c.i. beattieo, dm. elsom^, d.c. gibbs^, j.g. irwin^, c.m. were undertaking real-time monitoring at...

Best practice in English Local Air Quality

Management: principles illustrated by some

examples of current practice

C.I. BeattieO, DM. Elsom , D.C. Gibbs , J.G. Irwin , C.M.

Jefferson , K. Ling(% J.W.S. LonghW, D.F.H.

M.A.J. Pill , J. Rowe , A. Simmons , A.L.T.

I. Whitwell & N.K. Woodfield^^ Faculty of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of theBuilt Environment, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus,Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY.^AQM Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy LaneCampus, Headington, Oxford OX3 OBPSchool of Geography, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX

^ Environment Agency, Steel House, Tott Hill Street, London SW1H

9NFHybrid Transport Technology Ltd, Du Pont Building, Bristol BusinessPark, Bristol BS16Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

The Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) process, a holistic approach tomanagement, is well underway in England. The process aims to tackle airpollution problems from a variety of diverse sources, operating over differenttime scales and spatial areas. Although technical guidance from theGovernment has been published over the last two years, little guidance has beenavailable for the management aspects of the process. Arguably, themanagement of air quality will be the crucial test of the LAQM process. Onlyby collaboration can technologies and policy actions, such as trafficmanagement schemes, be put into effective action. The authors present anoverview of the process, including a model of current LAQM procedures in the

Transactions on Ecology and the Environment vol 29 © 1999 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541

200 Air Pollution

UK. Current practice is illustrated by way of results from a questionnairesurvey of local authorities, health authorities and the Environment Agency andalso by reference to specific examples from local authorities.

1. Introduction

Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) is the process by which air qualitycontrol is being accomplished both in Great Britain. Contemporary airpollution problems come from a variety of diverse sources (and hencepollutants) operating over different time scales and spatial areas. Because ofthis, legislation needs to tackle the problem in a more holistic manner. In urbanareas, transport is often the most significant contributor, with power generation,industrial sources and domestic coal and oil burning all adding to the problem.

The current legislation stems from the Environment Act 1995, Part IV (HMGovernment*) which required the Secretary of State to publish a statementcontaining policies with respect to the assessment and management of airquality. This was duly published as the National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS)(DoE ) which set health based standards and objectives for eight pollutants,seven of which local authorities are responsible for reaching by 2005 as set outin the Air Quality Regulations 1997 (HM Government).

A review and assessment (R&A) is the first and key step in the LAQMprocess. The Government has recommended a 3-stage approach, whereby eachstage increases in detail and complexity. The complexity and detail of the R&Ashould be consistent with the risk of failing to achieve the air quality objectivesby the end of 2005. On completion of the third stage, in areas where objectivesare unlikely to be reached by 2005, an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA)must be designated. Where AQMAs have been designated, local authorities arerequired to prepare a written action plan setting out how they will attempt toachieve air quality standards and objectives in the designated area.

Best practice, for the purposes of this paper, will be defined as those LAQMstrategies that meet the aims of the legislation, fit in with national and regionalenvironmental policies and are designed for long-term sustainable solutions.Best practice is not universal, in that what may be best practice for one localauthority may not be the best practice for another. LAQM practices may beinfluenced by the location of the authority (e.g. urban or rural) or by the localauthority type (metropolitan, London borough, unitary or district), through bothhistorical levels of air pollution expertise and routes of communication alreadyin place or the presence of an extra tier of government. In the case of districtcouncils, the county council will be responsible for highway policy andstrategic planning issues.

This paper will illustrate best practice by way of local authority examples foreach element of the LAQM process. The results published are taken from acomprehensive questionnaire survey undertaken in early to mid 1998 (Beattie etat). This survey involved English urban local authority departments (n=141)(environmental health, land use planning, transport planning and economic


Air Pollution 201

development), the Environment Agency (n=31), health authorities (n=90) andair quality consultants (n=90).

