivates about 100 species of its medicinal plants (9), so there is potential to develop environmentally sustainable industries that could export. Outcomes of this research include recommendations for new plant products that could bring both economic benefits to Australian industries, and improved human health. Up-to-date medical verification has been summarised so that effective identification and development of new products aimed at the Australian (and other Western markets) can confidently proceed. The Australian horticultural sector has developed strong capabilities in Asian vegetable production in the past ten years but this review has encompassed additional products including other plant derived materials like fruit, grains and oils. As a consequence, introducing new plants as sources of phytochemicals could have a broad impact over several agricultural sectors.

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Introduction references 1. Samy, J., Sugumaran, M. & Lee, K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed. K.M. Wong, Pub. Times Editions - Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2. Huo-Hsiung Lee, Hideji Itokawa & Mutsuo Kozuka (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp 21-72. In, Shi, J., Ho, C.T. & F. Shahidi (Eds.) Asian Functional Foods. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.3. Chang-Xiao

Liu & Yaniv, Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp. 61-96. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach, U. (Eds.), Handbook of medicinal plants. Pub.Food Products Press - Haworth Press, 500 pp. 4. Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare website, www.aihw.gov.au/ 5. The Victorian Burden of Disease Study 2005, www.dhs.vic.gov.au/health/healthstatus/ 6. Causes of Death Australia 2002. ABS Cat. No. 3303.0. Canberra: ABS. 7. Craker, L.E. & Giblette, J. (2002) Chinese medicinal herbs: Opportunities for domestic production. pp. 491-496. In, Janick J. & Whipkey A. (Eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. Pub.- ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. 8. OHara, M., Kiefer, D., Farrell, K. & Kemper, K. (1998) A review of 12 commonly used medicinal herbs. Arch Fam Med., 7: 523-536.

9. Chang-Xiao Liu (2005) History of application of medicinal plants in China, pp. 31-48. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach, U. (Eds.), Handbook of medicinal plants. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp.

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2. MethodologySpecies review - boundaries of the investigationThis review has targeted those Chinese medicinal plant species (and their derived products) that have been documented to possess curative, preventive or palliative functions relevant to important chronic ailments in Australia, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, dementia and asthma. In addition, because they are important and topical, some plant treatments relevant to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), liver protection, golden staph (Staphylococcus aureus) and malaria were also included. There is growing importance in the search for antimalarial plants because malaria, particularly cerebral malaria, is on the increase (1). Climate change and rising sea levels may promote the spread of this disease in northern Australia in the future. The study has predominantly focussed on plants used in Chinese medicine and on plants with their genetic origins in Asia. However, because the aim was to find new health promoters for Australians, Asian plants used in non-Chinese folk medicine were sometimes included when relevant. Often these were from countries that are near neighbours to China but frequently these plant species range over the geographic borders of the region. These additional species typically derived from Indian, Japanese, Myanmar and Malaysian folk medicine. In particular Ayurveda, the ancient Indian medical science has employed many phytochemical based treatments. For each pertinent plant, a summary profile was developed that generally included: botanical and common/vernacular names traditional ailments addressed biochemical basis for efficacy - active compounds scientific verification of disease control and healing - evidence of the plant products effects. For the species that were evaluated to have the best potential in Australia, additional information is sometimes provided, such as plant parts used preparation and administration (dosage - oral, topical etc.) growing regions and brief outline of agronomy. It should be noted that while Chinese medicinal plants are often tagged herbs or herbals these descriptions simply refer to the fact that the materials are plant-based in origin. These terms do not necessarily mean that the species is a herbaceous ie. a non-woody, higher plant. In fact, many of the plants used in Chinese (and Asian) folk medicines derive from shrub or tree species.

The searchChinese medicinal plants are often used as medicines that are mixtures of more than one plant (2) and sometimes non-plant materials. The literature review focussed on research that investigated the separate efficacy of each target species, and in so doing has generally avoided the issue of which component(s) in a concocted medicine are responsible for effects, or if all the herbs in the formula are essential. The focus was on data from trials of single plants and their derivatives (ie. monopreparations). Only rarely was a medicinal mix of herbs reviewed and only when all the herbal components carried efficacy weight and the literature featured human trials. For this report, all the screened literature pertaining to human health effects was science-based and published either in recognised science and medical journals, or review text books by experts in the field. No website information for efficacy data was used unless it represented papers from on-line scientific journals or was affiliated with Australian research institutions. Product efficacy claims made by website promotors and purveyors were not considered, and leaflet literature popularly used to promote retailed health products was similarly ignored. Particular care has been taken to verify the correct genus and species names for investigated plants. These scientific names were verified for up-to-date accuracy on the Germplasm Resources Information 4

Network (GRIN). GRIN taxonomic data provide the structure and nomenclature for accessions of the National Plant Germplasm System, part of the National Genetic Resources Program of the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service. In GRIN Taxonomy all families and genera of vascular plants and over 40,000 species from throughout the world are represented. The GRIN website is http://www.ars-grin.gov and has been cited as: USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Only very rarely was an attempt made to classify below the species level to eg. subspecies or variety. Nonetheless, anyone interested in pursuing business interests in this field should be well aware that active breeding for varieties (cultivars) or simple selection of localised ecotypes can lead to large variance in phytochemical yields, and thus the medical functionality of the material can vary. In the majority of cases, relevant literature did not classify plants below species level. The presence of plant species in Australia was verified when necessary with the Australian Plant Name Index (APNI). http://www.anbg.gov.au/cgi-bin/apninames Scientific and medical data were primarily (but not exclusively) sourced from the PubMed electronic database (which also covers relevant Chinese journals) from inception to May 2006. PubMed is a service of the United States National Library of Medicine that includes over 16 million citations from MEDLINE and other life science journals for biomedical articles back to the 1950s. PubMed includes links to full text articles and other related resources. Pubmed website- http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi PubMed searches were initiated with an up-to-date plant species name and the search further refined when necessary by considering name synonyms, only the most recent publications (typically 2002 to 2005) and human trials. Chinese language electronic databases were also screened for results from human trials. Typically the extraction of data was based on abstracts alone. Given the vast bulk of material that required evaluation, multiple assessments of summarised abstract material were considered a superior yield of overview information than detailed focus on a lesser number of full papers.

What constitutes good evidence ?In theory, the most trustworthy evidence for herbal efficacy/causality should come from trials on humans. However, the unique structure and experimental design of particular human trials still dictates the reliability of derived data. Human trials can take various forms observational studies (also called epidemiological or population studies) controlled studies using an untreated group single-blind study double-blind comparative trial randomised, double blind, placebo-controlled (RDBPC) experiments. RDBPC experiments are the best in terms of scientific design and rigour, and guarantee the most dependable results. Their drawback can be considerable expense in both establishment (eg. sourcing appropriate numbers of human subjects that meet required profile) and on-going evaluation (eg. logistics of maintaining trials during prolonged, sometimes years of experimental conditions) to meet stringent requirements of experimental plans and statistical analysis. There are also considerable 5

