chlorine and coffee beans
TRANSCRIPT
SPEA UNDERGRADUATE HONORS THESIS
Chlorine and Coffee Beans: Investigating Water Treatment in Coffee Bean
Processing
Laura Trice
12/7/2012
2
Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
Global Coffee Industry .................................................................................................................................... 5
Coffee in Honduras ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Coffee Bean Processing: Wet and Dry Methods .................................................................................... 5
Global Brigades .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Global Water Brigades in El Zurzular, Honduras ................................................................................. 7
The Problem .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Results .................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Discussion ............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Responses Regarding Chlorine Use ........................................................................................................ 14
Water Treatment Decision Factors ......................................................................................................... 18
Alternatives for El Zurzular ....................................................................................................................... 19
UV disinfection of treated water ........................................................................................................... 20
Use of chloramines instead of hypochlorite ....................................................................................... 20
Using an alternative water source for bean processing ................................................................ 21
Outsourcing bean processing ................................................................................................................. 21
Diverting the water around the treatment tank ............................................................................. 21
Point-of-use treatment for drinking water ........................................................................................ 22
Global Solutions .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Education in El Zurzular ............................................................................................................................. 23
Sources of Difficulty ...................................................................................................................................... 23
Future Research ............................................................................................................................................. 24
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................. 24
Literature Cited ................................................................................................................................................... 27
Appendix A. Summary of type of farm, water source, and chlorine use of responders. ......... 29
Appendix B. Responses. ................................................................................................................................... 31
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Chlorine and Coffee Beans: Investigating Water Treatment in Coffee Bean Processing
Laura Trice Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science
School of Public and Environmental Affairs Indiana University
December 2012
Dr. Jeffrey White Professor of Environmental Biogeochemistry School of Public and Environmental Affairs
Indiana University Faculty Mentor
Dr. Chad Jafvert Professor of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering Purdue University
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Abstract The global coffee industry employs 20 million people, 70% of which are small
holder farmers in tropical regions. Global Brigades, a nonprofit international development
organization, often works in such coffee-growing communities as they implement
sustainable solutions to issues of health and development in Honduras. One such
community is El Zurzular, Honduras, with whom Global Brigades has recently collaborated
to build a water transport and chlorination treatment system. The community has decided
to stop chlorinating during coffee harvesting season, however, because of a belief that
chlorine negatively impacts the quality and flavor of coffee beans when washed with
treated water during bean processing. This leaves the community without treated drinking
water for four months of the year, which causes intestinal illness and parasites.
To illuminate how best to continue providing El Zurzular with clean drinking water
while maintaining a quality coffee product to sell for income, I have investigated common
practice in rural water treatment in coffee communities worldwide. I contacted 121 coffee
farms, roasters, retailers, and grower’s associations to illuminate the following issues: 1. Is
treated water used during coffee bean processing? 2. If so, is chlorine used to disinfect
water? 3. Do you hold any perceptions or beliefs about the effect of chlorine on coffee bean
quality or flavor? Questions were sent out via email, which achieved a 40% response rate
and included responses from coffee farms in Central America, Australia, Kenya, Thailand,
Mexico, and Hawaii.
The majority response was that treated water is not used in coffee bean processing.
Responders offered myriad justifications for their methods, ranging from lack of any
knowledge on the subject to informed decisions regarding chlorine use. Two key findings
were evident: there is a paucity of information on the effects of chlorinated water on coffee
bean quality, and it is crucial that context-dependent decisions be made when
implementing effective rural water treatment.
The results from this inventory will be sent to the Program Leader of Global Water
Brigades in Honduras to inform decision-making about water treatment in El Zurzular as
well as in future water projects in other coffee-growing communities. I offer alternatives
for Global Brigades to implement based on these findings, including using an alternative
water source for coffee bean processing, outsourcing bean processing to large processing
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facilities, using chloramines instead of hypochlorite as a disinfectant, or construction of a
diversion pipe to redirect untreated water. On a larger scale, this research addresses health
and development worldwide and provides valuable insight into addressing the critical
issue of water treatment in rural agricultural communities.
Introduction
Global Coffee Industry
Coffee is grown in the tropics in 50 different countries and employs 20 million
farmers globally. 70% of global coffee production comes from smallholder farms on 1-5
hectares of land (Tropical Commodity Coalition 2012; Wasserman 2002; Jackels and
Jackels 2005). The coffee market directly affects the income of these farmers, controlling
their access to education, medical services, food, etc. (Tropical Commodity Coalition 2012).
Coffee in Honduras
Coffee accounts for 21.7% of total merchandise exports in Honduras and is
produced in 15 of 18 provinces in Honduras, and 2 million people are directly involved in
coffee production (Gomez and Hoff 2010). 30% of the rural labor force in Honduras is
employed in the coffee sector, and due to the number of small holder coffee farms, quality
control can be difficult to standardize (Baffes et al. 2005; Gomez and Hoff 2010). Hurricane
Mitch, which devastated Honduras and other Central American countries in 1998, caused
an 11% decline in coffee production in Honduras, removing the country from its spot as the
10th largest coffee-producing nation in the world (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2012).
Coffee Bean Processing: Wet and Dry Methods
Coffee starts out as fruit, called cherries, with layers of pulp and parchment that
surround the actual coffee bean (Figure 1a). They are red when ripe and are either hand-
picked or machine-picked, depending on the available technology or the preference of the
grower (NCAUSA 2012). Variations in coffee bean processing have been found to affect
coffee flavor and quality (Daniels 2009). There are two main methods of coffee bean
processing: wet and dry.
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Figure 1 (a) A coffee plant bearing ripe coffee cherries and (b) a hand crank used for
pulping coffee beans in Palo Verde, Honduras.
The dry method is the original coffee processing method. It involves drying the
whole cherry on a drying patio for two weeks, then removing the seed from the skin, pulp,
and parchment by hand or by machine (Sweet Maria’s 2011, Zecuppa 2012). This method
offers less opportunity to remove defective beans, which must be removed by hand after
drying. This method is used in regions that are hot and water-scarce like Brazil, Yemen, and
Ethiopia and produces coffee that has lower acidity and more body (NCAUSA 2012, Sweet
Maria’s 2011, Zecuppa 2012).
Water is used in various stages throughout the wet process, which is also called the
fully-washed process. Ripe cherries are dense and sink, while overripe and bad beans,
along with sticks and other debris, float to the top of a floatation tank which allows for
separation of unripe or defective beans (CoffeeResearch.org 2012, Zecuppa 2012). After
the floatation tank, cherries are passed through a screen with holes that removes the
cherry and sends the seed through with some pulp still attached (CoffeeResearch.org 2012,
Sweet Maria’s 2011). The remaining pulp is removed by a machine or in a pressurized
barrel, which is controlled to ensure no green cherries are pulped (CoffeeResearch.org
2012). Figure 1b shows a hand crank used for pulp removal in Honduras. Some beans are
then sent to a fermentation tank to allow mucilage to ferment for easier removal, while
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others are sent to drying patios, screens, or machines without fermentation. During drying,
beans are dried to 10-12% moisture content (Coffee Research.org 2012, Sweet Maria’s
2011). After drying, beans are stored and then hulled immediately prior to roasting.
Fermentation breaks down the mucilage layer on the bean in wet process and
occurs soon after picking, lasting 12-24 hours in order to allow the peptic enzymes to break
down the fruity mucilage layer of the bean. The actual coffee bean does not undergo
fermentation (Sweet Maria’s 2011). During fermentation, enzymes and microbes on the
surface of the bean eat away at the mucilage layer, releasing lactic and acetic acids which
increase the acidity of the bean while the mucilage is being removed. The process is
finished when the beans do not feel sticky or when the farmer can feel the rough
parchment (Coffee Chemistry 2011).
Global Brigades
Global Brigades is a 501c3 student-led non-profit organization that works in
Honduras, Panama, Nicaragua and Ghana, implementing a holistic model of development to
improve the lives of rural communities in a sustainable way (Global Brigades 2012).
Communities that request to work with Global Brigades are chosen based on a series of
rankings in areas of development, and the communities with the greatest need are
prioritized first as resources are available.
Global Water Brigades, a program within the larger organization, works specifically
to provide clean, readily-available drinking water to communities by installing water
transport and treatment systems in order to alleviate water-borne illnesses caused by
bacteria and parasites in untreated water. Student volunteer groups from universities in
the US and UK take 7 to 10 day trips to be a part of the manual labor alongside the Global
Brigades staff and community members.
