circuit engineering: the beginner's guide to electronic circuits, semi-conductors, circuit...
TRANSCRIPT
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CircuitEngineeringBySolisTech
TheBeginner’sGuidetoElectronicCircuits,Semi-Conductors,CircuitBoards,andBasic
Electronics
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Copyright2015bySolisTech-Allrightsreserved.
Innowayisitlegaltoreproduce,duplicate,ortransmitanypartofthisdocumentineitherelectronicmeansorinprintedformat.Recordingofthispublicationisstrictlyprohibitedandanystorageofthisdocumentisnotallowedunlesswithwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher.Allrightsreserved.
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TableofContentsIntroduction
ChapterI–FirstThingsFirst:AnIntroductiontoCircuitEngineering
ChapterII–TheAnatomyofaCircuit
ChapterIII–ResistanceIsn’tFutile
ChapterIV–It’sTimetoMeasuretheElectricFlowinaCircuit
ChapterV–PowerTransferatMax
ChapterVI–Laws,Laws&MoreLaws
ChapterVII–UnderstandingElectromagnetism
ChapterVIII–Let’sTalkCircuitBoards
ChapterIX–SufficientSafety
ChapterX–Here’saMultimeterforYou!
ChapterXI-DIYCircuits:SimpleProjects
ChapterXII–MakingYourWaytoCircuitDesign:PCBLayouts&SchematicDiagrams
ChapterXIII–AWayIsthroughEDA
ChapterXIV–TheOtherWayaround:ReverseEngineering
ChapterXV–HackingtheSystem
ChapterXVI–AdvancedCircuitEngineering:Microcontrollers&Robots
Conclusion
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Introduction
I want to thank you and congratulate you for downloading the book, CircuitEngineering:TheBeginner’sGuidetoElectronicCircuits,Semi-Conductors,CircuitBoards,andBasicElectronics.
Thisbookcontainsabeginner’scourseoncircuitengineering.Here,thebasicsofelectricand electronic circuits are discussed. You will grasp the definitions of circuits, semi-conductors, resistors, inductors, transformers, circuit boards, and electronics, in general.You’llevenbeintroducedtoelectricalsafetytipsandasetofskillsneededinelectronics,aswellasashorttakeonreverseengineering,hacking,microcontrollerprogramming,androbotics.
Alongside,youcanapplyallthatyou’llbelearningonceyougetstartedwiththeproposedcircuit projects for beginner. You’ll also be rewarded a peek at different career-advancementpossibilities.Whilereadingabout thefundamentalsandvarious theories inthe subject is important, hands-on learning is equally important. Thisway, you can putyournewlygatheredknowledgetogooduse.
If you’re uncertain whether or not you havewhat it takes to learn the ropes in circuitengineering,letthisbookhelpyoudecide.Chancesare,youhavethestaminaforthefieldandforallyouknow,youcandiscoveranewpassionforcircuitsandelectronicdevices.
Thanksagainfordownloadingthisbook;Ihopeyouenjoyit!
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ChapterI–FirstThingsFirst:AnIntroductiontoCircuitEngineering
In1882,therewasacircuitwar;itwasbetweenthenotableelectricalengineersandscientists,ThomasEdison(inventoroftheDCsystem)andNikolaTesla(inventoroftheACsystem).
WhileThomasEdisonstatedthatanefficientwayofdistributingpowerwasviaaDCsystem,NikolaTeslaarguedthatalthoughDCsystemsareefficient,analternatingcurrentisthemorepracticaloption.Itstartedasasimpleclashofideas,butiteventuallyledtoamajorrift.Neitherprofessionalconceded;bothoftheminsistedthattheirownsystemswere“better”.
Intheend,itwasNikolaTeslathattookhometheglory.Caseinpoint?Hewasgrantedfundsbyaninternationallyrecognizedfirm,Westinghouse.ThemajorityofthepowersourcesofNewYorkCitywerebasedontheideasoftheSerbianengineer;atNiagaraFallsinCanada,apowerplantwasbuilt.
Ifyou’reinterestedinfindingoutmoreabouttheparticularcircuitwar,ACandDCsystems,andallcriticaldiscussionsoncircuits,takingacourseaboutelectroniccircuitsisthewaytogo.
I.A.-WhatIsaCircuit?
Bothanelectriccircuitandanelectroniccircuitrefertoacompletepathwayforelectriccurrent,whichstartsandendsatasinglepoint;itisapassagethatallowstheelectricitytoenteratoneplace,then,letitpassthroughaseriesofstops,andfinally,leaveittoexitatthesameplace.Thelistofbasicexamplesofacircuitincludesalightswitch(offandon)andbattery-operatedlamps.
Acircuitthatfollowsafundamentaldesign
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Acircuitcanfunctionwell-grantedthatitsdesigniswell-conceptualized.Asmuchaspossible,itisrecommendedthatarrivingatasimplisticproductshouldbethegoal;thesimpleandstraightforwardadesignis,thebetter.Withafundamentalconcept,evenifother(beginner-level)circuitengineerswhowillsubjectittoinspectionwillnothaveadifficulttimeinunderstandingitsflow.Althoughtheremaybecomplexsystems,theagendaisnotintendedtocomplicatetheexplanations.
Moreover,acircuitcanbereferredtoasaspacewithaconductivepaththatgrantselectronstheopportunitytomovefreely.Tocreateonewithabrilliantdesign,atipistolearnabouttheclassificationsofallcircuits.Youcanusetheknowledgetodeterminetheappropriatekindofnetwork,aswellastheneedforanexternalorinternalsource.
2classificationsofacircuit:
1. Linearornon-linear–acircuitthatisbasedoneitherlinearornon-linearnetworks;itiscomposedofindependentand/ordependentsourcesandpassiveelements
2. Activeorpassive–acircuitthatisbasedoneithertheabsence(passivecircuit)orthepresence(activecircuit)ofasource;asourcecanbeapowersourceorvoltagesource
I.B.-ACircuit&ItsTypes
Notallcircuitsarealike.Infact,oneofthemostcommonmisconceptionsinvolvesanelectriccircuitandanelectroniccircuit;botharesaidtobeoneandthesame,buttheyarenot.Whiletheformercancarryaveragetohighvoltage,thelatterhasthetendencytohavelowvoltageload.
Moreover,itisalwaysimportanttobeawareofthedifferentcircuittypes,especiallyifyou’reabouttomakeyourowncircuit;thekindofcircuitthatyoucreateneedstohavetheabilitytohandleapreferredload.
Circuittypes:
Closedcircuit–itisacircuitthatisfullyfunctional
Opencircuit–itisacircuitthatcannolongerfunctionduetoadamagedormissingcomponent,oralooseconnection
Shortcircuit–itisacircuitthatcomeswithoutaload
Parallelcircuit–itisacircuitthatconnectstoothercircuits;itislikethemainpowersourceortheprimarycircuitinaseriesofcircuits
Seriescircuit–itisacircuitthatconnectstoothercircuits;thesameamountofelectricityisdistributedtoeachofitscomponentcircuits;themainpowersourceortheprimarycircuitisunclear
I.C.-Conductors,Insulators&Semi-Conductors
Conductors,insulators,andsemi-conductorsgivelighttothefactthatacircuit’s
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electricalpropertiesaredependentonthecircuittype,aswellasontheirconductionbands(i.e.theirallowedelectricpower).Forinstance,ifaparticularpowersourcechoosestodistributea9-voltelectricpowertoaclosedcircuit,itselectricalpropertiescanbeevaluatedbyusing2details:(1)itscharacteristicasaclosedcircuitand(2)9-voltelectricpower.