investments, and sometimes complicated procedural methods, needed to keep participants blind, thereby protecting the validity of findings. The processs of identifying potential drugs is very long, and the US National Cancer Institute estimates that for every 10,000 plant extracts screened, less than 10 will reach the stage of clinical testing (3). The time taken for the entire process of drug development including human trials can be from 7 to 12 years, at a cost ranging from US$350 to US$500 million (3). While RDBPC trials with humans are considered the most appropriate to prove causality, many claims are made on lesser research. Often health products available commercially over-the-counter have not undergone evaluation in RDBPC trials, and may not have been evaluated scientifically in any type of human trial to substantiate effects. Other than well planned trials with human subjects, some support for efficacy of botanical products can be derived from animal (usually mammal) trials where the testing takes place in live (ie. in vivo), anatomically complete individuals. But because animals may process herbal products differently from humans, results are not completely reliable. Nevertheless, animal testing is a very commonly taken approach. For example, relatively recent testing of tea tree oil for antiinflammatory effects was examined using mice (4). Less reliable again is test-tube testing using human cell-lines (sometimes tissues) derived from humans and grown under controlled conditions in culture (ie. in vitro). However, such studies are often only regarded as spurs for further research, they do not prove that a treatment is effective in real life. A herbal product taken by mouth must be absorbed into the bloodstream, survive processing by the liver and still manage to be effective when diluted by body fluids. It is a long step from in vitro results to a treatment for humans that actually works. Nonetheless, in vitro testing is a considerably cheaper alternative to in vivo testing either in humans or animals. In vitro trials based on animal cell-lines and tissues can provide data but are at the limit of what can be regarded as medically useful. It is not always essential for a particular plant species to be directly investigated for it to obtain support for causality. Often the positive benefits of consumption of particular plant chemical compounds (eg. carotenoids, cumarins) have been proven and prospecting for new medicinal plant species is often systematically undertaken using knowledge of chemotaxonomy (3). Many of these compounds tend to occur within distinct plant families, so that when a phytochemical is newly shown to occur in a previously uninvestigated species, inferences are made as to possible efficacy. These are sometimes termed linked or unsubstantiated claims. There is one increasingly popular argument that suggests if a herb or herbal product has medical efficacy data from human cell-line and animal studies and is safe to consume, it should be incorporated into the diet, even without human testing. This thinking suggests that the expense involved in RDBPC (and other human) testing and a lack of commercial incentive may prohibit human trials on many species ever taking place. Medical proof may well come too late for many sufferers of terminal diseases for which there is currently no reliable non-herbal cure in conventional medicine. Increasingly, traditional and folk use of a species is viewed as positive evidence of non-experimental efficacy. It is now understood that ethnopharmacological data is important in developing new drugs (5). Since medicinal plants have been used for centuries and tested by billions of people, there has been ample opportunity to find satisfactory medicinal agents and to solve problems of toxicity and side-effects (5). To some extent the evidence constituting efficacy is a matter of consumer opinion. This is well demonstrated by the large proportion of the population that is prepared to invest in herbal medicines (not just Chinese) and dietary supplements without positive evidence from human data; consider the monetary value of sales for unverified medicines. At the extreme, some medicines/supplements still have a considerable consumer base even after they have been tested and the best available analysis of 6

their efficacy suggests that they are ineffective. Compare the situation to consumption of fatty processed foods; human testing has proven that they are detrimental to health but consumer purchasing remains strong. A recent published review points to modernisation and internationalisation as key issues in progression of traditional Chinese medicine (6). Development of Chinese medicine needs to depend more on use of international standardised scientific evaluation. This 2005 review found that less than 30% of papers in traditional Chinese medicine journals had used randomised controlled trials (6).

Methodology references 1. Wondu Holdings Pty. Ltd. (2000) New pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and industrial products - the potential for Australian agriculture. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Publication No. 00/173, 145 pp. 2. Blumenthal, M. (1999) Medical Journals Report on Herbal and Alternative Medicine: Articles in AMA Journals Contrast with NEJM. HerbalGram., 46: 29-35,51,52. 3. Samy, J., Sugumaran, M. & Lee, K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- Wong, K.M., Pub.- Times Editions - Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 4. Finlay-Jones, J., Hart, P., Riley, T. & Carson, C. (2002) The anti-inflammatory and anti-itch properties of tea tree oil- in vivo studies. RIRDC publication No. 02/053, 24 pp. 5. Chang-Xiao Liu & Yaniv, Z. (2005) Research and development of new drugs originating from Chinese plants, pp 61-96. In, Yaniv, Z. & Bachrach, U. (Eds.) Handbook of medicinal plants. Pub.Food Products Press - Haworth Press, 500 pp. 6. Li, T.Q., Wang, G., Wang, L. & Mao, B. (2005) Clinical trials of traditional Chinese medicine in China: status and evaluation. Chinese J of Evidence-based Medicine, 5(6): 431-437.

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3. ResultsGeneral observationsThe following information pertaining to Chinese medicinal plants was established in the review process Not all plant species used in Chinese medicine are indigenous to China Traditional usage of a particular species may differ from the modern usage Modern Chinese medicine may use plant species that were not traditionally utilised Western medicine sometimes uses plants from traditional Chinese medicine but not necessarily for a purpose in common with the Chinese use Often Chinese traditional medicines are a combination of various herbs and while efficacy data may exist for a particular concoction, the role of individual herbal components in contributing to medical benefits will not be clear unless additional testing of the separate plant species has taken place Some Chinese medicinal plants are indigenous to Australia It would be fair to suggest that the curative powers ascribed to particular plant species has contracted in recent times as more evidence-based evaluation for efficacy reduces the incidence of broad spectrum claims and panaceas. However, lists have also added more modern pandemic ailments like heart disease, obesity, elevated cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and diabetes A vast array of plant types are used in Chinese medicine but overall numbers tend to be increased by nomenclature duplicities surrounding the use of synonyms, varieties/cultivars/selections and regional variants/genotypes. A large proportion of the species presented here had name synonyms and there were also points of confusion regarding the appropriate spelling of names It was established that species with efficacy credibility tend to have a very recent history of strong scientific investigation. Those plant species that were investigated in the 1950s, 60s, 70s, 80s and not more recently, tended not to have support from rigorous scientific trials.

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Species review - BackgroundThe following list of plant species is arranged alphabetically and based on binomial, scientific names. The name that appears within round ( ) brackets is the typical Mandarin-Chinese common or vernacular name for the species. These Chinese common names tend to vary as do Western common names, as opposed to scientific names. However, this issue is further complicated by the AnglifiedWesternised translation of the Chinese common names. Names that follow brackets are alternative (often Western but sometimes non-Chinese Asian) common names. Not all common names have necessarily been listed. When the species is used in Asian medicine other than Chinese, the predominant common name appears in square [ ] brackets with the linked country preceding the name. These species may be used in multiple countries but no attempt has been made to document more than one common name from a relevant source and region. Sometimes the scientific name in referenced abstracts is different from that used in the species summary. The summaries have used up-to-date GRIN (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory) names. Plant scientific name changes are relatively common and many plants in the review list have been the subject of relatively recent change. Although references may be recent, some persist in use of obsolete names. The code R in brace { } brackets refers to the number of references considered in reviewing the species. Supporting references presented in each species summary tend to be key or representative information pertaining to that plant. An attempt has not been made to determine if each species is currently extant in Australia. Nonetheless, some effort has been made to establish if the species with best efficacy data are grown in Australia and whether they are current commercial crops, fledgling crops or proposed options. Of course, any favoured species not currently in Australia could be imported subject to quarantine procedures and evaluation to eliminate potential disease/weed threats. Where a species is a current commercial crop in Australia, the medical evidence has not always been fully reviewed, and consequently the reference review number {R} is not presented. The focus was generally on potential new crops. NOTE: Not all precautions, toxicities and contraindications have been documented here. It is wise to use herbs carefully and seek professional opinions before use.