2. Monitoring, modelling and emissions inventories

Monitoring, modelling and emissions inventories form the major tools for thefirst steps in reviewing and assessing air quality.

Air quality monitoring involves measuring the ambient concentrations ofpollutants in air at a given place and point in time. The measurements producedare always average values over a defined period of time, which may range froma month to a few seconds (DETR ).

Air quality modelling is to provide a means of calculating air pollutionconcentrations from information about the pollutant emissions and the nature ofthe atmosphere. Air quality standards and objectives are set in terms ofconcentrations, not emission rates. In order to assess whether an emission islikely to have an adverse effect on ambient air pollution concentrations (andconsequently human health) it is necessary to know the ground levelconcentrations that may arise at distances from the source. This is the purposeof a dispersion model (DETR ).

The term 'atmospheric emissions inventory' means an organised collection ofdata relating to the characteristics of processes or activities that releasepollutants to the atmosphere across a study area. The inventory may attempt tobe comprehensive, covering all identifiable sources and a range of pollutants, ormay have a more specific scope, for example focussing on one particular sourcegroup, pollutant or activity which is known to be of concern (DETR ).

These tools are at present utilised to varying degrees. All respondentauthorities except one were undertaking some air pollution monitoring for thepollutants covered by the National Air Quality Strategy. However, the amountof monitoring and methods used varied considerably. 58% of respondentauthorities were undertaking real-time monitoring at the time of the survey.Likewise, 43% of authorities had used some sort of air pollution model in thelast 12 months. Again it was very variable as to which models (simplescreening tools or more complex dispersion models) were used. Of those thathad used models 48% had been used by a local authority employee and 63% ofauthorities had employed a specialist (Beattie et at}.

At present air quality information from monitoring, modelling and emissionsinventories is very little used by professions other than environmental healthwithin local government. This is an opportunity which most local authoritiesare not taking full advantage of.

A local authority's monitoring and modelling programme and use ofemissions inventories should be consistent with the likelihood of air qualityproblems in the area. In many regions, and for many pollutants, real-timemonitoring is unnecessary. However, in urban areas with complex sources, amore comprehensive real-time monitoring strategy and detailed modelling will


202 Air Pollution

be required. This detailed monitoring may necessitate the compilation of adetailed emission inventory, or in areas that have been covered by the nationalinventories, this may need to be added to for the purpose of a stage 3 R&A.

Bristol City Council has in place a comprehensive monitoring networkencompassing all pollutants covered by present legislation (and more). Theseinclude two Automatic Urban Network sites (affiliated to the nationalnetwork). In addition, the city council is currently .using a range ofsophisticated air quality modelling software to estimate dispersion of pollutionfrom the significant sources in the Bristol area. Resources for solutions to theair quality problems of the region can then be targeted out where they areneeded most.

The expertise already gained in the development and use of these models,together with the large body of information from air pollution monitoring,means that Bristol is well underway with their third stage review andassessment.

Bristol is currently in the process of putting real time air quality information,as well as its review and assessment document, on the internet.

3. Within and between authority co-operation

One of the major challenges of the AQM process will be within and betweenauthority co-operation (Beattie et al, 1998*). Within an authority differentprofessions will need to communicate in order to integrate different policies,which are essential for the successful implementation of AQM. In so doing, theAQM policy will need to integrate with an existing set of policies. In manycases this may involve collaboration between different tiers of local governmentas in places where county authorities still exist the county will haveresponsibilities for transport planning and strategic land use planning.

Air pollution does not respect boundaries, and because of this, localauthorities will have to co-operate with adjacent local authorities. In manyareas in England, this process has already started with the setting up of countyor joint county pollution groups, some with the sole responsibilities for airpollution and others as joint ppllution committees.

The importance of communication and collaboration was also recognised byLonghurst et af in a paper setting out a theoretical framework for AQM in theUK. It was concluded that 'ultimately, the successful application of local airquality management is dependant on the necessary resources and powers beingmad, available for the effective implementation of management plans whichhave been developed from a position of communication and co-operation withall actors involved in determining air quality'.