Global Water Brigades in El Zurzular, Honduras
In Honduras, the mountainous topography allows the majority of water systems to
be gravity-fed systems with a central storage tank where chlorine is added to treat the
spring water. One such community which recently worked with Global Brigades to update
their water system is El Zurzular, Francisco Morazán, Honduras (Figure 2). El Zurzular is a
Global Brigades model community because all eleven programs have been implemented
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there for 2.5 years. It is located about 120 km outside of Tegucigalpa and has a population
of 507 people living in 87 homes (Global Brigades 2010).
Figure 2. Central America with Honduras highlighted and map of main coffee growing
regions in Honduras, with Francisco Morazán department circled.
Zurzular previously had a water system that was outdated and insufficient for the
growth that has occurred in the community, leaving 33 homes unconnected to the system
(Global Brigades 2010). Pipes in the system had not been maintained and were clogged
with sediment and biological buildup, reducing the flow rate which was already insufficient
to meet the needs of the community. Further, the chlorination system had not been used in
12 years prior to renovation. This lack of treated water for drinking and cooking caused
diarrhea and other water-borne illness; 17 cases of diarrhea in children under 5 years old
were documented at the community health center in the 6 months prior to the renovation
of the system, which were only the most serious cases (Global Brigades 2010). Zurzular did
not have the finances or expertise necessary to update the system themselves and had been
denied government assistance, which is why the community approached Global Brigades
for their assistance.
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The water system in El Zurzular pipes water from a mountain spring in the town of
Buena Vista using a series of 2” and 1.5” diameter PVC and galvanized iron pipes, mostly
buried in trenches (Global Brigades 2010). The water flows into a central storage tank
(Figure 3a) which has a capacity of 10,000 gallons. The attached chlorination tank (Figure
3b) on top pipes chlorine in the form of calcium hypochlorite into the inflow of water at a
rate that is a function of the rate of inflow and the volume of water in the tank. From the
tank, water is piped into homes which are each equipped with a faucet.
Figure 3 (a) Central water storage tank and (b) chlorinator on top of central water storage
tank in El Zurzular, Honduras.
Chlorine is used as a disinfectant in Zurzular as well as extensively in the developing
and developed world. Chlorine effectively and reliably kills bacteria and pathogens in
drinking water, is cost-effective, and has flexibility in dosing amounts (Solomon et al.
1998). When chlorine enters water, it creates an equilibrium mixture of chlorine,
hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid that then breaks down into chlorine and
hypochlorite which are disinfection agents (Galal-Gorchev 1996). In the six months
following the implementation of the chlorination system, zero cases of diarrhea in children
were documented in Zurzular.
The water system serves 507 people and has a flow rate of 38 gallons per minute,
which is sufficient to meet the domestic water needs of the community (Global Brigades
2010). The potable water from the system is intended for the household uses of drinking,
10
cooking, and cleaning. It is not intended for the use of crop irrigation, and water for
irrigation is obtained from other local untreated water sources.
The Problem
In El Zurzular, the main source of income for community members is the production
and sale of coffee. During coffee harvesting season, which is approximately November to
February in Honduras, the community has decided to cease chlorination of their drinking
water because this water is used to wash the pulp from coffee beans as part of processing,
and community members believe that chlorine in the water negatively impacts the taste
and quality of the coffee beans. This is a problem because the community is drinking and
cooking with untreated water. It is unclear if this belief about chlorine stems from personal
experience from tasting poor quality coffee as a result of using chlorinated water in
processing, or if the belief comes from anecdotal evidence. Regardless, the belief is strong
enough to merit cessation of chlorination when the community specifically requested an
updated chlorination system to obtain treated water.
For these reasons, Global Brigades has requested information regarding how other
coffee farms and coffee-growing communities address water treatment while maintaining a
quality coffee bean product to sell for income. This is in order to gain insight into common
practice as well as what factors affect water treatment decision-making, and what beliefs
about the relationship between chlorine and coffee beans are held by coffee farmers and
experts. This information will allow Global Brigades to present evidence and water
treatment alternatives to Zurzular, allowing the community to make an informed decision
about their future water treatment and coffee processing techniques.
Methods To carry out this study, 121 coffee growers’ associations, farms, retailers, roasters,
or development organizations that work in coffee-growing communities were contacted
with questions pertaining to water treatment, coffee bean processing, and perceptions
about chlorine (Table 1). Organizations from numerous countries that are major exporters
of coffee were contacted, as well as groups that are involved in coffee communities in
different capacities to achieve responses from different perspectives.
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Questions varied based on the type of organization, though they addressed three
main issues: if any type of water treatment was used; if so, if chlorination is the method of
choice; and if any beliefs or knowledge about chlorination are held by the farmers (Table
1). For many companies, two or three emails were sent to procure a response or to ask
further questions. For countries where the native language is Spanish, follow-up questions
were sent in Spanish. When a response was received, this email was followed up with a
note of thanks or with additional questions if clarification was necessary. The responses
were then compiled for synthesis.
Table 1. Questions included in emails to contacts
Organization Question
Farms Do your farms use treated water, from a municipal supply or
otherwise, to wash coffee beans during the wet process?
If so, is the water treated with chlorine?
Development
Agencies
In the communities in which you work, is it common for the
community or individuals to use any type of water treatment for
drinking and cooking water?
Is treated water used for coffee bean processing, like coffee washing,
when it is done in homes?
Farms that Does your farm employ the wet process for coffee bean processing?
may use the If so, is the water used to wash the beans treated with chlorine?
dry process If you use the dry process, are the beans at any point in contact with
water that has been treated?
Farms Is the water treated that is used to wash coffee beans in the wet
process or during fermentation?
If so, is the water treated with chlorine?
Spanish-
speaking
¿Se trata el agua que se usa para lavar los granos con cloro u otro
tratamiento?
countries ¿Son los agricultores conscientes de algunos efectos del cloro sobre los
granos de café?
All Do you know of any perceived or actual effects of chlorine on coffee
bean quality or flavor?
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Results 121 organizations were contacted and 49 responses were received, achieving a
response rate of 40%. Contacts were made over a four-month period from May to August
2012.
31% of the responses were from Central America which includes 6 responses from
farms, organizations, and the growers’ association in Honduras. 26% were from farms and
the growers’ association of Australia, 27% were from retailers or roasters sourcing coffee
from multiple farms in different countries, 8% were from farms or roasters in Hawaii, and
8% were from other individual countries (Kenya, Jamaica, and Thailand) (Figure 4). Four
other responses were received which did not include answers to the questions, so these
were not included in the response count.
Figure 4. Percentage of responses from each region.
Figure 5 shows the breakdown of the types of organizations that responded to the
inquiry. The most highly-represented type of organization is individual coffee farms,
constituting 43% of responses.
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Figure 5. Types of organizations that responded.
Forty-five of the forty-nine responders stated that they did not use water that had
been chlorinated for bean processing, while four stated that they did use water from a
municipal supply that had been chlorinated. Twenty-nine responders offered their
perception or belief about what impact, if any, chlorine has on coffee beans during
processing. These responses, and the associated water treatment methods, are shown in
Table 2. The Australian Subtropical Coffee Association, which is the growers’ association of
Australia, reported that farms in proximity to a municipal water supply would use treated
water for bean processing, while farms that were not close to a municipal supply would use
untreated water. This response was counted in both categories, resulting in 30 total
responses about water treatment methods with associated perceptions about chlorine.
Table 2. Water treatment methods and perceptions of chlorination
% # Treated?With
Chlorine?Perception
53% 16 No No Chlorine has negative effect
20% 6 No No Not sure of effect of chlorine
3% 1 Yes No Not sure of effect of chlorine
3% 1 Yes Yes Not sure of effect of chlorine
10% 3 No No Chlorine has no effect/minimal effects
10% 3 Yes Yes Chlorine has no effect/minimal effects
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The most prevalent response was the belief that chlorine would have a negative
effect on coffee beans (16 responses), which all came from organizations that employed no
method of water treatment on water used for bean processing (Table 2). At the other end
of the spectrum was the belief that chlorine would have no effect or only minimal and
therefore inconsequential effects on coffee beans (6 responses), which came from farmers
using either no method of treatment or using chlorine as water disinfection. Those who
reported using treated water for processing were hooked up to municipal supplies and
were under the impression that chlorine was not degrading their coffee beans. Most of
these responders are in Hawaii and are specialty and organic coffee growers. Other
responders stated that they were uncertain what effect, if any, chlorine would have on bean
quality (8 responses), which came from responders reporting a range of treatment
methods: either no treatment at all, treatment other than chlorine, or chlorination.