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4. Species reviewAchyranthes bidentata (NIU XI) two tooth achyranthes or chaff flower {R14} Studies on rodents have demonstrated antitumour activity (1), antiinflammatory action (2), antiasthma (3) and cognition-enhancing/antiamnesic effects (4).1.Yu S. & Zhang Y. (1995) Effect of Achyranthes bidentata polysaccharides (ABP) on antitumor activity and immune function of S180-bearing mice. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi., 17(4): 275-278. 2.Lu T., Mao C., Zhang L. & Xu, W. (1997) The research on analgestic and anti-inflammatory action of different processed products of Achyranthes bidentata. Zhong Yao Cai., 20(10): 507-509. 3.Li C.C., Hu X.G., Zhang W.X., Xie L.W., Zhang H.Y., Dong L., Cai X.H., Wu R.X., Zhang Z.X. & He Q.S. (2003) Eosinophils apoptosis, fas mRNA and bcl-2 mRNA expressions in asthma model of young rat and effects of Achyranthes bidentata polysaccharides. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi., 41(9): 657-660. 4.Lin Y.C., Wu C.R., Lin C.J. & Hsieh M.T. (2003) The ameliorating effects of cognition-enhancing Chinese herbs on scopolamine- and MK-801-induced amnesia in rats. Am J Chin Med., 31(4): 543-549.

Aconitum brachypodum (YI XHI GAO or YI ZHI HAU) {R3} Traditionally used in Chinese folk medicine to relieve arthritic pain (1). No efficacy data could be retrieved from the scientific literature.1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Aconitum carmichaeli (CHUAN WU) Japanese aconite or Sichuan aconite {R5} The root/tuber of Aconitum carmichaeli is believed to possess antiinflammatory, analgesic and cardiotonic effects and has been used in Chinese materia medica mainly for the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders including joint pain in rheumatic and rheumatoid arthritis (1,2). However, it contains highly toxic diterpenoid alkaloids (3). After ingestion, patients may present with signs and symptoms that are typical of aconitine poisoning (4). Death may occur from ventricular arrhythmias.1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Chang, J.G., Shih P.P., Chang C.P., Chang J.M., Wang F.Y. & Tseng J.(1994) The stimulating effect of Radix aconiti extract on cytokines secretion by human mononuclear cells. Planta Medica., 60: 576-578. 3.Chan T.Y., Tomlinson B., Tse L.K., Chan J.C., Chan W.W. & Critchley J.A. (1994) Aconitine poisoning due to Chinese herbal medicines: a review. Vet Hum Toxicol., 36(5): 452-455. 4.Chan T.Y., Chan J.C., Tomlinson B., Critchley J.A. (1994) Poisoning by Chinese herbal medicines in Hong Kong: a hospital-based study. Vet Hum Toxicol., 36(6): 546-547.

Acorus tararinowii (SHI CHANG PU) {R5} The root/rhizome of Acorus tararinowii is traditionally used to treat mental disturbance, arthralgia and general musculoskeletal problems (1). However, there is little support from scientific literature. Note: this scientific name is under review.1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp.

Actaea cimicifuga (SHENG MA) Chinese cimicifuga, bugbane or foetid bugbane {R5} Compounds from the aerial parts have demonstrated cytotoxicity against various cancer cell-lines (1).1.Tian Z., Pan R.L., Si J. & Xiao P.G.(2006) Cytotoxicity of cycloartane triterpenoids from aerial part of Cimicifuga foetida. Fitoterapia, 77(1): 39-42.

Actaea dahurica (SHENG MA) {R7} Isoferulic acid extracted from the rhizome of Actaea dahurica had antihyperglycaemic activity in spontaneously diabetic rats (1). A recent study using cancer cell-lines examined the cytotoxicity of three cycloartane triterpenoids isolated from the aerial parts and concluded that the compounds possessed potential antitumour activity (2).1.Liu I.M., Chi T.C., Hsu F.L., Chen C.F. & Cheng J.T. (1999) Isoferulic acid as active principle from the rhizoma of Cimicifuga dahurica to lower plasma glucose in diabetic rats. Planta Med., 65(8): 712-714. 2.Tian Z., Yang M., Huang F., Li K., Si J., Shi L., Chen S. & Xiao P. (2005) Cytotoxicity of three cycloartane triterpenoids from Cimicifuga dahurica. Cancer Lett., 226(1): 65-75.

Actaea heracleifolia (SHENG MA) {R6} Actaea heracleifolia is used in traditional medicine for treating inflammation. These antiinflammatory effects can probably be attributed to ferulic acid and isoferulic acid, which are the main active components of the rhizome (1). Sodium ferulate is another of this plants active principles and it has been approved by the State Drugs Administration of China for treatment of cardiovascular and 10

cerebrovascular diseases (2). Sodium ferulate has been widely used for several decades in Chinese medicine to treat these diseases. A recent review article concluded that sodium ferulate has antithrombotic, platelet aggregation inhibitory activity (an important factor in lowering the risk for coronary artery disease) and antioxidant activities in animals and humans (2). Clinical results have been obtained for sodium ferulate use in coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, pulmonary heart disease and thrombosis (2). Its safety and efficacy have been demonstrated in clinical practice, and in vitro and in vivo data support the view that sodium ferulate is a useful drug for treatment of cardiovascular diseases (2).1.Sakai S., Kawamata H., Kogure T., Mantani N., Terasawa K., Umatake M. & Ochiai H. (1999) Inhibitory effect of ferulic acid and isoferulic acid on the production of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 in response to respiratory syncytial virus infection in RAW264.7 cells. Mediators Inflamm., 8(3):173-175. 2.Wang B.H. & Ou-Yang J.P. (2005) Pharmacological actions of sodium ferulate in cardiovascular system. Cardiovasc Drug Rev., 23(2): 161-172.

Adenophora triphylla (NAN SHA SHEN or SHA SENG) ladybell or bellfower {R5} Extracts from Adenophora triphylla displayed tumouricidal effects in vitro (human Jurkat T cells) and in vivo (rats), suggesting that this plant could yield chemopreventive agents against gastric cancer (1). More supportive results from additional research required.1.Lee I.S., Yang E.J., Kim H.S., Chung S.K., Furukawa F. & Nishikawa A. (2000) Suppressive effects of Adenophora triphylla extracts on in vitro tumor cell growth and in vivo gastric epithelial proliferation. Anticancer Res., 20(5A): 3227-3231.

Adhatoda vasica [Myanmar- MUYAR-GYI] Malabar tree {R10} The roots and leaves are traditionally used to treat asthma (1). No efficacy data could be retrieved from the scientific literature.1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp.

Adina rubella (SHEI YIANG MEI GEN) {R4} This herb is said to possess anticancer activity (1) but no relevant material could be retrieved from the scientific literature.1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Adonis amurensis (PIN LIANG HUA or FU SHE TSAO) adonis or Korean adonis {R4} Traditionally believed to dilate coronary blood vessels and increase blood flow (1). Like other Adonis species, may contain cardioactive glycosides (2) but possibly offers no special advantage over Digitalis (3). Cymarin and cymarol from the methanol extract exhibited potent cytotoxicity against human solid tumour cell-line A549 (lung carcinoma), while being inactive on mouse leukaemic cells (4).1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tylers Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 4.You Y.J., Kim Y., Nam N.H. & Ahn B.Z. (2003) Inhibitory effect of Adonis amurensis components on tubelike formation of human umbilical venous cells. Phytother Res., 17(5): 568-70.

Adonis chrysocyathus (FU SHOU CAO or BING LIAN HUA) {R3} This herb exhibits a digitalis-like action on the heart muscle (1). Like other Adonis species, may contain cardioactive glycosides (2) but possibly offers no special advantage over Digitalis (3).1.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 2.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tylers Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp.