Most co-operation between departments in the same authority, and betweenadjacent local authorities is carried out through committees, either involved


Air Pollution 203

solely in air pollution issues, or as part of a wider remit involving otherpollution types or sustainability issues. Within local authorities, 65% ofenvironmental health officers (EHOs), 58% of land use planners, 70% oftransport planners and 31% of economic development officers were involved ingroups addressing air pollution issues. Regional groups were much moreconsistently made up of environmental health professionals. 97% of EHOswere represented on regional groups, with only 30% of land use planners, 44%of transport planners and 16% of economic development officers beinginvolved. Regional groups also had far less diversity in the numbers ofprofessions involved, with 37% only involving one profession (usually EHOs)(Beattie <?r a/, 1998*).

Manchester City Council has set up the Manchester LAQM working groupin response to the new responsibilities placed on local authorities under theEnvironment Act 1995. It meets on an ad hoc basis, as and when issuesarise and involves representatives from environmental health,transportation, planning, chief executives and Agenda 21 departments. Themain purpose of the group is to provide an informal forum, for alldepartments of the council involved in air quality issues, to keep each otherinformed on what each are doing with respect to air quality issues.

In Wiltshire, the regional collaborative process was instigated with the on-set of the Air Quality Regulations 1997. Air quality issues weretraditionally approached informally between authorities or at the infrequentChartered Institute of Environmental Health Pollution Group Meetings.However, it was recognised that a different scale of inter-authority co-operation was necessary and as such, the Wiltshire Local Air QualityManagement Sub-Group was formed.

The Group meets monthly to discuss the implementation of LAQM in theCounty and it is felt that the attending local authority officers benefitgreatly from each other's experiences and ideas. Some aspects of theLAQM process have also managed to be shared between authorities, forexample a countywide first stage consultation was carried out to avoidduplication of work.

Of the other agencies and outside bodies, 73% of respondent medical officers(health authorities) were represented in groupings with local authorities whichaddressed air pollution issues and 80% of Environment Agency area officeswere represented in regional air pollution groupings. The involvement of otheragencies and outside bodies is clearly increasing in many regions, but there isstill potential for greater collaboration in many areas. Many questionnairerespondents commented that these sorts of groups addressing air pollutionissues were only just in the process of being set up.


204 Air Pollution

4. Dissemination of information and education

The dissemination of air quality information and education of the public iscrucial to the successful implementation of an LAQM strategy. There are twomain types of information which need to be conveyed. The first is informationabout the real-time concentrations of air pollutants in the locality. This isparticularly important for the susceptible members of population, for examplethose suffering from respiratory and cardio-vascular complaints. This sort ofinformation dissemination is only possible if real-time monitoring informationis available.

The second type of information dissemination regards policy measures andbehavioural choice, such as individuals transport decisions. In many cases thepublic will need to be educated in order to become informed decision makers.Public consultation is also a statutory requirement of the review and assessmentprocess, and in the future, as AQMAs begin to be designated, it will beimperative that the public has some understanding of why contentious stepsmay be required. The earlier this process of education and consultation isstarted, the more effective it will be.

Many methods are available for use by local authorities to disseminate airquality information to the public, but at present they appear to be under-utilised(Beattie et a/, 1998*). 85% of local authorities undertake some sort ofinformation dissemination, but many authorities commented that they were onlyjust beginning to decide how they would publicise air quality information,particularly as more monitoring information becomes available.

Westminster City Council has an array of methods for disseminating airquality information to the public. The 'flagship' of their strategy is their website (http://www.westminster.gov.uk/ep/ airqualtiy.index.htm). Thisincludes information about air pollution in the borough, monitoring sites inWestminster, environmental initiatives currently being undertaken by thecouncil as well as other environmental information. Other complementarymethods of disseminating information include a variety of leafletspublicising initiatives such as 'Exhaust Watch\ a quarterly air quality report,articles in local newspapers, a recorded telephone message (updated daily)giving present levels and forecasts of air pollution and air pollution warningson days of high pollution faxed to hospitals doctors surgeries, newspapersand radio stations. They have also produced a 30 page document outliningtransport problems in Westminster and the proposed policies to tackle theseproblems (references *).