Discussion
Responses Regarding Chlorine Use
In response to the question “Do you know of any perceived or actual effects of
chlorine on coffee bean quality or flavor?”, ten responders stated that they did not treat
water before using it during bean processing, but did treat the water after processing and
before discharge into rivers or lakes (Table 3). Peace Coffee, a retailer based in Minneapolis
which sources coffee from numerous countries, stated that,
“Small farmers generally use spring water…and need to treat (filter or
divert into seepage tanks) the runoff water after washing the coffee in wet
processing - so that the altered pH balance in the water with coffee mucilage
does not contaminate natural drinking water and/or the natural,
surrounding flora.”
This prevalent response indicates that concern of post-processing water quality is greater
than pre-processing water quality. Many farms used similar techniques of filtration or
settling ponds to remove pulp from post-processing water. It is often prohibited to release
untreated post-processing water, which is the case in Hawaii due to EPA regulations about
“non-domestic” water treatment and release (Hue, Bittenbender, and Ortiz-Escobar 2006).
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For post-processing water, aeration and lime treatments have been found to lower high
BOD that is present due to coffee pulp in water, as well as to reduce excess levels of
nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus (Hue, Bittenbender, and Ortiz-Escobar 2006).
Many responders stated that water is recycled back through processing facilities for reuse,
or that it is allowed to filter and settle in ponds, which separates coffee pulp and sugars
from the water prior to release or reuse. Post-processing water is also used for irrigation
on some coffee farms because of its increased nutrient levels.
Similarly, four responders discussed the delicate chemistry required during the
fermentation process as a reason against using chlorinated water for bean processing,
which is reflected in the literature regarding coffee fermentation. Jackels and Jackels
(2005) determined in a study of Nicaraguan coffee farms that fermentation begins in water
at a pH between 5.5 and 5.7, and is finished when a pH of 4.4 is reached. This decrease in
pH is caused by the release of lactic acid by the growth of bacteria, which are killed or
inactivated by contact with chlorine (Jackel and Jackel 2005).
Table 3. Prevalent responses regarding water treatment and bean processing
Six responders cited the tendency of coffee to absorb fumes, indicating that coffee
would be likely to absorb chlorine fumes, thus altering the flavor as most of the coffee
flavor is derived from its odor. A grower from Zeta’s Coffee in Australia stated:
# Selected Responses
10 Cite treatment of post-processing water
7 Uncertain of effect of chlorine
7 Cite standards or certifications as assurance of quality (e.g. SCAA, organic)
7 Believe water used for processing is pure from its source
6 Cite fumes/odor and high tendency of coffee to absorb flavors/odors
5 Chlorine is bad when cupping
5 Cherries are centrally processed, not on individual farms
4 Cite water chemistry in fermentation of beans as reason against use of
4 Believe chlorine would affect coffee bean flavor
3 Believe effect of chlorine would be minimal/no effect
4 Communities do not have access to clean drinking water
3 Communities have access to clean drinking water2 No need to treat water because roasting will kill pathogens, etc.
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“Once you take coffee cherries off the tree everything you do has the
potential to affect the flavour. We process within 24 hours of picking the
coffee and start drying immediately. We store the coffee in hessian sacks in a
dry, well ventilated shed. Chemicals are not stored in the same shed as the
coffee can absorb fumes from these.”
The sensitivity of coffee beans is reflected in the range of coffee quality that results from
variations in coffee processing techniques. Daniels (2009) determined using blind cupping,
which refers to testing a cup of coffee using a set of standard protocol for quality, that
coffee quality is a function of the precision in bean processing methods. This precision and
the resulting flavor and odor impacts are detectable in the quality of the coffee produced.
The cupping procedures determined that well-processed beans result in a higher quality
cup of coffee.
Five responders discussed how, in their experience with coffee cupping, chlorinated
water is never used to brew the coffee. Many studies have determined that brewing coffee
is best done with filtered water, and the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) has
very specific guidelines about water used for brewing, which are that brewing water
should have 0 mg Cl/L. The SCAA also has standards for cupping: “Water used for cupping
should be clean and odor free, but not distilled or softened. Ideal Total Dissolved Solids are
125-175 ppm, but should not be less than 100 ppm or more than 250 ppm," (SCAA 2012;
SCAA 2009). It is believed that the perceptions about chlorine’s negative effect on coffee
quality held by the community of El Zurzular do not stem from brewing coffee with water
that has been chlorinated, since coffee is brewed and consumed there all year around and
not only during harvesting season when the water is not being chlorinated.
Seven responders said that they maintain standards and hold certifications that
limit the use of chemicals during processing, thus ensuring quality. The SCAA and
Registered Organic were most commonly cited as standards that were upheld, though
many responders’ websites contain information about other standards to which they hold
their coffee production and processing (Table 4). These standards may influence the water
processing techniques that are employed on a given coffee farm.
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Table 4. Standards and regulations from 30 of the 52 responders
Thirty-seven responders offered information about what type of water source is
used in processing (Figure 6). Seven responders stated that they believed the water they
use for processing is pure from its source and they would thus have no need to treat water
before processing. A farmer from Café Organico Marcala in Honduras stated, “The company
carries out water analysis and uses pure water from a natural source.” The most widely-
reported sources were springs (13), collected rainwater (12), and river water (10). Seven
responders reported using water from a municipal supply, some of which were treated.
Figure 6. Water sources used for coffee bean processing.
Four responders stated that coffee cherries are processed at a central processing
facility and not on individual farms. Many stated that it was more likely that large central
processing facilities would use treated water from a municipal supply during coffee bean
processing, because rural farming communities often lack the infrastructure for treated
water. Three responders stated that the coffee-growing communities with which they are
Standard # Responders
Organic 21
Fair Trade 13
Pesticide-free 9
Rainforest
Alliance
6
Shade grown 2
GM-free 2
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associated do not have access to clean drinking water and as such would not use treated
water for coffee processing either. On the other hand, three responders stated that the
rural communities in which they work do have treated water for drinking, but that potable
water is not used during coffee bean processing because there is no need to use potable
water or because the supply of potable water is not large enough to support bean
processing as well as drinking and cooking needs.
Two responders stated that there would be no need to use treated water during
coffee bean processing because the beans reach very high temperatures during roasting,
which would kill any pathogens present in untreated water. Coffee is roasted in stages,
allowing bitterness in the beans to be removed and desirable acidity and aromas to be
created (Amorim and Amorim 1977). The recommended roasting temperature is 205-
215°C (CoffeeResearch.org). These temperatures are well above the temperatures required
to kill all enteric pathogens, which require heating to 50-100°C depending on the pathogen
(Backer 2002). This implies that if the water used during bean processing contains
pathogens, they would all be killed during roasting before human consumption.
Water Treatment Decision Factors
The diversity of beliefs about chlorine reflects the paucity of definitive research on
the interaction of chlorinated water with coffee beans during processing. The results of this
inquiry provide insight into personal beliefs of coffee growers, though it does not permit a
definitive pattern to be determined in how decisions are made about water treatment on
coffee farms. There are three general factors that affected water treatment decisions on
farms based on the responses received: convenience, necessity, and preconceived
knowledge.
Convenience governed most, if not all, water treatment decisions of responders, as it
was the most common practice to use whatever water source was most conveniently
accessed. This may be a nearby stream or river, collected rainwater, well water, or water
from a municipal supply (see Figure 6).
Four responders specifically cited that the technology and resources necessary for
water treatment were not available in their particular area, which did not allow any
method of water treatment to take place for domestic or agricultural use. The decision to
19
treat or not to treat water is made by default in communities that do not have resources or
technology necessary for water treatment.
Preconceived knowledge governed water treatment decisions in many different
forms. Some responders cited personal experience with poor quality coffee as a result of
interaction with chlorine; some cited their knowledge of standards that are set forth by
specialty and organic labels which would govern chlorination if it were necessary; some
cited their own research on the subject of water treatment; others made water treatment
decisions without any prior knowledge of the potential impacts. These decision factors are
important to utilize in weighing the feasibility of water treatment solutions for Zurzular
and for other coffee-growing communities worldwide.