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Aegle marmelos [Myanmar- OKE-SHIT] bael tree, Bengal quince, golden apple or Indian quince {R11} Traditionally used for heart palpitations, asthma, diabetes and arthritis (1). A methanolic extract of Aegle marmelos reduced blood sugar in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (2). Extracts also inhibited in vitro proliferation of human tumour cells (3,4).1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Sabu M.C. & Kuttan R. (2004) Antidiabetic activity of Aegle marmelos and its relationship with its antioxidant properties. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol., 48(1): 81-88. 3.Lambertini E., Piva R., Khan M.T., Lampronti I., Bianchi N., Borgatti M. & Gambari R. (2004) Effects of extracts from Bangladeshi medicinal plants on in vitro proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines and expression of estrogen receptor alpha gene. Int J Oncol., 24(2): 419-423. 4.Lampronti I., Martello D., Bianchi N., Borgatti M., Lambertini E., Piva R., Jabbar S., Choudhuri M.S., Khan M.T. & Gambari R. (2003) In vitro antiproliferative effects on human tumor cell lines of extracts from the Bangladeshi medicinal plant Aegle marmelos Correa. Phytomedicine, 10(4): 300-308.

Aesculus chinensis (SUO LOU ZI) Chinese horse chestnut, seven leaves tree or monkey chestnut {R9} Saponins from the seeds showed inhibitory activity towards human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease (1), and antiinflammatory activity in mice (2).1.Yang X.W., Zhao J., Cui Y.X., Liu X.H., Ma C.M., Hattori M. & Zhang L.H. (1999) Anti-HIV-1 protease triterpenoid saponins from the seeds of Aesculus chinensis. J Nat Prod., 62(11): 1510-1513. 2.Wei F., Ma L.Y., Jin W.T., Ma S.C., Han G.Z., Khan I.A. & Lin R.C. (2004) Antiinflammatory triterpenoid saponins from the seeds of Aesculus chinensis. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(10): 1246-1248.

Aesculus hippocastanum (SUO LOU ZI) horse chestnut {R14} This species is native to Europe but widely cultivated elsewhere (including Australia) and used by Chinese medical practitioners (1,2). Valued for venous disorders such as varicose veins with efficacy supported by good evidence (3,4,5,6,7).1.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Robbers J.E. & Tyler V.E. (2000) Tylers Herbs of choice - The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Haworth Herbal Press, 287 pp. 4.Dickson S., Gallagher J., McIntyre L., Suter A. & Tan J. (2004) An open study to assess the safety and efficacy of Aesculus hippocastanum tablets (Aesculaforce 50 mg) in the treatment of chronic venous insufficiency. J Herb Pharmacother., 4(2): 19-32. 5.Pittler M.H. & Ernst E. (2004) Horse chestnut seed extract for chronic venous insufficiency. Cochrane Database Syst Rev., 2: CD003230. 6.Ottillinger B. & Greeske K. (2001) Rational therapy of chronic venous insufficiency-chances and limits of the therapeutic use of horse-chestnut seeds extract. BMC Cardiovasc Disord., 1: 5. 7.Sirtori C.R. (2001) Aescin: pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic profile. Pharmacol Res., 44(3): 183-193.

Agastache rugosa (HUO XIANG) agastache, Korean mint, Chinese giant hyssop or giant wrinkled hyssop {R2} Lignan compounds from Agastache rugosa inhibited etoposide-induced apoptosis in U937 cells (1). A diterpenoid quinone isolated from the roots showed non-specific cytotoxic activities against several human cancer cell-lines (2). In other work, an aqueous methanolic extract of the roots exhibited significant activity against human immunodeficiency virus integrase (3). Adhesion molecules such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 play an important role during the early stages of atherogenesis. A. rugosa extract had an antiatherogenic effect in low density lipoprotein receptor mice (4).1.Lee C., Kim H. & Kho Y.(2002) Agastinol and agastenol, novel lignans from Agastache rugosa and their evaluation in an apoptosis inhibition assay. J Nat Prod. 65(3): 414-416. 2.Lee H.K., Oh S.R., Kim J.I., Kim J.W. & Lee C.O. (1995) Agastaquinone, a new cytotoxic diterpenoid quinone from Agastache rugosa. J Nat Prod., 58(11): 1718-1721. 3.Kim H.K., Lee H.K., Shin C.G. & Huh H. (1999) HIV integrase inhibitory activity of Agastache rugosa. Arch Pharm Res., 22(5): 520-523. 4.Hong J.H., Choi J.H., Oh S.R., Lee H.K., Park J.H., Lee K.Y., Kim J.J., Jeong T.S. & Oh G.T. (2001) Inhibition of cytokine-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression; possible mechanism for antiatherogenic effect of Agastache rugosa. FEBS Lett., 495(3): 142-147.

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Agrimonia pilosa (XIAN HE CAO) agrimonia herb {R17} A whole plant methanol extract of Agrimonia pilosa demonstrated in vitro anti-human immunodeficiency virus type-1 activity (1). Investigation of an aqueous extract of the roots found hepatoprotective activity in vitro for chemically induced cytotoxicity in human and rat liver cells (2). Mouse trials indicated that the roots contain some antitumour constituents (3). Agrimoniin from A. pilosa is reported as a potent antitumour tannin with effects possibly due to enhancement of immune response in host animals (4,5).1.Min B.S., Kim Y.H., Tomiyama M., Nakamura N., Miyashiro H., Otake T. & Hattori M. (2001) Inhibitory effects of Korean plants on HIV-1 activities. Phytother Res., 15(6): 481-486. 2.Park E.J., Oh H., Kang T.H., Sohn D.H. & Kim Y.C. (2004) An isocoumarin with hepatoprotective activity in Hep G2 and primary hepatocytes from Agrimonia pilosa. Arch Pharm Res., 27(9): 944-946. 3.Koshiura R., Miyamoto K., Ikeya Y. & Taguchi H. (1985) Antitumor activity of methanol extract from roots of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. Jpn J Pharmacol., 38(1): 9-16. 4.Miyamoto K., Kishi N., & Koshiura R. (1987) Antitumor effect of agrimoniin, a tannin of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb., on transplantable rodent tumors. Jpn J Pharmacol., 43(2): 187-195. 5.Murayama T., Kishi N., Koshiura R., Takagi K., Furukawa T. & Miyamoto K. (1992) Agrimoniin, an antitumor tannin of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb., induces interleukin-1. Anticancer Res., 12(5): 1471-1474.