Moreover,conductors,insulators,andsemi-conductorsareintegralconceptstotheconductivityofanobject.Whileconductorsandsemi-conductorsaregroupedtodescribechargedcarriers,insulatorsarestillconsideredasrelativedespitenotcontaininganyfreecharge.
Insulatorscanbeany“ion-less”object;themostcommonexamplesofsemi-conductorsarecopperandaluminum&forconductors,goldandsilver
Conductionbands:
Conductor–itisaconductionbandthatisreferredtoasthealmostfullband
Insulator–itisaconductionbandthatisreferredtoasanemptyband
Semi-conductor–itisaconductionbandthatisreferredtoasanalmostemptyband
I.D.-BreakingDowntheComponentsofaCircuit
Acircuitcanbeeithersimpleorcomplex,andbebothsimpleandcomplex.Ifthecircuitinsubjectisaseriescircuit,withagroupof10differentcircuitsthatareconnectedtoitorifthesaidcircuitisjustabasicclosedcircuitwith5differentstops,itcanberatherconfusingtotrace.However,ifyoudissectanycircuit,you’lldiscover3constant,integralcomponents.
Integralcomponents:
1. Load–itistherepresentationofthepowerconsumption,aswellastheworkthatisaccomplishedwithinasystem;withoutit,there’sbarelyapointinhavingacircuit
2. Powersource–itiswheretheelectricitycomesfrom
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3. Pathway–itistheframeworkofacircuit;fromthepowersource,itfollowstheloadthrougheachofthenetwork,andfinallyreturnstoandexitsthepowersource;itisalsoreferredtoastheconductivepathway
I.E.-TheRolesofCurrent,Resistance&Voltage
Current,resistance,andvoltagearethe3representationsoftheimportantcomponentsofacircuit’ssystem.Theycanexplainhowelectricityenters,then,movesfrom1pointtoanother,andfinallyexits.Whetherthepathofelectricityisrathersimple,theserepresentationsremainconstant.Apartfromdescribingtheelectricflow,theycanserveasindicationsoffaults(ininstanceswhenacircuitfailstowork).
3representations:
Current–itistherepresentationoftheelectricflow;particularly,itsfocusisontheflowofelectrons
Resistance–itistherepresentationofthenatureofanelectricflowasitmovesaroundthecircuit
Voltage–itistherepresentationoftheelectricforceorpressure;ingeneral,thesupplycomesfromanelectricoutletorabattery
I.F.-AC/DCSystems:WhichSystemIsin?
ACandDCsystems(oralternatingcurrentanddirectcurrentsystems)areoftenassociatedtoeachother.WhentheACsystemismentioned,soistheDCsystem.Conversely,whenit’stheDCsystem’sturntobeinthespotlight,itwon’tbelonguntiltheACsystemismentioned.Thisisbecausethesesystemsareoppositeofoneanother;togetabetterunderstandingofoneofthem,it’srecommendedtobefamiliarwiththeother,aswell.
Moreover,ACandDCsystemsaretypesofacircuit’scurrentflow.InanACsystem,thecurrentflowchangesitsdirectionoccasionally.Meanwhile,inaDCsystem,thecurrentflowfollowsasingledirection.
Itcanbededuced,therefore,thatanACsystemgrantsacircuitfreedomtoletthecurrentflowinseveraldirections.Whilethiscanbeanadvantage,thisdoesn’tpermitthecontinuousflowthataDCsystemcanentitle.
So,shouldyouuseanACsystemoraDCsystem?Thedecisionastowhichcurrentsystemisdependentonthemorepracticaldesigntofollow;takeintoaccounttheaimofhavingyourowncircuit.Ifyouprefersomethinggrandandyouintendtopowersomethinglarge,theACsystemcanstepin.Ontheotherhand,ifyou’regoodwithabasicsetup,youcanusetheDCsystem’sconceptasbasis.
I.G.–WhatIsaTransformer?
Atransformerisadevicethatservesasaportalforenergytransferwithinthepointsinacircuitorfromcircuit1tocircuit2.Inmostcases,itisusedforincreasinganddecreasingthevoltagesinasystem.
Whenthefirsttransformerwasbuiltinthemid1880s,circuitengineersdiscovered
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thatatransformersignificantlyimprovestheelectricflowinacircuit,andconsequently,resultstoamorepowerfulcircuit.Thediscoverymadewayforvarioustransformerdesigns,aswellasvarioustransformersizes.
Aprimaryprincipleofatransformerisitsneedforextremelyhighmagneticpermeability.Itfollowsthatacircuitthatiscapableofattractingpoweris,ofcourse,moreinclinedtohaveelectriccurrenttransferredtoit;and,conversely,acircuitwithlowmagneticpermeabilityislesslikelytoextractpowerfromanothercircuit.
Magneticpermeabilityisdefinedastheabilityofacircuittoholdandsupportaninternalmagneticfield
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ChapterII–TheAnatomyofaCircuit
Let’ssaythatalampinyourroomhasbeenaroundforawhile,andlet’ssayitchosetogiveuponyoutheothernight;althoughit’sanoldlamp,youstillbelieveitcanworkfine.Yoususpectthattheproblemisintheswitchingboard.Insteadofjustlettingitbeandsinceyou’reinterestedinhowitworks,youchoosetostudyitscomponents.
Asyouopenitsinternalsystem,youseethatconnectedtosomesortofpanelare2wires;onewireisred,theotherisblack.Asfarasyourknowledgeincircuitscantellyou,the2wiresinyourhandsare:(1)alivewireorthewirethatisconnectedtoaswitch,and(2)aneutralwireorthewirethatcarriestheload.
Astheuniversalruleincircuitengineeringgoes,redisthecolorthatindicatesalivewire,black,ontheotherhand,isaneutralwire.Forachancetoknowwhyyourlampgaveuponyouotherthanoldage,checkingtheredwirewouldbeagoodstart.
II.A.–IndividuallySpeaking:PartsofaCircuit
Acircuitcanworksmoothlyifitsindividualpartsarecontributingtotheworkflowasexpected.Rememberthatitfollowsaseries;ifonepointinthatseriesisnotincondition.So,ifyou’rewonderingwhyasystemisfunctional,checkeachoneofitscomponents.Tousetheoldadage(andmodifyitabit),thecircuit,asawhole,isjustasgoodasitsindividualparts.
Individualparts:
Capacitor–itisinchargeofthestabilityinthepowersourceinacircuit
Diode–itisinchargeofsupplyingthelightinacircuit
Inductor–itisacoilofwiringsystem
Resistor–itisinchargeofpowerconsumption
Transistor–itisinchargeoftheelectricsignalcontrol
II.B.–CircuitCategories:WhichCategoryDoYouBelongto?