Alternatives for El Zurzular
Responses from this inquiry and review of existing methods of water treatment and
coffee processing techniques were considered in designing alternative solutions for water
treatment in El Zuzular (Table 5). Each was assessed based on ease of implementation, cost
and infrastructure required, possibility of bean contact with chlorine, and potential
effectiveness of treatment. This list is not comprehensive but presents a framework for
determining the optimal water treatment solution in El Zurzular, and will be presented to
Global Brigades and the community to allow members to make an informed decision that
will best fit their needs and desires.
Table 5. Summary of alternative water treatment solutions for El Zurzular
SolutionYear-round
treatment?Pros Cons
Chloramines Yes Chloramines are less reactive with organics Less readily-available than hypochlorite
More harmful to fish
Coffee still comes into contact with
chlorinated compounds
UV dissipation Yes Each home already has a pila Pila may not hold sufficient volume of water
No additional cost or infrastructure required Coffee still comes into contact with
chlorinated compounds
Alternative water
sourceYes
No additional cost or infrastructure required Must gather water from a stream (takes
time, energy, etc.)
No contact between chlorine and coffee
beans
Export bean
processing
Yes More time to do other things Possibility of loss of profit due to middle
manNo contact between chlorine and coffee
beans
Divert water Yes
No contact between chlorine and coffee
beans
Requires additional infrastructure and cost
POU treatments No No contact between chlorine to coffee beans Requires additional resources and cost
Does not utilize GB infrastructure year-
round
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UV disinfection of treated water
Chlorine dissipates from water due to penetration by UV light. If the community
were to reinstate year-round chlorination, water from the system could be left sitting in
pilas or other water storage units for 1-2 days in order to allow chlorine to dissipate before
it is used for washing coffee beans. This is one of the most feasible solutions as each home
in the community is already equipped with a pila to store water, and it does not involve any
further input of resources by community members or by Global Brigades. Additionally, it
would allow community members to drink and cook with treated water year-round while
reducing or eliminating the interaction of chlorine with coffee beans. The downside of this
solution is that the limited volume of water that can be stored in a pila may not be sufficient
to meet the domestic and processing needs of a household.
Use of chloramines instead of hypochlorite
Free chlorine is used to disinfect drinking water but it is highly reactive with
organics, forming carcinogenic disinfection bi-products such as trihalomethanes and
haloacetic acids (EPA 2011; Solomon et al. 1998). Because of this, the US EPA has standards
for maximum residual levels of chlorine in drinking water set at 4 mg/L (EPA 2012). This
interaction with organics is important to consider in the context of coffee bean processing,
because coffee beans are an organic material that may be highly reactive with chlorine in
treated water.
These issues have been addressed by using chloramines rather than chlorine for
disinfection in water treatment plants (EPA 1999 and EPA 2011). Chloramines, which are
chlorine and ammonia compounds, decay more slowly than chlorine and are less reactive
with organic matter. The EPA states that: “Monochloramine will have much less tendency
to react with organics present and hence will form fewer taste and odor causing
compounds” (EPA 1999). Because they decay more slowly, chloramines retain residual
chlorine content for a longer duration. The system in El Zurzular uses calcium hypochlorite
to treat the water as it is easy to use and relatively cheap to purchase. Chloramines,
comparatively, are more expensive than chlorine when used on a small scale (EPA 2012).
Additionally, chloramines do not dissipate as rapidly as free chlorine in water, causing
chloramines to remain in water longer. This solution may not be optimal for the
community of Zurzular as it may not be as easy to obtain chloramines. For larger facilities,
21
however, chloramines represent a reasonable alternative to free chlorine as a method of
water disinfection.
Using an alternative water source for bean processing
An alternative to changing the chemical used for chlorination would be to use an
alternative water source for coffee bean processing other than treated water from the
system. The water system is intended to provide enough water for daily domestic use and
is not intended for irrigation purposes. Excessive water usage may result in drying up the
source spring. As such, the alternative water sources used for irrigating crops could
provide water for coffee bean processing as well. If the community used an alternative
water source for coffee bean processing, they could utilize the chlorination system year-
round without any concern of chlorine contacting beans, which would allow the
community to drink treated water year-round. This is the most feasible option for Zurzular
as it requires no additional resources and families already must obtain water from a local
stream for irrigation.
Outsourcing bean processing
A fourth alternative would be to eliminate local bean processing altogether and to
send beans to a large processing facility in a different part of the country, which is a
method employed by some farms from whom responses were received in this
investigation. Large processing facilities often have greater access to resources and
standardized procedures for water treatment. Eliminating local bean processing would
allow the community to treat their drinking water year-round, save time and resources
from bean processing, and maintain a quality coffee bean product to sell. The downside of
this solution is the potential for lower profit due to the employment of a processing facility
as a “middle man.”
Diverting the water around the treatment tank
The community, in collaboration with Global Brigades, could add infrastructure to
the water transport system that diverts water around the chlorination tank using
additional PVC pipe and connections. This would move untreated water from the source
stream to a central location in the community for use in bean processing or for other
agricultural purposes. This would allow the community to have treated drinking water
22
year-round and remove the threat of degradation of coffee by interactions with chlorine.
The logistics of this alternative (i.e. price of materials and labor) may be prohibitive for
Global Brigades and the community of El Zurzular. Additionally, the flow rate of the stream
may be diminished if further connections are added, which would reduce the effectiveness
of the water treatment system.
Point-of-use treatment for drinking water
Another possible solution would be for the community to continue shutting off the
chlorination system during coffee harvesting season and to use point-of-use treatments for
their drinking and cooking during that time. This could include in-home slow sand or
ceramic filtration systems, chlorination or iodine packets, or UV disinfection. This would
eliminate interaction of the coffee beans with chlorine, ensuring quality beans will be
produced. This solution is not optimal as it involves more resources and finances for
investing in point-of-use water treatments, and it does not fully utilize the resources
already put in place by Global Brigades. It is a possible solution for coffee-growing
communities in a different context that do not have the resources to construct a
community-scale water system.
Global Solutions
This research can be applied to coffee communities and other rural agricultural
communities in developing countries at the global scale. Many responses I received
discussed the local water treatment methods which were often non-existent or low quality.
Coffee Kids, a nonprofit organization that works in coffee farms in Central and South
America, stated that, “people boil their water whenever they use it for human consumption
and…the majority of communities do not possess a water treatment system.” Stone Creek
Coffee Roasters, which sources coffee from El Salvador, stated that “many of the farms that
we work with do not have the finances or the technology to treat their water.” Clean water
for drinking and cooking is vital not only for human health, but for development, social
justice and community empowerment (Scanlon, Cassar and Nemes 2004).
Addressing water treatment in rural communities must be done on a case-by-case
basis according to the specific context of each community. Topography, hydrology, climate,
economics, culture and social practices all influence what type of water treatment is
23
optimal for a given community, and all of these factors can vary greatly between
communities and countries. It is crucial that these issues be addressed, however, in order
to promote individual health and to improve the well-being of the 20 million people
involved in the coffee industry worldwide. This research provides a framework for
investigating water treatment solutions that are optimal for a given community.
Education in El Zurzular
In order for any development project to be successful and sustainable, the
community must be at the forefront of decision making and implementation of the decision.
In order to relay to the community leaders of Zurzular the importance of chlorinating their
drinking and cooking water year-round, the community must be informed of the tradeoffs
between drinking untreated water and processing their coffee beans with non-chlorinated
water. If an alternative solution is reasonable to the community and chosen by community
members, they will be more likely to implement it.
In order to assist in this exchange of information to Zurzular, an education packet
will be given to Global Brigades to be used in addressing the issues and potential water
treatment solutions to the community. The education packet contains a brief summary of
the results of this literature and survey investigation, a list of the potential water treatment
solutions, and the pros and cons of each. This is intended to be used by Global Brigades in
communicating with Zurzular and community leaders and to support Global Brigades’
mission to empower Zurzular to make decisions that are best for their community.
Sources of Difficulty
One issue likely affecting response rates was the language barrier, as many
countries that were contacted were not native English-speaking countries. To try to
counteract this, a second round of questions written in Spanish were sent to sixteen farms
in Spanish-speaking countries. However, these emails were not effective in rendering a
response as only one farm responded to these questions.