Ailanthus altissima (CHUN PI) Chinese sumach bark, Ailanthus, China-sumac, Chinese tree-ofheaven, stinktree, varnishtree, hemelboom or tree-of-heaven {R9} Ailanthus altissima was evaluated for its cytotoxic and antiproliferative activities by a bioassayoriented study (1). Cytotoxicity was observed in HeLa cells and possible apoptotic effect was evaluated by monitoring the presence of hypodiploid elements in HeLa cells as well as in SAOS, U87MG and U-937 tumour cell-lines. Cells incubated for different times with A. altissima active extract, fraction and pure alkaloid showed remarkable increase in apoptosis (1). Three new quassinoids (ailantinol E, ailantinol F, and ailantinol G), and related compounds were isolated from A. altissima grown in Taiwan and evaluated for antitumour promoting effects against Epstein-Barr virus early antigen activation introduced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in Raji cells (2). The new quassinoids were found to show potent activity without showing any cytotoxicity. In order to find novel anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) agents from natural products, 80 methanol extracts of Korean plants were applied to a syncytia formation inhibition assay, which is based on the interaction between the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120/41 and the cellular membrane protein CD4 of T lymphocytes (3). The most potent HIV-1 fusion inhibition was shown by the stem bark of A. altissima. In up-to-date work, it was reported that fruit extracts showed in vitro antimicrobial activity (4). Cultivated or naturalised in Europe, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, Mexico, South America, Azores and Hawaii (5). A noxious weed in Australia (5).1.De Feo V., Martino L.D., Santoro A., Leone A., Pizza C., Franceschelli S. & Pascale M. (2005) Antiproliferative effects of tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima Swingle). Phytother Res., 19(3): 226-230. 2.Tamura S., Fukamiya N., Okano M., Koyama J., Koike K., Tokuda H., Aoi W., Takayasu J., Kuchide M. & Nishino, H. (2003) Three new quassinoids, ailantinol E, F, and G, from Ailanthus altissima. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo)., 51(4): 385-389. 3.Chang Y.S. & Woo E.R. (2003) Korean medicinal plants inhibiting to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) fusion. Phytother Res., 17(4): 426-429. 4.Zhao C.C., Shao J.H., Li X., Xu J. & Zhang P. (2005) Antimicrobial constituents from fruits of Ailanthus altissima SWINGLE. Arch Pharm Res., 28(10): 1147-1151. 5.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Akebia quinata (YU ZHI ZI) five leaf akebia or chocolate vine {R6} The stem of Akebia quinata has been used to treat urinary tract inflammatory disease. Saponins in medicinal plants may act as bioactive components after biodegradation to sapogenins in the gastrointestinal tract. Results from testing on rats suggested that observed antinociceptive and antiinflammatory properties of the stem of A. quinata can be attributed to the sapogenins oleanolic acid and hederagenin (1). Saponins from A. quinata have also shown nitric oxide inhibition and cytotoxicity against cancer cells in vitro (2)1.Choi J., Jung H.J., Lee K.T. & Park H.J. (2005) Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the saponin and sapogenins obtained from the stem of Akebia quinata. J Med Food., 8(1): 78-85.

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2.Jung, H.J., Lee C.O., Lee K.T., Choi J. & Park H.J. (2004) Structure-activity relationship of oleanane disaccharides isolated from Akebia quinata versus cytotoxicity against cancer cells and NO inhibition. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(5): 744-747.

Akebia trifoliata (YU ZHI ZI) three leaf akebia or chocolate vine {R4} Traditionally used to promote blood circulation for relief of pain (1). Good yields of saponins (2) which may act as bioactive components, possibly with antinociceptive and antiinflammatory activity. Little direct evidence for efficacy.1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Mimaki Y., Kuroda M., Yokosuka A., Harada H., Fukushima M. & Sashida Y. (2003) Triterpenes and triterpene saponins from the stems of Akebia trifoliata. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 51(8): 960-965.

Albizia julibrissin (HE HUAN PI) silktree, silk tree albizia or mimosa {R13} Stem bark of Albizia julibrissin is specified in Chinese pharmacopoeia as a traditional medicine used to relieve melancholia and uneasiness of body and mind (1), invigorate blood circulation (1) and stimulate memory (2). The flowers contain flavonol glycosides and investigation of their sedative activity showed increased sleeping time in mice (3). Compounds isolated from the stem bark have demonstrated radical scavenging activity (4,5). Saponins from A. julibrissin showed marked cytotoxic activity against cancer cell-lines (6,7,8).1.Yu D.H., Qiao S.Y. & Zhao Y.M. (2004) Advances in study on bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 29(7): 619-624. 2.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 3.Kang T.H., Jeong S.J., Kim N.Y., Higuchi R. & Kim Y.C. (2000) Sedative activity of two flavonol glycosides isolated from the flowers of Albizzia julibrissin Durazz.. J Ethnopharmacol. , 71(1-2): 321-323. 4.Jung M.J., Kang S.S., Jung H.A., Kim G.J. & Choi J.S. (2004) Isolation of flavonoids and a cerebroside from the stem bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Arch Pharm Res., 27(6): 593-599. 5.Jung M.J., Kang S.S., Jung Y.J. & Choi J.S. (2004) Phenolic glycosides from the stem bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Chem Pharm Bull. (Tokyo), 52(12): 1501-1503. 6.Zou K., Tong W.Y., Liang H., Cui J.R., Tu G.Z., Zhao Y.Y. & Zhang R.Y. (2005) Diastereoisomeric saponins from Albizia julibrissin. Carbohydr Res., 340(7): 1329-1334. 7.Zou K., Cui J.R., Wang B., Zhao Y.Y. & Zhang R.Y. (2005) A pair of isomeric saponins with cytotoxicity from Albizzia julibrissin. J Asian Nat Prod Res., 7(6): 783-789. 8.Zheng L., Zheng J., Zhao Y., Wang B., Wu L. & Liang H. (2006) Three anti-tumor saponins from Albizia julibrissin. Bioorg Med Chem Lett., 16(10): 2765-2768.

Albizia lebbeck [India- PIT SHIRISH SHIRISHA, Myanmar- KOKKO] East Indian walnut, frywood, koko, lebbek, siristree, women's tongue tree, lebbekboom or parrot tree {R10} This species is traditionally used to treat asthma (1,2). In an uncontrolled clinical study of 60 patients with asthma it was found that response to Albizia lebbeck depended on the duration of the disease (2). Response was excellent for asthma of recent onset (less than two years) but results were less predictable in older cases. Results from a study of rats showed that A. lebbeck appeared to inhibit the early processes of sensitisation and synthesis of reaginic-type antibodies (3). If A. lebbeck was given during the first week of sensitisation it markedly inhibited the early sensitising processes, while if given during the second week it suppressed antibody production during the period of drug administration. The active ingredients of the bark were heat-stable and water-soluble. In more recent work, the effect of saponin containing, n-butanolic fraction, extracted from dried leaves of A. lebbeck, was studied on cognitive behaviour (learning and memory) and anxiety in mice (4,5). Results showed significant improvement in the retention ability of the normal and amnesic mice as compared to their respective controls. Data emanating from the study suggested involvement of gamma-aminobutyric acid/monoamine neurotransmitters in the nootropic and anxiolytic activity of saponins obtained from A. lebbeck (4,5). Potential for production in Australia (6).1.Soe K. & Myo Ngwe, T. (2004) Medicinal plants of Myanmar. Pub.- Myanmar Forest Resource Environment Development & Conservation Association, 255 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Tripathi R.M., Sen P.C. & Das P.K. (1979) Studies on the mechanism of action of Albizzia lebbeck, an Indian indigenous drug used in the treatment of atopic allergy. J Ethnopharmacol., 1(4): 385-396. 4.Une H.D., Sarveiya V.P., Pal S.C., Kasture V.S. & Kasture S.B. (2001) Nootropic and anxiolytic activity of saponins of Albizzia lebbeck leaves. Pharmacol Biochem Behav., 69(3-4): 439-444. 5.Chintawar S.D., Somani R.S., Kasture V.S. & Kasture SB. (2002) Nootropic activity of Albizzia lebbeck in mice. J Ethnopharmacol., 81(3): 299-305.