Circuitcategories describe the voltage levels, aswell as their electric flow overtime; they refer to howmuch and how powerful the current is as it enters andpasses througheachpoint in a circuit.Since theyvary, it’s listedas aneffectivewayofunderstandingcircuitsystemsofsortsiftheyarecategorized.
Circuitcategories:
Analogcircuits–thesearethecategoriesofcircuitsthatusetheconceptsofparallelcircuitsandseriescircuitsasbasis.Amongtheirfundamentalpartsarecapacitors,diodes,resistors,andwires.
Indiagrams,analogcircuitsareeasytorecognize.Usually,whenamodelof the particular circuit is drawn, a simple illustration is presented sincethese circuits do not follow a complex system. In most cases, whenillustrated,theparts(e.g.capacitors,diodes,wires,etc.)arerepresentedby
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lines.
Digitalcircuits–thesearethecircuitsthatrelyheavilyonBooleanalgebra(i.e.valuesareeither trueor false,orasdenoted1or0); therefore, thesecircuits are often dependent on transistors that can create closed logic.Comparedtoanalogcircuits,thesefollowastate-of-the-artdesign.
Furthermore, digital circuits are designed to create either numerical orlogical values for the representation of electricity that flowswithin theirsystem. Since these are not only focused on the mere ability to take inelectriccurrent,butrather,ontheindividualpropertiesofalloftheirparts,as well, these circuits come with advanced functions; they can providememoryandaccomplisharbitrarycomputations.
Analog-digital – these circuits are sometimes called hybrid circuits ormixed signal circuits since both system designs of analog and digitalcircuitsaregivenlight.Althoughtheirconceptcanbequitecomplex,thesecircuitscandeliveramore thorough result; theproceduresarecombined,which allows collaborative effort from different parts. One example is atelephone receiver; first, itworks basedon analog circuitry to create andstabilizesignals,then,basedondigitalcircuitry,thesesignalsareconvertedintodigitalunits,andfinally,aresubjectedtointerpretation.
II.C.–WhereDoesInductanceEnterthePicture?
Incircuitanalysis, the term inductance, introduced in1886byOliverHeaviside,refers to thepropertyofacircuit’selectricity-producingcomponent tochange inamount.Apartfromthesupportofacircuit’saspecttovary,itpointsouttheneedforafilterandenergystoragesystemstobeprovided.
As it follows, the component in a circuit that enables inductance is called aninductor. Usually, these parts are made out of wire. But, while some circuitscontain inductors as integral parts, others remain functionalwithout the need toaltertheelectricflow.
Inductancecanbeeithermutual inductanceorself-inductance.Theformerreferstoachangeinelectriccurrentfromoneinductortoanotherinductor;itexplainstheprimary operations of a transformer. Meanwhile, the latter refers to the stableinductancewithinasystem.
Moreover,inductanceisrepresentedbythesymbolL,whichismeanttogivertothescientist,HeinrichLenz.ItalsomeasuredinunitsofhenryaftertheAmericanscientist,JosephHenry;itfollowsthatalthoughitwasOliverHeavisidewhointroducedtheterm,themanbehindthedevelopmentisJosephHenry.
Mutualinductancedescribestheoccurrenceinacircuitwhenthereischangethatcanbetracedtoaninductor;particularly,itreferstothealterationduetoaninductor’spreferenceofanearbyinductor.Itisessentialtolearnabouttherelationshipof2inductorssinceitisthebasisoftheoperationsofatransformer.Additionally,alimithastobemaintainedinordertokeeppotentialenergytransfersregulated;thefailuretoincorrectlycalculatemutualinductancecanresult
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tounwantedinductancecoupling,aswellasapoweroverload.
Itcan,therefore,bededucedthatmutualinductance(asrepresentedbythesymbolM)isthemeasurementofthecouplingthatinvolves2inductors;the2inductorsare,then,givenparticularimportance(intermsofcoilturns),alongwitheachinductor’sabilitytoadmitcurrentfloworpermeance.Theformulaforcalculatingmutualinductanceisasfollows:
**representations:MAB=mutualinductanceincircuitAandcircuitB
NB=inductanceincircuitB
NA=inductanceincircuitA
PAB=permeabilityincircuitAandcircuitB
MAB=(NB)(NA)(PAB)
Whenexplained,theformulahighlightsthatthemutualinductancebetweeninductorAandinductorB(orMAB)isequaltotheproductof3elements:[1]thecoilsofinductorB(orNB),[2]thecoilsofinductorA(orNA),and[3]thepermeanceofinductorAandinductorB(orPAB).
Ontheotherhand,self-inductancereferstovoltageinductionofacurrent-carryingsysteminrespecttothechangingcurrentinthecircuit.Itpointsoutthateventually,therewillbeanothercurrentthatwillflowalongwiththeprimarycurrent.Duetotheamountofforcewithinthemagneticfield,voltageisinduced;particularly,voltageisself-induced.
II.D.-WhatMakesanIntegratedCircuit?
Anintegratedcircuit(orIC)isalternativelycalledamicrochiporachip,duetoitssize.Itworksdependingonaparticularsignallevel.Oneexampleistheintegratedcircuitthatenablesacomputertoperformamultitudeoftasks;insteadofloadingacomputer’sstructurewithalargecircuit,itcomestotherescue.
Inmostcases,an integratedcircuitoperatesat littledefinedstates.Compared tothenormalcircuitwhoseoperationsaredistributedovercontinuousamplitudes,itcan function within a small network; the normal circuit may sometimes fail toworkwithonlyminoramplituderanges.
Basically,anintegratedcircuitisnodifferentfromanyothercircuit;itspowercanastoundyou,yes,but,ifitcomesdowntodescribinghowitis,it’ssimplyacircuitthathasbeenreducedsoitcanfitinsideachip.
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ChapterIII–ResistanceIsn’tFutile
Withoutamaterialthatcanactastheopposingforce,acircuitcanfunction,butitmaynotfunctionasdesired.Whenanelectricsupplycanperformitsfunctionbydistributingelectricitytotheopeningofacircuit,theelectriccurrentwillkeeponflowing;itsflowcanbeuncontrollable,whichcandestroyasystem’sintegrity.Usually,withouttheopposition,acircuitendsuptakingtoomuchload.
Thetermforthisopposingmaterialisresistance;itgoeshandinhandwiththetermconductance.And,asmentionedinthefirstchapter,itistherepresentationofthecurrentflowinacircuit.
III.A.–WhatIsResistance?
Resistanceisthemeasurementofanopposingelectriccurrent;itcanbeexpressedinohms.Itgeneratesanamountoffrictionthatisrelativetothenecessaryamountofelectricitythataparticularcircuitcanhandle.
Inaway,resistanceisresponsibleforthesmoothflowofelectricityinacircuit.Althoughotherswouldcountertheargumentbysayingthatratherthansupporttheeffortlessflowofelectricityinasystem,itslowsitdown.