Another source of difficulty was the original phrasing of the questions, which may
have led to some confusion in responses. Originally, the first question read: Is the water
treated that is used to wash coffee beans in the wet process or during fermentation? This
was later changed to: Do your farms use treated water, from a municipal supply or
24
otherwise, to wash coffee beans during the wet process? It is possible that the original
phrasing implied the question of whether farms intentionally treated the water used in
processing for a particular purpose, or if they treated the water themselves. The intention
was simply to determine if water was treated at all, which would most likely occur at a
central location within a community. This does not eliminate responses as useful, however,
in attaining insight into perceptions about chlorine use in coffee bean processing.
Future Research
Research on effect of chlorinated water on coffee beans during processing is lacking,
which limits coffee farmers’ ability to make informed decisions about water treatment in
rural coffee and agricultural communities. Coffee farms worldwide would benefit from
having access to studies in which green coffee beans are dried, processed using chlorinated
and untreated water, roasted, and then analyzed for chlorine residuals and byproducts
using gas chromatography or mass spectrometry. If chloro-organics or other chlorine
residuals are found to be present in the beans, it is more likely that chlorine is reacting with
the organic matter of the beans and altering bean chemistry.
Ultimately, the quality of the brewed cup of coffee is the greatest indicator of
degraded bean quality and the primary determinant of income for coffee-growing
communities. Standardized cupping analyses on coffee brewed with beans that have been
processed with chlorinated and untreated water would further elucidate the taste and odor
impacts of chlorine on coffee beans.
This kind of empirical evidence about the chemical components and the taste and
odor impacts of chlorine would allow farmers to make informed decisions about water
treatment on their coffee farms. Additionally, more extensive social surveying about water
treatment practices and the factors influencing water treatment decisions would provide
additional insight and could inform the development of standardized practice regarding
water treatment on coffee farms.
Conclusion The purpose of the study is to investigate common practice concerning water
treatment and coffee bean processing and to gain insight into perceptions and beliefs about
25
chlorine use. This information is important on two distinct levels. First, the goal of Global
Water Brigades is to implement drinking water transport and treatment systems in order
to improve quality of life for community members. The cheapest and most effective way for
the organization to treat rural drinking water is by the use of chlorine, and many of the
communities in which Global Brigades works grow coffee or other crops that may
potentially be affected by chlorine in water. This research provides insight to assist Global
Brigades in helping communities maintain health and quality of life as well as the quality of
coffee and other agricultural products to sell for income.
Responses from farms and other coffee organizations indicate that there are a
number of factors that influence water treatment decisions, including common practice of
using the most convenient water source, lack of technology to implement water treatment,
or knowledge from personal experience or anecdotal evidence. These factors should be
considered when analyzing the optimal water treatment solution for Zurzular and for other
coffee-growing communities.
The most feasible option for Zurzular, based on literature and survey investigations
on the relationship between chlorine and coffee beans, would be for the community to
continue to treat their drinking water with the chlorination system year-round, but to use
an alternative water source or to export bean processing entirely from the community.
These options present the least additional resources and interference with social and
cultural practices already in place in the community, while allowing access to treated
drinking water while eliminating the threat of chlorine interaction with coffee beans during
processing. Ultimately, the community must decide what water treatment and coffee
processing methods are optimal.
This research is applicable on a global scale as coffee is grown in rural communities
in developing countries almost exclusively, and the developing world is often pressed by
disease and illness caused by poor drinking water quality. Thus, the prevalence of coffee-
growing communities that must address the issue of how drinking water is or is not treated
is extensive. Decisions about water treatment in coffee growing communities must be made
on a contextual basis, taking into account the topography, climate, and social norms that
exist in a given community. This investigation, coupled with further empirical evidence
about the impact of chlorine on coffee beans during processing, can help farmers make
26
informed water treatment decisions that will ultimately lead to better health and well-
being of individuals in the coffee industry, as well as the assurance of a quality coffee bean
product to maintain income and promote international development.
27
Literature Cited
Amorim, H. and V. Amorim. 1977. “Coffee Enzymes and Coffee Quality.” Enzymes in Food
and Beverage Processing; Ory, R, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical
Society.
Backer, H. 2002. Water Disinfection for International and Wilderness Travelers. Clinical
Infectious Diseases 34:355-364.
Baffes, J.; Lewin, B.; Varangis, P. 2005. “Coffee: Market Setting and Policies.” Global
Agricultural Trade and Developing Countries. Pg 297-305.
Coffee Chemistry, Inc. 2011. “Post Harvest Processing .”
http://www.coffeechemistry.com/index.php/General/Processing/post-harvest-
processing.html
CoffeeResearch.org. 2012. “Coffee Processing.”
http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/processing.htm
Daniels, N. 2009. Variations in Coffee Processing and Their Impact on Quality and
Consistency. Michigan Technological University Master of Science in Forestry
Report.
Encyclopedia of the Nations. 2012. “Honduras-Agriculture.”
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Honduras-
AGRICULTURE.html
Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. “Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants:
Chloramines.” EPA Guidance Manual.
http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/mdbp/upload/2001_01_12_mdbp
_alter_chapt_6.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. “Drinking Water Issues.”
http://www.epa.gov/region9/water/chloramine.html
Environmental Protection Agency. 2012. “Basic Information about Disinfectants in
Drinking Water: Chloramine, Chlorine, and Chlorine Dioxide.”
http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/disinfectants.cfm
Galal-Gorchev, H. 1996. “Chlorine in Water Disinfection.” Pure & Applied Chemistry 68 (9):
1731-1735.
28
Global Brigades. 2012. “Vision and Mission.” www.globalbrigades.org
Global Water Brigades. 2010. “Project Summary: El Zurzular Potable Water System.”
www.globalbrigades.org
Gomez, A. and R. Hoff. 2010. Honduras Coffee Annual. USDA Foreign Agriculture Service:
Global Agricultural Information Network. GAIN Report No. HO1003.
Hue, N.; H. Bittenbender; M. Ortiz-Escobar. 2006. “Managing coffee processing water in
Hawaii.” University of Hawaii-Manoa Department of Tropical Plant and Soil
Sciences. Journal of Hawaiian Pacific Agriculture. 13: 15-21.
Jackels, S. and C. Jackels. Characterization of the Coffee Mucilage Fermentation Process
Using Chemical Indicators: A Field Study in Nicaragua. Journal of Food Science
(2005) 70 (5): 321-325.
National Coffee Association USA. 2012. “Ten Steps to Coffee: From the Seed to the Cup.”
NCAUSA Knowledge Bank. www.ncausa.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=69.
Scanlon, J.; A. Cassar; N. Nemes. 2004. “Water as a Human Right? United Nations World
Conservation Union.” IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 51.
Solomon, C.; P. Casey, C. Macke; A. Lake. 1998. “Chlorine Disinfection.” U.S. EPA and
National Small Flows Clearinghouse Fact Sheet WWFSGN99.
Specialty Coffee Association of America. 2012. “Cupping Protocols.”
http://scaa.org/PDF/PR%20-
%20CUPPING%20PROTOCOLS%20V.21NOV2009A.pdf
Sweet Maria’s. 2011. “Coffee Glossary.”
http://www.sweetmarias.com/dictionary.php?category=process
Tropical Commodity Coalition. 2012. “Coffee.”
http://www.teacoffeecocoa.org/tcc/Commodities/Coffee/Producers
Wasserman, M. 2002. “Trouble in the Coffee Lands.” Federal Reserve Bank of Boston
Regional Review, Quarter 2 pg. 4-13.
Zecuppa Coffee. 2012. “Coffee Farming and Processing.”
http://www.zecuppa.com/coffeeterms-farming-processing.htm
29
Appendix A. Summary of type of farm, water source, and chlorine use of responders.