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6.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) The New Crop Industries Handbook. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Alisma plantago-aquatica (ZE XIE) water plantain {R4} This plant grows widely in marshes in southern China and has traditional uses in cardiovascular disease, diabetes and as an antibacterial (1). Animal experiments, revealed some antibacterial action and also seemed to lower blood pressure, blood sugar and blood cholesterol (1). Later human clinical trials are reported to have shown that Alisma plantago-aquatica can lower plasma cholesterol levels (2). However, the scientific literature on this species is very limited.1.Li C.P. (1974) Chinese herbal medicine. A publication of the John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (US Depart of Health, Education & Welfare), 120 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp.

Allium macrostemon (XIE BAI) long stamen onion, Chinese chive, Chinese garlic, macrostem onion or Japanese garlic {R8} Extracts can inhibit human platelet aggregation in vitro (1,2,3).1.He X.J., Wang N.L., Qiu F. & Yao X.S. (2003) Research on active constituents research of gualou xiebai baijiutang (III). The active flavanoids. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi., 28(5): 420-423. 2.Peng J., Yao X., Kobayashi H. & Ma C. (1995) Novel furostanol glycosides from Allium macrostemon. Planta Med., 61(1): 58-61. 3.Peng J.P., Wang X. & Yao X.S. (1993) Studies on two new furostanol glycosides from Allium macrostemon Bunge. Yao Xue Xue Bao., 28(7): 526-531.

Allium sativum (TA SUAN) garlic Current commercial crop in Australia, although much is imported. One of the forty most important herbs in industrialised Western countries (1). A number of studies have demonstrated the protective effects of garlic consumption against human cancers (2). When garlic cells are crushed, alliin is degraded and converted to allicin. Allicin shows antibacterial properties and decreases blood cholesterol levels (3). Another key outcome from garlic intake is suppression of platelet aggregation (4).1.Werbach M. & Murray M. (2000) Botanical influences on illness - a sourcebook of clinical research. 2nd edition, Pub.- Third Line Press Inc. Tarzana California, 624 pp. 2.Mantle D. & Wilkins R. (2005) Medicinal plants in the prevention and therapy of cancer, pp. 281-318. In, Yaniv Z. & Bachrach U. (Eds.) Handbook of medicinal plants. Pub.- Food Products Press-Haworth Press, 500 pp. 3.Lee H., Itokawa H. & Kozuka M. (2005) Asian Herbal Products: The basis for development of high-quality dietary supplements and new medicines, pp. 21-72. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & F. Shahidi (Eds.) Asian Functional Foods. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp. 4.Ariga T. & Seki T. (2005) Functional foods from garlic and onion, pp. 433-489. In, Shi J., Ho C.T. & F. Shahidi (Eds.) Asian Functional Foods. Pub.- CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 647 pp.

Alpinia hainanensis (CAO DOU KOU) katsumadas galangal seed {R7} A member of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae), Alpinia hainanensis has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat a variety of conditions such as emesis and gastric disorders. Cardamonin, one of the main constituents from the seeds has antibacterial, antiinflammatory and other important therapeutic activity (1). 7,8-Dihydroxyflavanone, isolated from the seeds was found to have an in vitro cytotoxic effect against A549 (human lung cancer cell-line) and K562 (human leukaemia cell-line) (2). Various aspects of antioxidant activity were evaluated in a total extract derived from A. hainanensis (3). This extract enhanced viability of Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cells and inhibited induced apoptosis. The total extract also showed significant antioxidant activity that was comparable to antioxidant compounds such as EGCG and resveratrol (3).1.He W., Li Y., Liu J., Hu Z. & Chen X. (2005) Specific interaction of chalcone-protein: cardamonin binding site II on the human serum albumin molecule. Biopolymers, 79(1): 48-57. 2.Hahm E.R., Park S. & Yang C.H. (2003) 7, 8-dihydroxyflavanone as an inhibitor for Jun-Fos-DNA complex formation and its cytotoxic effect on cultured human cancer cells. Nat Prod Res., 17(6): 431-436. 3.Lee S.E., Shin H.T., Hwang H.J. & Kim J.H. (2003) Antioxidant activity of extracts from Alpinia katsumadai seed. Phytother Res., 17(9): 1041-1047.

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Alpinia officinarum (GAO LIANG JIANG) lesser galangal, petite galangal or Chinese ginger {R21} Galangin is a flavonol which is present in high concentrations in Alpinia officinarum. Results from in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that galangins antioxidative and free radical scavenging activities are capable of modulating enzyme activity and suppressing the genotoxicity of chemicals; thereby making it a promising candidate for cancer chemoprevention (1). Other compounds from the rhizome have antioxidant activity (2,3,4). Recent work has established that extracts from A. officinarum can exhibit cytotoxicity against human cancer cell-lines (5). A pancreatic lipase inhibitor from the rhizome significantly lowered serum triglyceride and cholesterol of hyperlipidaemic mice (6,7). Antiinflammatory properties have been demonstrated in vitro with mouse and human cells (8).1.Heo M.Y., Sohn S.J. & Au W.W. (2001) Anti-genotoxicity of galangin as a cancer chemopreventive agent candidate. Mutat Res, 488(2): 135-150. 2.Ly T.N., Shimoyamada M., Kato K. & Yamauchi R. (2004) Antioxidative compounds isolated from the rhizomes of smaller galanga (Alpinia officinarum Hance). Biofactors., 21(1-4): 305-308. 3.Ly T.N., Shimoyamada M., Kato K. & Yamauchi R. (2003) Isolation and characterization of some antioxidative compounds from the rhizomes of smaller galanga (Alpinia officinarum Hance). J Agric Food Chem., 51(17): 4924-4929. 4.Lee S.E., Hwang H.J., Ha J.S., Jeong H.S. & Kim J.H. (2003) Screening of medicinal plant extracts for antioxidant activity. Life Sci., 73(2): 167-179. 5.Lee C.C. & Houghton P. (2005) Cytotoxicity of plants from Malaysia and Thailand used traditionally to treat cancer. J Ethnopharmacol., 100(3): 237-243. 6.Shin J.E., Han M.J., Song M.C., Baek N.I. & Kim D.H. (2004) 5-Hydroxy-7-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-1phenyl-3-heptanone: a pancreatic lipase inhibitor isolated from Alpinia officinarum. Biol Pharm Bull., 27(1): 138-140. 7.Shin J.E., Joo Han M. & Kim D.H. (2003) 3-Methylethergalangin isolated from Alpinia officinarum inhibits pancreatic lipase. Biol Pharm Bull., 26(6): 854-857. 8.Yadav P.N., Liu Z. & Rafi M.M. (2003) A diarylheptanoid from lesser galangal (Alpinia officinarum) inhibits proinflammatory mediators via inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase, p44/42, and transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B. J Pharmacol Exp Ther., 305(3): 925-931.