However,itisresistancethatallowsbalanceofelectricityinacircuit.Takeforexamplethecaseofacircuitthatcanonlyhandleatotalof15V.Ifacircuittakesin20Vataresistanceof5ohms,thenumberisdiminishedto15V,whichindicatesafunctionalcircuit.Conversely,if,inthesamesituation,thereisnoresistanceof5ohms,acircuitmaynotbeasfunctionalasdesired;itssystemendsupcarrying20V,whichimpliesthatitisoverloaded.
III.B.–ResistiveCircuit101
Aresistivecircuitisakindofcircuitthatconsistsofnothingbutaseriesofresistorstocompletethecomboofelectriccurrentandvoltagesource.Ifviewedinachart,itisnoticeablethatthepowerwaveformisalwayspositive;itissuggestivethepowerinacircuitisalwaysdissipated,andisneverreturnedtotheoriginalsource.
Itisimportanttonotethatthefrequencyofthepowerinacircuitshouldnotbeequaltothefrequencyoftheelectriccurrentandvoltage.Ifpossible,thefrequencyofthepowershouldbetwiceashighasthatoftheelectriccurrentandvoltage.Thisunequalfrequencydistributiongrantsconstantchangewithinasystem.
Sinceitismadeupofresistorsanddoesnotincludetransistorsandcapacitors,aresistivecircuitisrathereasiertoanalyze.Understandingtheelectricflowwithinthecircuit(whetherinanACorDCsystem)requiresastraightforwardtechnique.Therefore,determiningtheflowofthecurrentinaresistivecircuitissimple;byadheringtotheformula,calculatingthefigureiseasy.
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Inaresistivecircuit,voltagecaneasilybemonitored
**representations:I=totalcurrent
RS=ResistanceSource
RL=ResistanceLoad
I=voltage÷(RS+RL)
III.C.-WarbetweentheTypesofResistance
Resistanceisclassifiedaccordingtothetypeofresistivitythatitcancontain,alongwiththeamountofresistancethatacircuitcancarry.Thisallowstheopportunityforanopposingforcetobevalued,regardlessofitsresistivity.Astheprofessionalelectricalengineerscanattest,noteverycircuitcomponentthatproducesresistancesatisfiestherules,particularly,Ohm’sLaw.
2typesofresistance:
Differentialresistance–itistheresistancederivativeofvoltageinlightwiththeelectriccurrent;alsoreferredtoasincrementalresistance,smallsignalresistance,ordynamicresistance,itsconceptisresponsibleforoscillatorsandamplifiers
Staticresistance–itistheresistancethatcorrespondstothetypicaldefinitionofresistance;itisalsocalledchordalresistanceorDCresistance
III.D.-Resistancevs.Conductance
Theaveragecircuitcomeswithbothresistanceandconductance,whichgivesbalancetotheelectricflowinacircuit’ssystem.Whiletheformerreferstotheopposition,conductancedescribestheamountofcurrentthatisconvertedintopowerthatrevolvesarounddifferentpoints.
Conductancealsocoverstheabilityofacircuit’scomponentstoconductelectricity.And,tobringlighttoitscounterpart’sabilitytoopposetheflow,itdwellsonthesubjectoftheconvenienceofelectricitytopassthroughaseriesofpointsinacircuit.
Withboththeresistanceandtheconductanceinthesystem,acircuitcanfunction
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asdesired.
III.E.–TheNeedforCalculations(FourWays)
Forelectriccurrenttoflowsmoothlywithinasystem,alevelofresistancehastobepresent.And,sincenotallcircuitscomewithasimilardesign,theirresistancelevelsvary.Tocalculateaparticularcircuit’sresistance,first,youneeddetermineitstype,anditsprovidedvalues,aswell.
Fourways:
#1–Resistancecalculationforaseriescircuit
Theformula:
Resistance=1R+2R+3R+4R
#2–Resistancecalculationaccordingtovoltage&power
**representations:totalvoltage;PT=totalpower
Theformula:
Resistance=VT2÷PT2
#3–Resistancecalculationaccordingtovoltage¤t
**representations:VT=totalvoltage;IT=totalcurrent
Theformula:
Resistance=VT÷IT
#4–Resistancecalculationaccordingtopower¤t
**representations:PT=totalpower;IT=totalcurrent
Theformula:
Resistance=PT÷IT
III.F.–WhataboutSheetResistance?
Sheetresistancereferstothemeasurementoftheresistanceinathinsheetinacircuit’scomponents.Itcanbeusedtodescribetheresistibilityofdifferentcircuitsandcanpointoutthespecificdifferenceincircuitsthatvaryinsize.Especiallyinthecaseofacommercialproduct,thetopiciscoveredfortheassuranceofquality.
Youcanlookatsheetresistanceasaspecialkindofresistancesinceitgeneratesamorespecificvalue.Usually,theaverageresistanceinacircuitisexpressedinohms;sheetresistanceisexpressedinOhmspersquare.
Inmostcases,sheetresistanceisusedfortheanalysisofcircuitswithuniformconductivityorsemi-conductivity.Typicalapplicationsareextendedtoquality
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assuranceforacommercialcircuit.
III.G.–TheRoleofImpedance&Admittance
Likeresistance,impedancecanbedescribedastheoppositioninacircuit;unlikeresistance,however,itreferstotheopposingforceofacircuitaftertheapplicationofvoltage.ItisonlyrelevanttoACsystemsorcircuitswheredirectcurrentisn’tthesupplied.
Itwasin1893whentheconceptofimpedancewasinitiallyintroducedbytheIrishengineer,ArthurKenelly.Backthen,itwasdenotedbyZandisdefinedasacomplexnumber.
Whenitcomestoquantitativeterms,impedancereferstotheratioofvoltagetotheelectriccurrentinacircuit.Itsintroductionisimportantforbeginnersespeciallyifthey’rescratchingtheirheadsastowhythere’sanopposingforcebesidesresistance.
Impedance,likeresistance,comeswithvalues.Inasingleopencircuit,itsvalueispresentedinohms.Intheeventofaseriescircuitoraparallelcircuit,itsvaluecanbecalculatedbysimplyaddingallthedefinedvaluesineachunit.
Theformula:
**representations:TZ=totalimpedance
Z1=impedanceincomponent1
Z2=impedanceincomponent2
Z3=impedanceincomponent3
Z10=impedanceinfinalcomponentofacircuit
TZ=Z1+Z2+Z3…Zn
Meanwhile,admittanceisarelativeconceptincircuitengineering.Itaddressestheissuethatalongsidethedifferenceinthemagnitudeoftheelectriccurrentandvoltagethatareflowingwithinacircuit,thedifferenceinphasesneedstobegivenlight,too.Thisway,themaximumloadwithinasystemcanbecalculatedaccordingly.
Theformula:
**representations:TY=totaladmittance
Y1=admittanceincomponent1
Y2=admittanceincomponent2
Y3=admittanceincomponent3
Y10=admittanceinfinalcomponentofacircuit
TY=Y1+Y2+Y3…Yn
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ChapterIV–It’sTimetoMeasuretheElectricFlowinaCircuit
Inthepreviouschapter,theformulasforthecalculationofacircuit’sresistancelevelswereshared.However,theformulasforthecalculationoftheentireloadinacircuithaveyettobediscussed.