Ke
nya
Me
xico
Nic
arag
ua
Thai
lan
dU
nit
ed
Sta
tes
Name
Blue Mountain Coffee
Jablum
Kenya Coffee Producers Association
Mexico--CAN Unite
Irving Farm Coffee Company
Equator Coffees and Teas
Coffee Kids
Peace Coffee in Minneapolis
Intellegentsia Coffee
Rogers Gourmet Coffee and Tea Market
Higher Grounds Trading Company
Boyd's Coffee of Portland OR
Green Mountain Coffee
Johnson Brother Coffee
Royal Cup Coffee
Swiss Water
Mystic Monk Coffee
Nicaragua--CAN Unite
Doi Chaang Coffee
US--CAN Unite
Sin
gle
Far
mx
xx
x
Co
op
era
tive
x
De
velo
pm
en
t
Org
aniz
atio
nx
xx
Ro
aste
rx
x
Re
tail
er
xx
Gro
we
r's
Ass
oci
atio
nx
xx
xx
xx
x
Rai
nx
Spri
ng
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
We
llx
Mu
nic
ipal
xx
Riv
er
xx
xx
Tan
k
Tre
ate
d p
roce
ssin
g
wat
er
xN
R
Ch
lori
ne
-tre
ate
d
pro
cess
ing
wat
er
xN
R
Type of Farm Water Source Water Treatment
Jam
aica
Mu
ltip
le
30
Gu
ate
mal
a
Name
Ashtons Australian Coffee
Australian Subtropical Coffee Association
Bangalow Coffee
Byron Aromas
Byron Beans
Cafeind
Carool Mountain Coffee
Hills of Byron
Kahawa Estate
Mount Mee Coffee
Red Door Coffee
Wombah Coffee Plantation
Zeta's Coffee
Coffee Growers Cooperative of Heredia Freedom
ICAFE
Naranjo Coopro
The Coffee Source SA
Coffee from El Salvador
El Salvador--CAN
Stone Creek Coffee Roasters
Portland Roasting Coffee
Braund Farms--Kona
Coffee of Kona--Kona
Maigret Family Farm--Kona
Pau Hana Estate--Kona
Café Organico Marcala
Finca el Cisne
Hill Climber Coffee
Instituto Hondureno del Café
Union Microfinanza
Velasquez Family Coffee
Sin
gle
Far
mx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
Co
op
era
tive
xx
xx
xx
x
De
velo
pm
en
t
Org
aniz
atio
nx
x
Ro
aste
r
Re
tail
er
Gro
we
r's
Ass
oci
atio
nx
xx
Rai
nx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
Spri
ng
xx
xx
xx
xx
We
llx
x
Mu
nic
ipal
xx
xx
Riv
er
xx
Tan
kx
xx
Tre
ate
d p
roce
ssin
g
wat
er
xx
NR
xx
Ch
lori
ne
-tre
ate
d
pro
cess
ing
wat
er
xN
Rx
x
Water TreatmentType of Farm Water SourceA
ust
rali
aC
ost
a R
ica
El S
alva
do
rH
awai
iH
on
du
ras
31
Appendix B. Responses.
Name Location
Ashtons Australian Coffee Australia
Australian Subtropical Coffee Association Australia
Bangalow Coffee Australia
Byron Aromas Australia
Byron Beans Australia
Cafeind Australia
Carool Mountain Coffee Australia
Hills of Byron Australia
Kahawa Estate Australia
Mount Mee Coffee Australia
Red Door Coffee Australia
Wombah Coffee Plantation Australia
Data
We use a "wet processing" method to process coffee harvested from our farm, using a Penagos processor. Refer photograph. 2.
We use tank water, which we also rely for drinking (without any treatment). We don't treat our water at all. Its pure. 3. I shudder
to think that anyone is using chlorine in their water supply. Most rural areas wouldn't need to do so. That's where the processing
actually happens.
No, we don't treat the water with any chemical. Water runs off to a settling pond that is planted out with native reeds and native
grasses. The reeds and grasses seem to thrive so I am assuming that there is no problem there. The amount of water we use is
very small as our farm has only 15,000 plants. The water we use in the plant is 'town' water which is treated with chlorine and
fluoride…I think! The amount of chlorine is very small (fit for human consumption) so I don't believe it has any effect on the
quality of the coffee. If I was using tank water would I add my own chlorine…definitely not. I sure the chlorine is more toxic than
the coffee bean waste so why use it! There are a couple of farms here that recycle their water through their plant. The
technology comes from Brazil and columbia. The name of one of the farms is 'Mountain Top' and it's located in Nimbin. Would the
chlorine effect the bean quality?…depends on the quantity.
1. Water used to wash our coffee is not treated - we catch rainwater off a roof and store it in a tank and use this water for washing
coffee. 2. No water treatment at all - no chlorine. 3. I do not know of the effects of chlorine on coffee quality. However, I would
ask the question .. why treat the water at all? The subsequent processing steps of drying the parchment, hulling to get green
bean and finally roasting at temperatures in excess of 200C would eliminate any pathogens potentially present in the wash water.
We do wet process our coffee but e use rain water, we have quarter million liter rain water collection tank. I believe most
growers in Australia would use same as we do not have connection to mains water in the country areas.
I use spring water or filtered rain water for everything - we have no town supply. Off the pot of my head a few suggestions would
start with a comparative blind tasting cupping, changing to a dry processing method (the inital floating at the fresh picked cherry
stage would have no effect), filter all the water - or divert the water before filtration to the coffee processing (might be a hard
one). I'll ask around though just thinking then the coffee from another farm here was processed with town water and has won
numerous awards and is fantastic. Once coffee is processed and dried it still has a layer which offers a certain amount of
protection - the parchment stage - this is then hulled to become green bean ready for roasting.
1. Yes 2. No 3. Do not use dry process 4. We do not know of any actual effects of chlorine on coffee bean quality or flavour,
however, we use tank water and water drawn from underground. The latter contains some sodium chloride and a little iron
sulphate, neither of which appear to affect the flavour of the coffee.
1. Depending on proximity to a town supply, some farms would use municipal water, others more remote, would use rain water
stored in tanks or even river water. 2. Municipal supply is treated with chlorine - rain water and river water not so. 3. I am not
aware of the effects of chlorine on bean quality or flavour.
1. Do your farms treat the water used to wash coffee beans during the wet process? No we use fresh rainwater, we have quite
high rainfall so this is not a problem to harvest. 2. If so, is the water treated with chlorine? No 3. No we wouldn't use chlorine or
chlorinated water as we don't need or want to.
1. No we don't treat the water that is used during the pulping process. We use a Penagos waterless pulper which abrades the
beans after pulping to remove the mucilage. We only use a trickle of rain water during puling process. The beans go straight onto
drying racks. 2 No chemicals used at all 3 No but imagine it would affect coffee flavour.
We always used and will use just collected rainwater for coffee processing.
We do not use chlorine at all in our processing. I am unaware if it would affect the flavour. In small doses I think it would be very
minimal, but I am not sure.
I am no longer involved directly in coffee processing but I did spend many years involved in the local industry. From my
experience, no local processors (of commercial volumes) wet process using chlorinated water because most farms are located
beyond municipal limits. Kona in Hawaii is the only origin I can think of from the top of my head where I might have seen town
supplied water being used in coffee processing. You might make some enquiries of the Kona growers. Specialty coffee is a very
discerning end of the market and if any processing differences were detectable in the cup, the members of the SCAA in the US
would no doubt have made obersvations.
32
Name Location
Zeta's Coffee Australia
Coffee Growers Cooperative of Heredia Freedom Costa Rica
ICAFE Costa Rica
Naranjo Coopro Costa Rica
The Coffee Source SA Costa Rica
Coffee from El Salvador El Salvador
El Salvador--CAN El Salvador
Stone Creek Coffee Roasters El Salvador
Portland Roasting Coffee Guatemala
Braund Farms--Kona Hawaii
Coffee of Kona--Kona Hawaii
Maigret Family Farm--Kona Hawaii
Pau Hana Estate--Kona Hawaii
Café Organico Marcala Honduras
Finca el cisne Honduras
Hill Climber Coffee Honduras
Data
You may not know that I am a certified organic coffee grower in Hawaii. The Big Island of Hawaii is unique in that nowhere on this
island, that I know of, adds chlorine to the water. Almost all water is rain water collection. Even water used for coffee crop
irrigation in the hotter regions, use rain collection. I do not even irrigate, but receive enough rain for the coffee naturally. (Most
years) The northern part of the island pumps from underground aquifers - and even then doesn't add chlorine.
No chlorine added to water because coffee absorbs chemical additives and coffee absorbs all odors from the environment. The
company carries out water analysis and uses pure water from a natural source. They use microorganisms of the mountain that they
sell and use to disinfect water, soil and use organic fertilizers, control plant disease, bad smells in the water. The product is cheap,
easy to prepare and very effective and important tool in their company
1. At our finca we have our own water sistem.... we have a pond that is fillled with clean water direct from springs and that is what
we use for the washing of the beans and to power our processing plant. 2. No, and most people in our region does not since the
sistem that the communities have around here they use water from springs without chlorine. In some communitites may be
prohinited to used potable water for processing. 3. I do not know.