Few authorities (22.5%) have any education strategies in place. Of those thatdo, these involve work with schools, for example air quality monitoring takingplace in school grounds and results passed on to the school, passing informationto health authorities, educating local authority employees themselves and


Air Pollution 205

educating the public, for example through exhaust checks. Educating the publicmay become an increasingly important role for LAQM, particularly aspolitically difficult measures may have to be implemented.

Reading Borough Council employ a schools officer within theirenvironment centre. S/he has close liaison and involvement with localschools and youth groups in sustainability matters. As part of this work, airquality issues are introduced as part of the sustainability message, thusintegrating air quality into the array of transport decisions (in this case ofyoung people). This sort of collaboration between departments has theadditional advantage of using already available resources within the localauthority.

The balance of emphasis for policy and control has shifted from centralgovernment to a greater effort at the local level. However, governmentcontinues to provide the guidance nationally when local actions take place.Policy affecting air quality will encompass a wide range of issues, butparticularly transport policy, planning policy and economic developmentstrategies, which all have the potential to have a major impact on air quality inthe locality. There is a wealth of guidance from different sources, but thechallenge for local authorities will be the integration of these different policystrands, both within their authority and within the region.

Policy measures recommended include making car use more expensive orless convenient for short journeys, smoothing traffic flow, encouraging publictransport, cycling or walking, increasing awareness of the implications oftransport policies and choices, integrating air quality with transport policies andprogrammes (TPPs), linking air quality issues into structure and local planprocesses, green commuter plans, bus operator/ business partnerships andcampaigns to encourage better maintenance of cars.

Transport planning is the profession most likely to include air quality issueswithin their framework of operation. However, a recent study investigating theintegration of AQM into TPPs concluded that there is little evidence that this istaking place, except in a very superficial manner. No TPPs examined had acomprehensive method for evaluating air quality within the context of eithercurrent or predicted transport infrastructure (Beattie et al ).

New policy initiatives and integration of air quality issues into transport,economic and planning policy are required urgently if the necessary changes inbehaviour and attitude required for improvements in air quality are to beachieved. However, it is recognised that measured, reflective responses toidentified problems are more likely to be accepted by the public. Thisrepresents a significant tension for local authority decision-makers.


206 Air Pollution

Oxford has implemented an integrated Transport Strategy. The strategy isnow in it's fourth year jointly supported by the City and County Councilsand central Government. The aims of the scheme are to reduce the numberof car trips into and through the city centre, remove all vehicles fromcertain shopping streets throughout the working day and give higherpriority to cleaner vehicles on the road network. A great deal has alreadybeen achieved, for example over 700 more spaces have been provided atpark and ride car parks, more bus priority measures and cycle routes havebeen established, and Oxford's two main bus operators have upgraded manyof their services using less polluting bus fleets. The strategy also includesthe EMITS (Environmental Monitoring of the Integrated TransportStrategy) Project which is assessing the environmental impacts of thetransport strategy on air quality, human health and the soiling of buildings(refereces"'").

6. Involvement of other agencies

The involvement of other agencies is crucial to the AQM process as a whole. Inparticular, the Environment Agency hold information regarding Part Aprocesses. Part A processes are those industrial emitters with a potential torelease significant quantities of prescribed pollutants into the air.

Health authorities also have an integral role in the AQM process. Theymight hold information on epidemiological studies of the effects of poor airquality and in some cases carry out research themselves, often at a local level,which could be of benefit to the relevant local authority. They also may havemeans of disseminating information, particularly to the most susceptiblemembers of the population, for example those suffering from respiratory orcardiovascular disease.

In Camden and Islington, the health authority (Environment and health co-ordinator) is involved in at least 3 groupings with the local authorities theycover. These are the Working Party on Environment and Health (Camdenand Islington), Sustainable Transport Round Table (Islington) and the GreenTransport Roundtable (Camden). These are muti-disciplinary groupscomprising of up to nine different professions in each.