Thisisduetothesignificanceofusingtheappropriatemeasurementunits.Inafewcases,especiallythosewhoarestillontheinitialphaseoflearningcircuits?Theyaren’tquitecarefulwiththeirselectedunits.Asitfollows,it’snotonlynecessarytocalculateacircuit’selectricflow;it’salsonecessarytocalculateacircuit’sflowcorrectly.
IV.A.–StandardUnits
Amongtheseveralreasonstousestandardunitsofmeasurementareforindicationsofexactmeasurementsandforindicationsofthepreferredmeasurementsinasystem.Theseunitsbringuniformity.
Incircuits,theusualstandardunitsthatyouencounterareV,W,I,andP.Althoughtherearemore,thosewhowishtoexplainasystem’selectricflowrelyonthesemeasurements;ratherthanintroduceabunch,whichmayonlymakemattersmoreconfusing,somearepreferred.Moreover,withoutsuchunits,understandingothers’discussionsofcircuitsisnearlyimpossible.
Standardunits:
Conductance–itsmeasuringunitisSiemenwithGassymbol
Current–itsmeasuringunitisamperewithIoriassymbol
Frequency–itsmeasuringunitisHertzwithHzassymbol
Inductance–itsmeasuringunitisHenrywithHorLassymbol
Power–itsmeasuringiswattswithWassymbol
Resistance–itsmeasuringunitisohmwithRassymbol
Voltage–itsmeasuringunitisvoltwithVorEassymbol
IV.B.–CommonlyUsedAlternatives
Otherthanthestandardunitsofmeasurement,otherunitsaregivenlightsincethesecanenableclearerexpressionoftheelectricflowinacircuit.Especiallyifthecircuitinsubjectcontainsarathercomplexsystem,itcanbedifficulttoarriveatadefinitesolution.
Otherunits:
Angularfrequency–itisaunitofmeasurementusedinanACcircuit;itisarotationalunitthatdescribestherelationshipofatleast2electricformsin
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acircuit
Decibel–itisaunitofmeasurementthatrepresentthegainineithercurrent,power,orvoltage;sinceitisonlyatenthoftheoriginalunit,Bel,itisprimarilyreservedfordenotingextremelysmallamounts
Timeconstant–itisaunitofmeasurementthatdescribestheoutputofacircuit’sminimumormaximumoutputvalue;inaway,itreferstothemeasurementoftimereaction
Watt-hour–itistheunitofmeasurementthatdescribestheelectricalenergyconsumptionoveraperiodoftime
IV.C.–UnitsofForce
Sinceforceinacircuitisanimportantconcept,itisadvisedthattheparticularunitofmeasurementispresentedcorrectly.Eveninphysics,itisreiteratedthatitshouldbelabeledaccordingtoitsrightcategory.
Atomicandelectrostaticunitsofforce:
Hartrees
Newtons
Tesla
Coulombs
Meters
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ChapterV–PowerTransferatMax
Therewillbeinstancesofapowertransferinacircuit.Fortheelectricitytocontinueitssmoothflow,itsoriginalenergysourcewillbereplacedwithaninternalenergysource.Withsuchachange(especiallyinthecaseofaseriescircuitwherepowerneedstoflowcontinuously),theexplanationforitssystem’spatternbecomesanotchchallenging.
Forbeginners,agreatwayofunderstandingpowertransferinacircuitistounderstandmaximumpowertransfer,alongwiththeconceptsthatdwellonthetopic.Asitfollows,bygainingclarityonhowmuchwastheoriginalpower,aswellashowmuchpoweraparticularcircuitcanhandle,youcanseewhetherapowertransferisnecessaryorwillonlycauseitsloadtobecompromised.
V.A.–MaximumPowerTransfer
Maximumpowertransfer,aconceptthatwasintroducedbyMoritzvonJacobisometimeinthe1840s,drawslightontheideathatformaximumexternalpowertobeobtained,aninternalresistanceneedstobeinplace.However,thetransfercanonlybeflawlessiftheoriginalresistanceisequaltothepotentialpowerthataninternalresistorcanproduce.
Consequently,maximumpowertransferyieldsresultsthatpointoutpowertransfer,andnotefficiency;whileimprovedefficiencycanbeabyproduct,itisnotthechiefpurposeofmaximumpowertransfer.Itimpliesthatalthoughhigherpercentageofpoweristransferrable,itdoesnotaffectthemagnitudeofthepowerload(i.e.theextentthatitcanaffectacircuit).Intheeventthattheinternalresistanceismodifiedtoaccommodateavaluehigherthanthevalueoftheoriginalresistance,improvedefficiencycanbeachieved.
Moreover,theconceptofmaximumpowertransferwasinitiallymisunderstood;asubjectofmanyargumentswasacircuit’sreducedefficiencywiththeoccurrenceoftransfer.Someinsistedthatduetothepotentialpowerthatislostduringanexchange,acircuitmayfailtoreach100%efficiency.Asemphasisofthisgroup’sangle,takeforexamplethecaseofamotorwhosepoweristransferredfromabattery;powerinthissituationmaynotbemaximized,anditwillonlyberealizedovertimewhenbatterypowerhasbeenfullyconsumed.
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Themaximumpowertheorystatesthatthetaskoftransferringpowerconsumespower,too
ItwasThomasEdison,aswellashisfellowscientists,FrancisRobbinsUpton,whocontestedthatmaximumpowertransferandefficiencyareonlyrelative;the2conceptsarenotoneandthesame.Infact,thereisadiscussionaboutmaximumpowerefficiency,too.
Intheexchange,youwillfindthatresistanceplaysanimportantrole.Bygivinglighttotheformerargument,youcancalculateacircuit’scapabilityofamaximumpowertransfer,inrelationtomaximumpowerefficiencywiththefollowingformula:
MPT=RL÷(RL+RS)
Acircuit’sMPT(ormaximumpowertransfer)canbedeterminedwithbasicarithmeticskills.First,dividetheRL(orResistanceLoad)bythesumoftheRLandRS(orResistanceSource).
V.B.–Thevenin’sTheory
Thevenin’sTheory,conceptualizedbyHermannvonHelmholtzandLeonCharlesThevenin,discussesthatifacircuitfollowsalinearnetwork,anypointcanbereplacedgiventhatitremainstocarryasourceforcurrent,resistance,andvoltage.Behindit,theideaistosupplyanequivalent.
Originally,Thevenin’sTheorycanonlybeappliedtocircuitsthatoperatewithaDCsystem;sinceaDCsystemisrathersimple,replacingitscomponentswithanequivalentispossible.Eventually,however,itscapabilitytohandlealoadinanon-linearsystemwasdiscovered;itcanoffersolutionsforanACsystem.
Moreover,theTheveninTheoryputsemphasisonthattheaveragecircuitcanonlybeconsideredtohavealinearaccordingtoalimitedrange;itcanonlybereplacedbythecomponentsofwithvaluesamongtherange.
TheTheveninTheoryfollowsthatpowerdissipationcanyielduniquevalues,andcanalsoyieldidenticalvalues.However,theresultscanonlybeaccomplishedwiththepowersuppliedbyanexternalresistor.