The water is untreated as far as we are aware...the water for Sampedrana and thus for cleaning the coffee is from a spring higher
up the mountain that feeds the whole community.
To my knowledge, the farmers don't treat the water. They take it right up from a stream. At least the smaller cooperatives. I am
not sure about the larger ones, but I have not heard anyone in El Salvador talking about treating the water.
Many of the farms that we work with do not have the finances nor the technology to treat their water. In Africa in particular, the
water is typically collected rain water or water than comes from the top of the mountains. If they are lucky, the can put in place
some very simple filters, but it usually is unfiltered. I can tell you that I would not purchase coffee from a farm that treated their
water with chlorine. I have tasted coffees that were processed with chlorine treated water and the taste and aroma of the
chlorine definitely impacts the final taste of the coffee.
The water is not treated before washing the beans nor in the fermentation tanks, but instead the water is treated by a multi-level
water treatment facility after these processes have been performed. The 4 tier facility works by sifting the water through a
strainer on each level. When the water reaches the bottom tier, the water is clean enough to be used for fertilizing purposes only.
(not potable) To my knowledge, there are not any perceived effects from using water that has been treated. This farm is also Rain
Forest Alliance certified, so as part of this practice, very few chemicals are used.
I do not process my own coffee but have a commercial processor do it in Kona.
1. We do not treat the water prior to placing it in the fermentation tank. It comes straight from the pipe. 2. Yes it is chlorinated. 3. I
believe studies were done at one point by University of Hawaii's CTAHR department. I recollect them vaguely. Long story short is
that we believe the taste effect is too minimal to be concerned about.
1) Yes, we use wet-processing of our pulped coffee cherry, 2) Yes, our water comes from the County of Hawaii water supply
system- the exact nature of the chlorination I'm not sure of. 3) We don't dry process 4) We don't perceive any problems/effects
from the chlorinated water. You wouldn't smell it anyway through the stink of the fermentation!! :)
We have been growing coffee here since 1994, but we are only a small property with only 2,000 to 3,000 trees. 1. We wet process
most beans. However when we mechanically harvest we have quite a few over-ripe beans (naturals). These are dry processed. 2.
The water used is not chlorinated as we are in a rural area without a town water supply. We have tanks that collect rainwater and
this is used for processing. 3. the beans are in contact with the water during the initial flotation process but it is not chlorinated. 4.
I don't know of any effects of chlorine on coffee. However once you take coffee cherries off the tree everything you do has the
potential to effect the flavour. We process within 24 hours of picking the coffee and start drying immediately. We store the coffee
in hessian sacks in a dry, well ventilated shed. Chemicals are not stored in the same shed as the coffee can absorb fumes from
these. Coffee is a very clean crop to grow in Australia. We have no known coffee pests so no pesticides or sprays of any kind are
needed.
1. YES 2. NO, WE ONLY USE SODIUM HYDROXIDE TO RAISE PH LEVELS IN OUR WATER TREATMENT PLANT 3. DON´T KNOW, BUT
WOULD NOT RECOMMEND USING CHLORINE
1. In 100% percent of our producers will deliver to the milling facility the coffee cherry (no cherry is processed by any producer on
his farm, check www.cafedecostarica.com, mills). Regarding accessibility to potable water at the farms and according with
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2012/jmp2012.pdf, Costa Rica has a 97% of the population has access
to improved water sources (country data, page 41 of WHO, Progress on Drinking water and Sanitation 2012 Update), the highest
upon producing countries. During the milling process, besides reducing the 4 cubic meters of water (normally used per bag
=quintal= 46 kilos of green coffee) to 0,5 cubic meters used today in Costa Rica for transportation (of the depulped bean), we used
clean water (not necessarily potable, and coming from our rivers coming from mountains) since there is no need in the process of
potable water. (bean is always protected by the parchment, and no human water intake is necessary) 2.All water, called potable
(97%) normally uses chlorine, we water used for depulped beans transportation does not. 3. As follows from the cupping
protocols used by the Specialty Coffee Association of America, http://scaa.org/PDF/PR%20-
%20CUPPING%20PROTOCOLS%20V.21NOV2009A.pdf, therefore water in cupping sessions shoud be (pag no.2) "Water used for
cupping should be clean and odor free, but not distilled or softened. Ideal Total Dissolve Solids are 125-175 ppm, but should not
be less than 100 ppm or more than 250 ppm." . Regarding Chlorine during milling process, well we don't have any study regarding
it's/ not affectation on quality, but again normally (on a general basis on the milling process regardless the origin) water used has
no chlorine.
Our farmers didn´t process the coffee in our farms. In Costa Rica we have big or small coffee mills when we receive the cherries
from the growers and it has to be processed here. In our case, we are a Cooperative with 2300 member (small producers) all those
producers delivery their cherries to the coffee mills a we have the responsibility to do the process, of course we use clean water
to wash the coffee beans, and the final result is very good quality.
1. We treat the water afterwards; by law we must clean the water before putting it back into the rivers.2. No, we have a bio-
digester that removes all the organic contaminants and re-aireates the water. All this process takes place after we use the water at
the mill.3. All the mills in Costa Rica use water from the rivers so it is not treated with chlorine before entering the mill.
To my knowledge in El Salvador we don’t use chlorinated water in the process of washing the coffee beans. Regarding your
questions: 1.Water is used to wash the coffee only. Fermentation never occurs, in fact fermentation is bad for coffee. After
washing and pilling the coffee, beans are taken to “patios” for the final step which is the sun dry process. 2 and 3. As I said, to my
knowledge we never use treated water.
33
Name Location
Instituto Hondureno del Café Honduras
Union Microfinanza Honduras
Velasquez Family Coffee Honduras
Blue Mountain Coffee Jamaica
Jablum Jamaica
Kenya Coffee Producers Association Kenya
Mexico--CAN Unite Mexico
Higher Grounds Trading Company Multiple
Irving Farm Coffee Company Multiple
Data
1. Yes, first of all the farms we work with are actively working to reduce the amount of water used in processing the coffee, and re-
using water where possible. For example, using water that has washed coffee to transport the fruit or de-skinned seeds from the
de-pulper to the washing machines/tanks. Usually after the water becomes too dirty to re-use it is isolated in filtration/treatment
ponds. From what I have been told/seen the water then is treated using microbes which break down the excess sugars and
contaminants, but kept isolated from the water supply. 2. I have not seen water treated with Chlorine. (that I'm aware of). 3.
Treatment with Chlorine would make me nervous about imparting a flavor into the coffee, but I'm sure it would depend on the
amount. I reached out to a friend in Colombia and he said the concern of using Chlorinated water for fermenting would be in the
chlorine lowering the pH of the water. He said that this could cause a decrease in yeast activity and increase in microbe activity.
The yeast is what creates desirable fermentation, and microbes would create undesirable fermentation.
Yes our family members grow coffee in the National Mountains of Comayagua in Honduras. All of the water they use for
processing coffee comes directly from the mountain streams near their house. There is a small water project that treats water for
the community. That water also comes from the mountain streams. I don't believe it is chlorinated, but in any case it is not
allowed to be used for coffee processing since the coffee farmers in the area would overwhelm the small water system.
At mbcf we use spring water straight from the river to pulp the coffee.At no other time is water used in the process.See our www
for details ,if you read all info on the site you will see lots of info,Thanks
(Same info as Blue Mountain Coffee) We use spring water straight from the river to pulp the coffee.At no other time is water used
in the process.See our www for details ,if you read all info on the site you will see lots of info,Thanks
Firstly, Most of the coffee farmers I have visited do not use chlorinated water. Coffee is very sensitive to any foreign smell hence
the use of chlorinated water can affect its Aroma hence degrading the quality. Consequently, farmers draw the processing water
directly from clean sources mostly directly from rivers and streams that are free from pollution of any kind.
As far as I know, farmers do not treat the water they use for coffee washing; water in the coffee communities is mostly not treated
with clorine or any other chemical and this water is not entitled to be labeled as drinking water eventhough comes from a facet
outlet; you may want to know that in Veracruz, around 95 % of the coffee beans are washed in the proccesing plants and just 5 % in
the farmers houses; so the response is no in questions 1 and 2; on question 3, according to my colleague Gervasio Partida, clorine
does have an effect on coffee flavor but he is not sure on the threshold of clorine addition to be noticed in cup tasting; anyway,
coffee proccesing plants that carry on wet process do not treat the water they use from the rivers; he says that the Specialty
Coffee American Association (SCAA) has very fine tune standards on this matter.