Alpinia oxyphylla (YI ZHI) sharp leaf galangal or black cardamon {R11} Another species in the ginger family, Alpinia oxyphylla is used in Oriental herbal medicine for the treatment of various symptoms accompanying hypertension and cerebrovascular disorders (1). A 50% ethanolic extract from the seed vessel of fruit from Alpinia oxyphylla was investigated and showed antidementia effects and increased learning function in animals (2). In more recent work, the protective effect of ethanol extract from the fruits on glutamate-induced neuronal apoptosis was examined in primary cultured mouse cortical neurons (3). Fruit extract in the presence of glutamate showed neuroprotective function with significantly elevated cell viability, reduced number of apoptotic cells and decreased intensity of glutamate-induced DNA fragmentation (3). Building on these findings, a study was performed to investigate the effects of water-extracts of the fruit on a cultured primary neuron cell system, cell cytotoxicity and lipid peroxidation in Abeta treatment conditions (1). Abeta-induced cell death was protected by the extract in a dose-dependent manner. Other evidence indicated that the extract protected neurons against ischaemia-induced cell death. Oral administration of the fruit extract to mice prevented ischaemia-induced learning disability and rescued hippocampal CA1 neurons from lethal ischaemic damage. The neuroprotective action of exogenous extract was also confirmed by counting synapses (1). The compounds in A. oxyphylla may exert their neuroprotective effect by reducing the nitric oxide-mediated formation of free radicals or antagonising their toxicity (1). A. oxyphylla contains diarylheptanoids whose structures are analogous to that of curcumin which has been shown to inhibit tumour promotion in experimental carcinogenesis (4). In a study that tested this species for its ability to suppress tumour promotion, topical application of the methanolic extract of dried fruit significantly ameliorated 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced skin tumour promotion as well as ear oedema in mice (4). Treatment of HL-60 cells with the methanolic extract also significantly reduced cell viability and inhibited DNA synthesis (4). Microscopic examination of the treated cells showed characteristic morphology of apoptosis. Furthermore, cells treated with the extract exhibited internucleosomal DNA fragmentation in time and concentration dependent manners. TPA-stimulated generation of superoxide anion in differentiated HL-60 cells was also blunted by A. oxyphylla. Taken together, these findings suggest that A. oxyphylla possesses potential chemopreventive and antitumourigenic activities (4). 16

The antitumour promoting potential of yakuchinone A and yakuchinone B, major pungent ingredients of A. oxyphylla have also been examined (5). Yakuchinone A or B reduced TPAstimulated production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha in cultured human promyelocytic leukaemia (HL-60) cells. Both compounds blunted the TPA-induced superoxide generation in differentiated HL60 cells in a concentration related manner and also inhibited lipid peroxidation in rat brain homogenates. Furthermore, yakuchinone A and yakuchinone B nullified the activation of the activator protein-1 in immortalised mouse fibroblast cells in culture. These findings indicate that pungent diarylheptanoids from A. oxyphylla have antitumour promotional properties that can contribute to their chemopreventive potential (5).1.Koo B.S., Lee W.C., Chang Y.C. & Kim C.H. (2004) Protective effects of alpinae oxyphyllae fructus (Alpinia oxyphylla MIQ) water-extracts on neurons from ischemic damage and neuronal cell toxicity. Phytother Res., 18(2): 142-148. 2.Kubo M., Matsuda H., Suo T., Yamanaka J., Sakanaka M. & Yoshimura M. (1995) Study on Alpiniae Fructus. I. Pharmacological evidence of efficacy of Alpiniae Fructus on ancient herbal literature. Yakugaku Zasshi., 115(10): 852-862. 3.Yu X., An L., Wang Y., Zhao H. & Gao C. (2003) Neuroprotective effect of Alpinia oxyphylla Miq. fruits against glutamate-induced apoptosis in cortical neurons. Toxicol Lett., 144(2): 205-212. 4.Lee E., Park K.K., Lee J.M., Chun K.S., Kang J.Y., Lee S.S. & Surh Y.J. (1998) Suppression of mouse skin tumor promotion and induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells by Alpinia oxyphylla Miquel (Zingiberaceae). Carcinogenesis., 19(8): 1377-1381. 5.Chun K.S., Sohn Y., Kim H.S., Kim O.H., Park K.K., Lee J.M., Moon A., Lee S.S. & Surh Y.J. (1999) Antitumor promoting potential of naturally occurring diarylheptanoids structurally related to curcumin. Mutat Res., 428(1-2): 49-57.

Alstonia macrophylla - batino or hard alstonia {R9} The methanolic crude, methanol-aqueous extract and n-butanol part of the crude extract of Alstonia macrophylla leaves showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (1). In another study of this species, the methanolic extract of dried leaves and its fractions were investigated for antiinflammatory activity (2). The extract and its fractions showed significant dose dependent antiinflammatory activity in carrageenan and dextran-induced rat hind-paw oedema in rats. This antiinflammatory activity was comparable with that of the standard drug Indomethacin (2). Extracts of the root bark have also shown cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell-lines (3,4).1.Chattopadhyay D., Maiti K., Kundu A.P., Chakraborty M.S., Bhadra R., Mandal S.C. & Mandal A.B. (2001) Antimicrobial activity of Alstonia macrophylla: a folklore of bay islands. J Ethnopharmacol., 77(1): 49-55. 2.Arunachalam G., Chattopadhyay D., Chatterjee S., Mandal A.B., Sur T.K. & Mandal S.C. (2002) Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of Alstonia macrophylla Wall ex A. DC. leaf extract. Phytomedicine, 9(7): 632-635. 3.Keawpradub N., Houghton P.J., Eno-Amooquaye E. & Burke P.J. (1997) Activity of extracts and alkaloids of Thai Alstonia species against human lung cancer cell lines. Planta Med., 63(2): 97-101. 4.Keawpradub N., Eno-Amooquaye E., Burke P.J. & Houghton P.J. (1999) Cytotoxic activity of indole alkaloids from Alstonia macrophylla. Planta Med., 65(4): 311-315.

Alstonia scholaris (DENG TAI YE) [Myanmar- TAUNG-MA-YOE] devils tree, ditta bark tree or blackboard tree {R12} Traditional uses of this plant are not particularly relevant to Australias current chronic diseases. However, modern research is demonstrating that the devils tree has potential. Echitamine chloride, a plant alkaloid from Alstonia scholaris, exhibited significant regression in tumour growth in rats with methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma (1). In more recent work, administration of an alkaloid fraction of A. scholaris, once daily for nine consecutive days to tumour bearing mice caused a dose dependent remission of the tumour (2). The plant extracts of 17 commonly used Indian medicinal plants were examined for their possible regulatory effect on nitric oxide levels using sodium nitroprusside as an nitric oxide donor in vitro (3). Most of the extracts demonstrated direct scavenging of nitric oxide and exhibited significant activity but potency of activity was greatest for A. scholaris (3).1.Kamarajan P., Sekar N., Mathuram V. & Govindasamy S. (1991) Antitumor effect of echitamine chloride on methylcholonthrene induced fibrosarcoma in rats. Biochem Int., 25(3): 491-498. 2.Jagetia G.C. & Baliga M.S. (2006) Evaluation of anticancer activity of the alkaloid fraction of Alstonia scholaris (Sapthaparna) in vitro and in vivo. Phytother Res., 20(2): 103-109. 3.Jagetia G.C. & Baliga M.S. (2004) The evaluation of nitric oxide scavenging activity of certain Indian medicinal plants in vitro: a preliminary study. J Med Food., 7(3): 343-348.

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Amomum krervanh (BAI DOU KOU) krawan or Siam / Thai cardamom {R4} Possible use as an antimalarial (1).1.Kamchonwongpaisan, S., Nilanonta, C., Tarnchompoo, B., Thebtaranonth, C., Thebtaranonth, Y., Yuthavong, Y., Kongsaeree, P. & Clardy, J. (1995) An antimalarial peroxide from Amomum krervanh Pierre. Tetrahedron lett., 36 (11): 1821-1824.