V.C.–TheStarDeltaTransformation
TheStarDeltaTransformationdwellsontheideathatacircuit’ssystemcanchangefromonephasetoanother.Forinstance,ifacircuit’spowersourceis
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altered,itsabilityofcarryingpowerfromapointtothenextisaltered,too.Especiallyifthereare3branchesinacircuit’ssystem,thepowerthatcirculatesisknowntoformaclosedloop.
TheStarDeltaTransformationrefersto2kindsofcircuittransformations.Thefirstcircuittransformationisastartransformation,whichcanbedescribedbya“Y”formation;thesecondcircuittransformationisadeltatransformation,whichcanbedescribedbyatriangularpattern.
Moreover,theStar-DeltaTransformationdescribesa3-phasenetworkofcircuits,whichcanexplainpowertransferbetweenthese3networks.Itenablestheconversionofimpedancesthatareconnectedtoeachother.Withthetheoryasbasis,alongsidegettingaclearscopeforpowertransferanalysis,solvingvariousconcernscanbeaccomplished,too;theconceptisapplicabletodifferenttypesofcircuitsincludingseriescircuits,bridge-typenetworks,resistivecircuits,andparallelcircuits.
TheStar-DeltaTransformationcanbeconvertedtotheDelta-StarTransformation.FromthestarorY-formation,thecircuitcreatesatriangularnetworkasthetransitionisachieved.
TheStar-DeltaTransformationortheDelta-StarTransformationisalsocalledtheY-ΔTransformationortheΔ-YTransformation
ForthetransitionoftheStar-DeltaTransformationintotheDelta-StarTransformation,aformulashouldbefollowed;thisismeanttoensurethatthetransformation,alongwiththecalculationsforthetotalresistanceinall3circuits,issuccessful.Initially,thegoalistocomparetheamountofpowerinanindividualnetwork.Oncethepowerinnetwork1hasbeenacknowledged,proceedtoidentifyingtheweightthatonenetworkholdsintheentireformation;onewayofdeterminingthisistodisconnectthatentirenetworkandobservetheoperationsofacircuit.
Theformula:
**representations:ΔR=totalresistanceofthetransformation
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1N=resistanceinnode1
2N=resistanceinnode2
AR=resistanceincircuitA
BR=resistanceincircuitB
CR=resistanceincircuitC
ΔR(1N2N)=CR||(AR+BR)
Thesimpleversionoftheformula:
**representation:TR=totalresistance
AR=resistanceincircuitA
BR=resistanceincircuitB
CR=resistanceincircuitC
TR=AR+BR+CR
V.D.–ExtraElementTheory
AcircuitanalysistechniquethatcanbeusedforthesimplificationofacomplicatedproblemistheExtraElementTheory;itwasproposedbyR.D.Middlebrook.Theideabehinditistotakeacomplexmatter,thendivideitintosmallportions;eachofthesmallportionswillbeaddressed.
Itfollowsthateverycircuithasatransferfunctionanddrivingpoint;theprocessofanalyzingacircuit,therefore,canbecomeeasieriftheaforementionedelementsarefirstidentified.
IntheExtraElementTheory,unlikeinothercircuitrytheorems,anelementsuchasacapacitororresistorcanbetemporarilyremovedsothetransferfunctionordrivingpointcanbedetermined.Sincetherearecircuitcomponentsthatcancomplicateanequation(regardlessofhowintegraltheyaretoacircuit),itispracticaltosetthemasideforawhile;althoughtheymaybeofvaluetoacircuitasawhole,itwasproventhattheydon’taffectcalculations.Oncetheinitialgoalisachieved,theelementscanbereturned.
ImpedanceisafamiliartermindiscussionsoftheExtraElementTheory;itcanbeanalyzedwiththeemploymentofthetheory.Incertaincases,itsinputcanbedeterminedinnetworkgrantedthatanextraelementjoinsin.
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TheExtraElementTheory(inrelationtoinputimpedance)proposestheadditionofan“extra”elementthatisequivalentinvaluetotheotherelements
Theformulaforfindingtheimpedanceis:
**representations:Z=impedance
s=source
Z=1÷s
V.E.–SimplificationoftheSource
SimplificationoftheSource,sometimesreferredtoasSourceTransformation,istheprocessofconvertingelectriccurrentintovoltage,orvoltageintoelectriccurrent.Itisacommontechniqueusedbymanycircuitengineersforexplainingtheircircuit’ssysteminsimpleterms.
TheprocessofSimplificationoftheSourceusuallybeginswithanexistingresistancesourceinacircuit;itisthenreplacedwithnewelectriccurrentsourcewithasimilarlevelofresistance.Sinceitisbilateralprocedure,onecanbederivedtoyieldresultsfromanother.Itmakeswayfortheadjustmentofvoltageasitgraduallybecomestheequivalentofaparticularcircuit’sresistance.
Moreover,SimplificationoftheSourcemaybeginwithanexistingresistance,butisnotlimitedtotheaccommodationofresistivecircuits.Itmeansthattheprocesscanbeperformedoncircuitsthatinvolveinductorsandcapacitors.
V.F.–WhereDoestheRosenstarkMethodFitin?
TheRosenstarkMethod,sometimescalledAsymptoticGainModel,isyetanotherimportantsubjectwherepowertransferisconcerned.Inlightofthereturnratio,itservesastherepresentationofnegativegainfromfeedbackamplifiers.Asitprovidesanintuitiveformofcircuitanalysis,itintroducesanewbatchofelementssuchasthereturnratioandasymptoticgains.
TheRosenstarkformula:
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**representations:G0=0asymptoticgain
G∞=infiniteasymptoticgain
T=returnratio
RosenstarkMethod={G0+[T÷(T+1)]}+{G∞+[T÷(T+1)]}
TheRosenstarkMethodservesasthebasicrepresentationofpowertransferinacircuit
BestfeaturesoftheRosenstarkMethod:
Assumesthatthedirecttransmissionissmallandcanbeequatedtotheasymptoticgain
Characterizesbilateralpropertiesandfeedbackamplifiers
Identifies(viathoroughinspection)thepassivecircuitelements
Steps:
1. Chooseasourceinacircuit’ssystem;preferably,optforadependentsource.
2. Determinethesource’sreturnratio.
3. IdentifytheG∞.
4. IdentifytheG0.
5. UsetheRosenstarkformulaandsubstitutevalues.
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ChapterVI–Laws,Laws&MoreLaws
Cometothinkofit,circuitanalysisisoneofthebroadbranchesofelectricalengineering.Itcoversthebasicsofcircuitsandpowerconsumption;italsocoverstheextensiveaspectsofthetopicsuchastheoperationsofanentireelectricalnetwork.
Withoutlawsregardinghowelectriccurrentisdistributedwithinacircuit’scomponents,thereisariskofuncleardiscussionsoffundamentalandin-depthanalysis;withoutthem,aguidethatcanbreakdownlengthycomponentsisabsent.Forbeginners,especially,theyareimportantsincetheygrantthechancetounderstandthefunctionsofacircuitandeveneachoneofitsparts.Itstaystruetotheideathatfortheresolutionofabigproblem,lookingatitlikelittlepiecesisanopportunitytoconqueroritsdifficulties.