Our farmers do not treat their water during processing and do not use chlorine. All of our farmers are organic. 2. We work with
many different communities and some do but most do not have an adequate infrastructure.
1. The water come from the mountain directly and it is not treated, because it is pure water. Some producers still use water in the
wet process and others just use it for fermentation. After fermentation the coffee beans are washed with water and then are
dried in the sun or in mechanical coffee dryers. 2. No chlorine is used. 3. Related to waste water treatment aerobic lagoons are
used as a disposal of the coffee waste water and they are treated with different things like mountain microorganisms to
accelerate decomposition and limestone for an optimum Ph level (neutral). Some cooperatives use more complex treatments like
bioethanol plants and anaerobic digesters. The coffee growers and processers are aware of this issue because this and the coffee
pulp are the most contaminants of the rivers and lagoons in the coffee regions affecting mostly the low areas.
1. The short answer is no. Farmers use a mix of municipal/village supplied water and natural springs. However, none of this water
(municipal provided or otherwise) is treated in any manner. 2. No, since none of the water undergoes any treatment. 3. The major
concern in the communities in which we work is access to water. There are two communities which get water from deep water
aquifers (which is arriving clean), but the rest are using untreated groundwater that is not potable. This is the water that is used
for cooking and cleaning, but it leads to a high level of sickness due to the contaminants that it contains. 4. I can't speak from direct
experience (I have never used chlorinated water for processing), but chlorinated water/cleaning products are generally advised
against in coffee processing. Coffee undergoes a fermentation process prior to washing, and chlorine would kill yeasts and other
bacteria that are necessary for this process to occur properly. I do not know the exact changes that would be caused by using
chlorinated water for washing post-fermentation, but I don't know of any farmers (including larger cooperatives) that are using
chlorine. I would advise against using chlorinated water for coffee processing.
34
Name Location
Equator Coffees and Teas Multiple
Coffee Kids Multiple
Peace Coffee in Minneapolis Multiple
Intellegentsia Coffee Multiple
Rogers Gourmet Coffee and Tea Market Multiple
Boyd's Coffee of Portland OR Multiple
Green Mountain Coffee Multiple
Royal Cup Coffee Multiple
Swiss Water Multiple
Johnson Brothers Coffee Multiple
US--CAN Unite Multiple
Mystic Monk Coffee Multiple
Nicaragua--CAN Unite Nicaragua
Doi Chaang Coffee Thailand The water used in the wet process is fresh spring water. We do not use any chemicals. I am not sure if Chlorine would affect the
taste. The villagers drink either filtered or bottled water.
In my experience, I don't know of any small farm or cooperative made up of small growers that uses treated water in the initial
wet processing of their coffee. They usually draw water from streams directly, or from wells in a few cases, but mostly use local
water sources that are not treated. Larger plantation systems or large corporate producers may use treated water, but I am not
aware of any. Since the coffee is kiln dried during the dry process, and the roasted at high temperature before being ground and
We are actually roasters of coffee here in the US; we are not at a stage where we have any on or off site coffee farms. I'm not
familiar with the effects of chlorine during the wet process, but I know that when we cup coffee samples, we are careful not to
use any chlorinated water, as it has a noticeable negative effect on the brewed taste.
Data
1) We source our coffee from all over the world and coffee farms tend to be in more rural mountainous regions where the
water comes from rivers and streams. The Wet Mills where the coffee is pulped are generally placed near creeks or have wells
that they use to pulp the coffee cherries. The water that is used in the pulping is often recycled several times through the pulping
process and has an effect of that the pH level is dramatically affected by the pulping process so the mills have ponds where they
will discharge this water to soak back into the ground versus going into rivers.2) I have never seen nor heard of chlorine being
used.3) I don’t know of any studies showing effect on the green coffee (but I believe that it would be detrimental to the flavor
quality of the coffee)a. Chlorine and overall water quality has a definitive effect on the flavor and extraction of brewed coffee
which is why most commercial brewers and espresso machines have water filters hooked up to their water lines.
No chlorine used in the washing or processing of beans.
Some of the farms, mills, or beneficios we see on our travels use fresh spring water, some use well water, and some do other
things. I would doubt that many have chlorine in any of their water source.
1. The water we use in the process comes from a municipal supply. This water is sand filtered, UV sterilized and also
chlorinated at specific locations within the distribution system.2. I do not know the exact dosage levels of chlorine since this is
specific to certain locations within the distribution system but since the introduction of UV sterilization, the levels have been
trending down. The water used in the Swiss Water process passes through carbon beds as part of a wash step before contacting
the coffee. Also the water is hot which will drive off the chlorine.3. I am not aware of any effects that chlorine may have on
processing coffee.
1: most farms do not use water from a municipal supply or water that has been treated. 2: Since they aren’t using treated water
or water from a traditional water supply as we’d know it...they aren’t using Chlorine during the process. 3: I don’t know what
results using chlorine would yield but there’s a fairly good reason they don’t use Chlorine during the process currently. If Chlorine
would help the process and improve coffee quality, more than likely it would be a greater consideration. We can’t say anything
definitively as I’m not sure if there’s ever been research done but it seems likely that chlorine would have an affect.
In Nicaragua, small scale farmers generally do not have the custom of treating the water. Traditionally they let it drain into local
creeks or rivers, which of course contaminates waterways with the microorganisms but also affects the ecosystem with its pH
levels from fermentation. However, in the last 6-7 years or so there is a movement to use simple technologies like filtration pits
to let the water used to wash the fermented coffee sit in a pit in the ground and filter into the earth slowly. The soil and deposit
that remains at the bottom of the pit at the end of the season actually serves as a rich fertilizer to apply back onto the coffee
plants. The cooperative we buy from in Nicaragua (The UCA San Ramon) this year used the money from their agroecology fund
(part of the price of every pound we sell under our AgroEco label gets put into this fund at the local level) to improve the wet mill
at the local cooperative (Denis Gutierrez, in La Pita, outside of San Ramon in Matagalpa department) to lower levels of
contamination produced from fermentation and washing of the coffee. Other farmers I know of in Nica are experimenting with
"natural" processing, which uses less water and produces drastically less contamination, since there is no fermentation. Pretty
much I can say that no one I know in Nica is considering treating the water...
1.Before or after milling? Depending on the location of the wet mill, water is typically diverted from rivers or taken from wells,
springs, municipal sources, or collected rain water. Other than settling I am not familiar with any other treatment of water
intended for use in transport, pulping and fermentation of coffee. After the milling process is complete, larger mills (sometimes
required by government regulation) allow mill water to collect in settling ponds to separate material such as fruit pulp, sugars etc.
before returning to rivers or repurposing at the mill or for other agricultural uses. Also a new generation of pulpers are becoming
more prevalent; they use much less water than traditional wet mill equipment, thus mitigating volume of waste water. 2. I've
never heard of chlorinating water as part of the milling process. 3. I suppose this could be the case if the water is contaminated.
1. In the majority of communities, people boil their water whenever they use it for human consumption and, although we do not
have an specific statistic about how many communities posses a water treatment systems, I could make and educated guess and
say that the majority of communities do no posses a water treatment system. 2. NO 3. The majority of the communities that we
work with produce certified organic coffee. Organic production standards restrict the use of chlorinated water to wash the coffee
cherries, and even if the water was chlorinated, they do not use it to wash the coffee cherries.
Small farmers generally use spring water / natural sources and need to treat (filter or divert into seepage tanks) the runoff water
after washing the coffee in wet processing - so that the altered pH balance in the water with coffee musilage does not
contaminate natural drinking water and/or the natural, surrounding flora. I do not personally know of any studies done to
determine negative impact of chlorine on coffee. But since i believe it has been pretty clearly determined that chlorine has a
negative impact on almost everything it touches - i am not surprised that it is not recommended for washing a very susceptibly
and aroma and element absorbent raw coffee bean!
Most of the farmers I know obtain the water they use for processing from underground springs on their property, from rain water
collection, or from river sources. I imagine that if water used for processing is heavily treated with chlorine it may have adverse
effects on coffee quality, but that is just speculation--I haven't got any studies on that.
1. No we don’t use treated water to process coffee.2. No 3. No Sorry I can’t help you much since I have never seen coffee
processed with treated water.