Amomum tsao-ko (CAO GUO) caoguo amomum {R7} One of the traditional functions of this plant is the arrest of malarial attack (1). Its essential oils have been identified (2,3), as well as an antifungal agent (4). Possible radical scavenging and antioxidant activity (5).1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Wu Y., Ge F., Shi Q., Tan X. & Wu H. (1997) Study of supercritical-CO2 fluid extraction in extracting essential oils of Amomun tsao-ko. Zhong Yao Cai., 20(5): 240-241. 3.Lin J., Zheng Y., Xu Y., Xia P., Wu Z., Cheng F. & Song L. (2000) Analysis of essential oil from Amomum tsaoko by extraction of supercritical CO2 fluid. Zhong Yao Cai., 23(3): 145-148. 4.Moon S.S., Lee J.Y. & Cho S.C. (2004) Isotsaokoin, an antifungal agent from Amomum tsao-ko. J Nat Prod., 67(5): 889-891. 5.Martin T.S., Kiduzaki H., Hisamoto M. & Nakatani N. (2000) Constituents of Amomum tsao-ko and their radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 77(6): 667-673.

Amomum villosum (SHA REN) villous amomum fruit {R6} Bornyl acetate, the main ingredient of Amomum villosum displayed analgesic and antiinflammatory effects in rodents (1,2).1.Wu X., Xiao F., Zhang Z., Li X. & Xu Z. (2005) Research on the analgesic effect and mechanism of bornyl acetate in volatile oil from Amomum villosum. Zhong Yao Cai., 28(6): 505-507. 2.Wu X., Li X., Xiao F., Zhang Z., Xu Z. & Wang H. (2004) Studies on the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effect of bornyl acetate in volatile oil from Amomum villosum. Zhong Yao Cai., 27(6): 438-439.

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (YIE PU TAO TENG) porcelain berry {R9} Used as an antiinflammatory and antihepatotoxic agent in folk medicine. The antioxidant activity of the methanol extract of the root and stem may partially explain this plants antiinflammatory and antihepatotoxic effects (1). Antihepatotoxic effects have been demonstrated in mice (2). This herb is also said to possess anticancer activity (3). The antimutagenic activities of extracts of 36 commonly used anticancer crude drugs from Chinese herbs were studied by using the Salmonella/microsomal system in the presence of picrolonic acid or benzo[a]pyrene to test whether they contain direct or indirect antimutagens (4). Each crude drug was extracted with boiling water, the method commonly used by Chinese people to prepare the drug for oral intake. Extracts of porcelain berry showed moderate antimutagenic activity (4). This species is a weed in some locations (5).1.Wu M.J., Yen J.H., Wang L. & Weng C.Y. (2004) Antioxidant activity of Porcelainberry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Maxim.) Trautv.. Am J Chin Med., 32(5): 681-693. 2.Yabe N. & Matsui H. (2000) Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Vitaceae) extract inhibits a progression of carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury in the mice. Phytomedicine, 7(6): 493-498. 3.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 4.Lee H. & Lin J.Y. (1988) Antimutagenic activity of extracts from anticancer drugs in Chinese medicine. Mutat Res., 204(2): 229-234. 5.USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.

Andrographis paniculata (CHUAN XIN LIAN) [India- KARIYAT] creat, andrographis, king of bitter(s) {R14} Erect annual herb to about 80 cm with profuse branching (1). Common throughout the plains of India (2); probably native to India. Cultivated in gardens but often considered a weed, grows in a variety of habitats including wastelands and wetlands. Andrographis paniculata is used in traditional Chinese medicine but was originally imported into China (2) (and Australia). Although linked to treatments for cancer, human immunodeficiency virus and inflammation, the best efficacy data for this herb have come from human trials where it was found to alleviate symptoms of upper-respiratory tract infections (3), and symptoms and signs of common cold (4). A study of patients with cardiac and cerebral vascular disease also found that it inhibited platelet aggregation induced by ADP (2). Serotonin released from platelets was decreased but plasma serotonin levels remained unchanged. Potential for production in Australia (5). 18

1.Samy J., Sugumaran M. & Lee K. (2005) Herbs of Malaysia. Ed.- K.M.Wong, Pub.- Times Editions-Marshall Cavendish, 244 pp. 2.Bone K. (2000) Clinical applications of Ayurvedic & Chinese herbs - Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Pub.- Phytotherapy press (Qld., Aust.), 152 pp. 3.Melchior J., Spasov A.A., Ostrovskij O.V., Bulanov A.E. & Wikman G. (2000) Double-blind, placebocontrolled pilot and phase III study of activity of standardized Andrographis paniculata Herba Nees extract fixed combination (Kan jang) in the treatment of uncomplicated upper-respiratory tract infection. Phytomedicine, 7(5): 341-350. 4.Caceres D.D., Hancke J.L., Burgos R.A., Sandberg F. & Wikman G.K. (1999) Use of visual analogue scale measurements (VAS) to asses the effectiveness of standardized Andrographis paniculata extract SHA-10 in reducing the symptoms of common cold. A randomized double blind-placebo study. Phytomedicine, 6(4): 217223. 5.Purbrick P. (2004) Medicinal herbs, pp. 256-264. In, Salvin S., Bourke M. & Byrne T. (Eds.) The New Crop Industries Handbook. Pub.- Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, Canberra.

Anemarrhena asphodeloides (ZHI MU) anemarrhena {R22} The rhizomes of Anemarrhena asphodeloides are prescribed as antipyretic, antiinflammatory, diuretic and hypoglycaemic agents in Chinese traditional medicine. The dried rhizome is traditionally used with other herbs in the treatment of diabetes (1). Chinese medical texts explain that this herb can lower blood sugar by increasing the metabolism of glucose in the body and increasing glycogen synthesis in the liver (2). But more recent research suggests that the hypoglycaemic effect of A. asphodeloides extract has been accounted for by the substance mangiferin which increases insulin sensitivity (3). Ethanol extract of the roots stimulated insulin secretion in islets of normal Wistar and diabetic GK rats (3). Based on results from mice, the antidiabetic mechanism of A. asphodeloides may be due to decreased insulin resistance (4,5). An aqueous extract of A. asphodeloides demonstrated growth inhibitory activity against cancer cells in vitro (6). This herb also brought about growth inhibition and induction of apoptotic cell death in gastric cancer cell-lines (7). Another investigation established that steroidal saponins isolated from A. asphodeloides might also be used as novel antithrombotic therapeutic agents in post-myocardial infarction (8). This plant was identified as one of eight Chinese medicinal plants with potential for production in the USA (9).1.Jing-Nuan Wu (2005) An illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. Oxford University Press, 706 pp. 2.Kee Chang Huang (1992) The pharmacology of Chinese herbs. CRC publishers, 388 pp. 3.Hoa N.K., Phan D.V., Thuan N.D. & Ostenson C.G. (2004) Insulin secretion is stimulated by ethanol extract of Anemarrhena asphodeloides in isolated islet of healthy Wistar and diabetic Goto-Kakizaki Rats. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes., 112(9): 520-525. 4.Miura T., Ichiki H., Iwamoto N., Kato M., Kubo M., Sasaki H., Okada M., Ishida T., Seino Y. & Tanigawa K. (2001) Antidiabetic activity of the rhizoma of Anemarrhena asphodeloides and active components, mangiferin and its glucoside. Biol Pharm Bull., 24(9): 1009-1011. 5.Miura T., Ichiki H., Hashimoto I., Iwamoto N., Kato M., Kubo M., Ishihara E., Komatsu Y., Okada M., Ishida T. & Tanigawa K. (2001) Antidiabetic activity of a xanthone compound, mangiferin. Phytomedicine, 8(2): 85-87. 6.Shoemaker M., Hamilton B., Dairkee S.H., Cohen I. & Campbell M.J. (2005) In vitro anticancer activity of twelve Chinese medicinal herbs. Phytother Res., 19(7): 649-651. 7.Takeda Y., Togashi H., Matsuo T., Shinzawa H., Taked