VI.A.–PuttingKirchhoff’sLawsintoMotion
Kirchhoff’sLawsarecomposedof2equationsthatdwellontheconservationofchargeandenergy.Theywereinitiallyintroducedin1845byGustavKirchhoffasameansforthedeterminationofacircuit’spowerconsumption,aswellasitsparameters.
Asseveraldiscussionsgo,Kirchhoff’sLawsmaynotbetooimportantsinceitwasderivedfromtheworkofScottishphysicist,JamesMaxwell;sinceitwasderivedfromanother’swork,itissaidthatacircuitengineershouldratherusetheoriginalworkasbasis.However,itisasetoflawsthatprimarilyfocusesontheoperationsofaclosedcircuit;thepreviousworkfromwhichitwastakendoesn’tputemphasisonaclosedcircuit,andisratherdescriptiveofthegenericcircuit.
Moreover,Kirchoff’sLawsareconditional.Itmaybeusefulindescribingchargeandenergyconservationfordifferentcircuitelements,butitcanonlyyieldanapproximation;italsorequirescertainfactorssuchaschangingelectriccurrents,voltage,andresistance.
Kirchhoff’sLawisactuallyageneralterm.Tobespecific,itaddresses2subjects:currentandvoltage.Itacknowledgesallcircuits,regardlessofcomplexities.
Tosolidifyitsargumentintheconservationofchargeandenergy,oneofKirchhoff’sLaws,KCL(orKirchhoff’sCurrentLaw),statesthattheelectriccurrentinaninterconnectednetworkisrelative.And,toemphasizehispoint,GustavKirchhoffconteststhatthealgebraicsumoftheelectriccurrentinajointnetworkis0.
AnotherlawofKirchhoffthatcomplementstheKCLisKVL(orKirchhoff’sVoltageLaw).Itsbasisisonthegenerallawonenergy
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conservationthatdefinesvoltageastheenergyperunitofcharge.Justlikeinthepreviouslaw,GustavKirchhoffsaysthatinaclosednetwork,thealgebraicsumoftheelectricvoltageinajointnetworkis0.
AccordingtoKVL,addingallthevoltageswithinthecircuityields0VI.B.–DoesMichaelFaradayKnowWhatHe’sGettingInto?
TheLawofInductionbyMichaelFaradayisafundamentallawthatrevolvesaroundthefieldofacircuitandthepossibleelementsthataresubjecttoeventualinteraction.Itcarriesbothqualitativeandquantitativeaspects,andproposesthatonlywiththepresenceofaninfinitesourceofinductorscanacircuitretainitsinductivecapability.
Unfortunately,notallcircuitengineersandscientistsareonewithMichaelFaradayandhisLawofInduction.Itisarguedthatalthoughitholdssomematterstrue,especiallywhereloopsofwireareconcerned,itcanyieldthewrongresultsifusedextensively;itcanonlyhandleacertainfieldandisusuallyarbitrarilysmall.Infact,counterexampleswerepreviouslypresented.
AcounterexampleofFaraday’sLawofInductionisthecaseinvolvinganelectricdiscgenerator.Duetoitsownmagneticfield,itcanrotatecircularlyataspecifiedangularrate;itcancompletearotationandintheprocess,inductelectricitybydistributingittootherareas(withinthecircuit).Itcanbededucedthatalthoughthecircuit’sshapehasremainedconstantoveraperiodoftimeandalthoughitcaninductelectricity,itsdistributivemethodmadeitloseinductivecapabilities.
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Anelectricdiscgeneratorinduceselectricityuntilcyclecompletionintheobject’slowerbrush.
Faraday’sLawofInductionmayhavebeennotedforcertainflaws,butitisalawthatmadetheconceptionofotherimportantlaws(notallofthemareinthefieldofcircuitengineering)possible.AnimportantlawwithbasisonMichaelFaraday’sideaisAlbertEinstein’sSpecialRelativity.
VI.C.-Ohm’sLaw&Conductivity
Ohm’sLaw,namedaftertheGermanscientist,GeorgSimonOhm,isapowerfullawthatdescribestheresistanceandelectriccurrentinacircuit,aswellastheirpotentialdifference.Particularly,itshedslighton2points,then,subjectsthemtofurtheranalysis.Consequently,therelationshipbetweenPointAandPointBwillindicateeachoftheirpropertiesasindividualcomponents.
Inthevergeoflearningitsconcepts,itwilldawnonyouthatOhm’sLawisanempiricalmatter.Afterobservationswithdifferentrangesoflengthscales,itwasproposedthatitwouldfailwheresmallwiresareconcerned;however,thisprovedtobeamereassumptionsinceitwasdiscoveredthatitcouldfunctionregardlessofawire’ssize.
Sinceitisabasicequationincircuitengineering,Ohm’sLawcanalsobeappliedforthedeterminationofmetalconductivity;itcanbereliedonwhenitcomestounderstandingtheelectricflowandconductiveaspectinacircuit’scomponent.VariousmaterialsthatmakeuseofGeorgOhm’sprinciplesarereferredtoasohmic.
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GeorgOhmsettheparametersforhislawtoincludeonlycommontermsincircuitry
Inthephysicsofelectricity,Ohm’sLawisimportantwherequantitativemeasurementsinacircuitareconcerned.Initially,whenitwaspresentedtoGermanscientists,itwasonlymockedandrejectedduetothemerefactthatitwentagainstthebasicunderstandingofelectricflow;itwasdismissedas“aweboffancies”andworse,GeorgOhmwasdubbedasa“fancybutinvaluable”scienceprofessor.Itwasonlyuntil1840whenitearnedrecognitionandisnowwidelyusedtoday.
HowtocalculatefortheelementsinOhm’sLaw:
Formula#1:
voltage=current⃰ resistance
Formula#2:
current=voltage÷resistance
Formula#3:
resistance=voltage÷current
VI.D.–TheArgumentofNorton’sTheorem
EdwardLawryNorton,asheimpliesinNorton’sTheorem,proposedthatincircuitanalysis,anylinearnetwork,grantedthatithassourcesofvoltage,electriccurrent,andresistance,hasanequivalentindualnetwork.Acertainsystemmaybeunique,butvaluesthatcanmakeasimilarmodelcanbeobtained.
Tofindacircuit’sequivalentusingNorton’sconcepts,certainvaluesneedtobeidentified:voltage,electriccurrent,andresistance.Oncethereareclearsources,youcanbeginformulatingthenecessaryequations.However,whenthesourcesare
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dependentoneachother,another(andithastobefromagenericsource)electriccurrentneedstoenterthepicture.
Moreover,Norton’sTheoremgiveslighttothefactthatthevaluesfortheequivalentcurrentandequivalentvoltagearevaluesthatcanbeidentifiedatthefirst2terminalsofacircuit.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatsuchacaseisonlypossibleifallthecomponentsinthesaidcircuitareshort-circuited.Ifthecomponentsarenotshort-circuited,apracticalsolutionistohavecurrentandvoltagesourcesreplaced;currentcanbereplacedbytransformingacircuitintoanopencircuit,andvoltagecanbereplacedbytransformingacircuitintoashortcircuit.