In addition, the health authority has instigated the Development of Health ofLondoners Project - Transport in London and Implications for Health' overthe last two and a half years. They also receive daily air quality bulletins andare at present looking into ways of disseminating air quality warnings tosusceptible members of the population.


Air Pollution 207

Other bodies, which should be brought in on the AQM process from the outset,are environmental pressure groups, community groups, higher educationinstitutions and business/ industry representatives.

However, many of the regional groups addressing air pollution issues haveno outside bodies involved. 26% of regional air pollution groups involve theEnvironment Agency, 19% involve the local health authority, 13% involve abusiness/ industry representative and only 3% involve a pressure group.

The London Borough of Croydon are liaising with a number of outsidebodies with respect to their air quality responsibilities. They have integratedair quality initiatives into their Agenda 21 document, which outlines actionsto be led by a variety of people and partnerships. For example, they intend topublish numbers of occurrences of respiratory illnesses recorded at GPsurgeries and hospitals in the borough each year and produce an annual reportin conjunction with the London Air Quality Network, the Health Authorityand GP surgeries. The council also intends to raise public awareness of thepossibility of air pollution bringing on symptoms of respiratory illness andencourage the public to report cases to GPs by way of press releases (inpartnership with the health authority).

There is great scope for these sorts of partnerships to build up in other areas ofthe country. Groups tackling air pollution problems should involve a diversityof people in order that the diversity of solutions required can be put in place.Indications from questionnaire responses suggest that there is a great deal ofenthusiasm waiting to be tapped. Local authorities willing to engage incollaborative ownership of the AQM process will find willing colleagues in theEnvironment Agency and health authorities.

7. Discussion

Although inevitably, best practice will depend on the circumstances of theindividual authority, the following general requirements for an effective airquality management programme can be put forward:• A comprehensive real-time monitoring programme for the relevant

pollutants in relation to the scale and nature of local pollution problems(those which may exceed the NAQS objectives for 2005)

• Modelling done at a level comparable with the scale of the problem, i.e.many authorities will not need to undertake complex dispersion modellingwhich will be a drain on time and resources. Often simple screening toolssuch as DMRB or the Environment Agency's Guidance for Estimating theAir Quality Impact of Stationary Sources (GSS) will be sufficient.

• Collaborative ventures at authority and regional levels will need to involvenot only local authority employees, but Environment Agencyrepresentatives, health authorities, local community groups, pressure


208 Air Pollution

groups and business/ industry representatives where appropriate. A greatdeal can be learnt from the experience of others.

• Effective dissemination of information to the public, and agencies, partnerswithin and between local authorities will be required. This needs to consistof both of air quality information on a real-time basis and of long termpolicy measures, but thought is required as to the target audience andappropriate methods.

• A long-term policy programme involving the integration of air qualityissues into transport policy, economic development policy and land useissues. It is crucial that policy measures to improve air quality are put inplace as soon as possible, because the necessary changes in behaviour andattitude required for improvements in air quality to become apparent willtake time.

The following diagram gives an overview of the AQM process in the UK. Thiswill in itself need to evolve as the science shaping the legislation advances, thelegislation changes and technologies advance.


Air Pollution 209

Figure 1. A Framework for local air quality management in the UK(Adapted from European Commission, 1998 and Longhurst et at, 1996)

Public

Regular4—information/

education

Regular4—information/-

education

Legislation/ guidance

Regular4-comraunication/-

consultation

Regular4—-communication/—^

consultation

EnvironmentAgency,Industry,CommunityGroups,Pressure-Groups, ,Educationestablishmentsetc

U Repeat exerciseiCCSS before 2005

Are appropriate air quality data available?

Initiate air qualitymonitoring/ screenmodelling exercise

Yes

Are air quality objectives likely to be breached? NoI

Yes

Detailed e lamination ofemissions

,s

\

V 7

On further inspection, are air quality objectives still likelyto be breached?

YesJL

Designate Air Quality Management Area

Develop control options for key sources

Evaluate costs/benefits and effectiveness of different options

Identify and implement mo st effective control strategy in theform of an A ction Plan


210 Air Pollution

The management of air quality will be the crucial test of the AQM process.Only by collaboration can technologies and policy actions, such as trafficmanagement schemes, be put into effective action. Modelling, monitoring andthe use of emissions inventories are necessary tools for identifying the problemsand possible solutions, but only through successful effects-based management,can solutions be achieved. In recognising this fact, the process should proceedfrom the current stage of defining the problem to reaching cost-effective,manageable long-term solutions.

A fully integrated AQM strategy will take time to implement and localauthorities should undertake the task in discrete steps. Many of the skillsrequired, such as consulting with the public, may be already present withinother departments such as Planning or via Agenda 21 processes. The AQMagenda presents local government with a substantial management challenge.AQM policies cannot be restricted to a single department or public sectoragency. Getting different parts of the council to work together, as well ascollaborating with other councils, public services, and with the private andvoluntary sector, is a major challenge. Furthermore, methods of measuringperformance and value for money do not readily take account of environmentaland social factors or short-term political time scales.

References

1. HM Government. Environment Act 1995 Chapter 25 (Part IV). LondonHMSO, 1995.

2. Department of the Environment and the Scottish Office. The UnitedKingdom National Air Quality Strategy. CM3587. The Stationery OfficeLtd, London. March 1997.

3. HM Government. The Air Quality Regulations 1997. Statutory Instruments,1997 No. 3043, Environmental Protection. The Stationery Office Ltd,London, 1998.

4. Beattie C.I., Elsom D.M., Gibbs D.C., Irwin J.G., Jefferson C.M.,Longhurst J.W.S., Newton A.J., Pheby D.F.H., Pill M.A.J., Rowe J.,Simmons A.,Tubb A.L.T. & Whitwell I. Implementation of Air QualityManagement in urban areas within England some evidence from currentpractice. In Air Pollution VI Brebbia, CA, Ratto, CF and Power, H (Eds)WIT Press, Southampton and Boston, pp353-364, 1998

5. DETR. LAQM. TGI(98) Monitoring for air quality review andassessments. The Stationery Office Ltd, London. 1998.

6. DETR. LAQM. TG3(98) Selection and use of dispersion models. TheStationery Office Ltd, London. 1998.


Air Pollution 211

7. DETR. LAQM. TG2(98) Preparation and use of atmospheric emissionsinventories. The Stationery Office Ltd, London. 1998.

8. Longhurst J.W.S., Lindley S.J., Watson A.F.R. and Conlan D.E. (1996)The Introduction of Local Air Quality Management in the UnitedKingdom: A Review and Theoretical Framework. AtmosphericEnvironment 30 (23) p3975-3985.

9. Westminster City Council Air Pollution Environmental Health InformationPack. Environmental Health Division, Westminster Council House, 1998.

10. Westminster City Council Transport in Westminster - Improving access tothe heart of London. City of Westminster, 1997

11. Westminster City Council Review of the Year - 'Your City'. City ofWestminster, 1998.

12. Beattie C.I., Longhurst J.W.S. and Newton AJ.(1998) Assessment of theLevels of Integration of Air Quality Management within the TransportPolicies and Programmes of English County Government. In UrbanTransport and the Environment for the 21st Century. Borrego, C. &Sucharov, L. (Eds) WIT Press, Southampton and Boston, pp305 - 318.

13. Oxford City Council and Oxfordshire County Council Oxford TransportStrategy. Central Area update. Oxford City Council, 1996.

14. Oxfordshire County Council Transport Policies & Programme 1999/2000.Part 5 Oxford Integrated Transport Strategy Package Bid, July, 1998.


c.i. beattieo, dm. elsom^, d.c. gibbs^, j.g. irwin^, c.m. were undertaking real-time monitoring at...

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