Norton’sTheoremwasalsodevelopedbyHandsFerdinandMayer
Theformula:
**representations:TCAB=totalcurrentincircuitAandcircuitB
TC=totalcurrent
TCAB=voltage÷(TCincircuitA+TCincircuitB)
VI.E.–Coulomb’sLaw
Oneofthelawsthatunderwentheavytestingisalawthatgivesimportancetotheelectrostaticrelationshipofallthechargedelementswithinacircuit;thislawiscalledCoulomb’sLawafterthescientist,CharlesAgustindeCoulomb.Itarguesthatthemagnitudeofinteractivecircuitcomponentsisindirectproportiontothesquaredareabetweenthedistances.Todemonstrateapoint,itshowsthattheprimaryforceworksalongastraightline.
Moreover,Coulomb’sLawrequiresthattheplacementofthechargedelementsisaccomplishedthroughasinglemedium.Thiscausesthearrangementtoeliminateanypossiblecomplications.
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TheapplicationofCoulomb’sLawisonlyvalidifthecircuitcomponentsarepointcharges
TomakeiteffortlesstoobeyCoulomb’sLaw,thedeterminationofCoulomb’sconstantisrecommended.Oncethevalueoftheconstanthasbeendetermined,notonlyisiteasiertoadheretotheaforementionedlaw,youarealsoensuringthatthecalculationsfortheelectriccurrentarevalid.
Theformula:
**representations:CC=Coulomb’sConstant
ε0=electricconstant
CC=1÷4πXε0
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ChapterVII–UnderstandingElectromagnetism
Apairofloudspeakersisanexampleofanelectronicdevicethatworksduetothestrategicpositioningofcircuitelements.That,alongwiththeintegralpartscalledelectromagnets;suchcomponentscausedisturbancetoothercircuitelements.Theireffectontheirfellowsisrathersignificantastheytendtomakethedevice’sconetovibrate.Asaresult,sound,andinmostcases,highqualitysound,isproduced.
Foradeeperunderstandingofaloudspeaker,youcouldusealessoninelectromagnetism.
VII.A.–AnIntroductiontotheConceptbehindElectromagnetism
Electromagnetismisabranchofsciencethatinvolvesthestudyofelectricityandmagnetism.Itfollowsthatwhereverthereisanelectricfield,thereisalsoamagneticfield.ItwasinitiallyintroducedanddevelopedbyHansChristianOrsted.In1802,anItalianscholarbythenameofGianDomenicoRomagnosialsoexaminedthefield
Incircuitry,understandingtheconceptbehindelectromagnetismisimportantduethepossiblystrongelectromagneticreactionofcircuitcomponents.ItfollowsthattheEMF(orelectromagneticforce)ofanycircuitservesamajorroleinthedeterminationofinternalproperties.
ChapterV,PowerTransferatMax,andChapterVI,Laws,Laws&MoreLaws,containdifferentdiscussionsabouttransferringelectriccurrentandvoltage.Inelectromagnetism,morediscussionsabouttransferwillbetackled.Thistime,however,thefocusisonthechargedelementsinacircuit(whethernegativelyorpositivelycharged),aswellastheirresponseswhenexposedtomovement.
Theprimaryprinciplesofelectromagnetism:
Thedirectionofamagneticfielddictatesthedirectionofthecurrentinacircuit
Theelectriccurrentofaconductorcreatesamagneticfield;theformationisdependentonthedirectionoftheconductor,butisalwaysshapedinacorrespondingcircle
Themagneticpolesofchargedelementsalwayscomeinpairs;onepoleinapairneedstobeinverselyproportionaltotheother
Chargedelementscaneitherattractorrepel;elementswithdifferentchargesareattractivetoeachother,whilethosewithsimilarchargesavoidcontact
Electriccurrentcanbeinducedwhenitismovedawayortowardamagneticfield
VII.B.–GaussWho?
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AnotableindividualinthefieldofelectromagnetismisCarlFriedrichGauss.HeisaGermanmathematicianwhoputtogetherthecriticalelectromagnetismconceptsintheformofalawcalledGaussLaw.Accordingtohim,todeterminetherelevanceofthedistributionofelectriccharges,thecircuit’selectricfield,initsentirety,mustbeevaluated.
GaussLawallowsmathematicalexpressionwiththeemploymentofintegralanddifferentialcalculus,preferablyinvectorform.Forabeginnerincircuitry,theparticulartechniqueofdemonstrationisadvisedsinceitgrantsaclearperspectiveoftheconceptofelectromagnetism.
Theintegralformula:
**representations:ΦE=electricfield
ε0=electricconstant
Q=totalelectriccharge
ΦE=Q÷ε0Thedifferentialformula:
**representations: ∇ =anelectricfield’sdivergence
E=theotherhalfofanelectricfield’sdivergence
p=electricchargedensity
ε0=electricconstant
∇ XE=p÷ε0VII.C.–TheMainFormulasinElectromagnetism
Inacircuit’selectromagneticfield,itisimportanttorememberthatchargedelementstendtomoveradically;sometimes,predictingthedirectionoftheelectricflowisnearlyimpossible.Whileothersgoaboutinanon-linearnetwork,manychargesobeytheruleofsuperpositionsincetheyadheretoalinearpath.Withtheuseofcertainlawsasbasis,therelationshipbetweenthechargedelementscanbeevaluated.
4laws:
1. Ampere’sLaw–animportantlawwhoseapplicationsincludeinstancesofamovingmagneticfield;particularly,itbeappliedinsituationsinvolvingcurrent-carryingwires
Theformula:
**representations:B=electromagneticfield
DL=differentialelementoftheelectriccurrent
µ0=permeabilityof0space
I=electriccurrentinanenclosedcircuit
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∫BXDL=µ0XI
2. Biot-Savart’sLaw–alawthatisemployedforthecalculationofsteadycurrentinanelectromagneticfield;arequirementisaconstanttimevariable,aswellasachargethatisasubjectofneitherabuild-upordepletion
Theformula:
**representations:B=electromagneticfieldoutsideacircuit
µ0=permeabilityof0space
I=electriccurrentinanenclosedcircuit
R=distancefromtheelectromagneticfield
B=∫(µ0XI)÷4πR2
3. Faraday’sLaw–likehis[MichaelFaraday]lawofinduction,thisisalawthataddressestheinducedelectromagneticforceofanobject;itisstrictlyapplicabletothechargedelementswithinaclosedcircuit
Theformula:
**representations:IEMF=inducedelectromagneticfield
Dφ=differenceofspace
DT=timedifferential
IEMF=−Dφ÷DT
4. LorentzForce–alawthatassessesapointchargeduetobothanelectromagneticfieldandanelectricfield
Theformula:
**representations:LF=LorentzForce
q=totalcharge
EMF=electromagneticfieldinsideacircuit
V=velocity
B=electromagneticfieldoutsideacircuit
LF=q[EMF+(VXB)]
VII.D.–Electrodynamics&QuantumElectrodynamics
Beforethe1900s,ascientistnamedWilliamGilbertaddressedaproposalconcerningelectricityandmagnetism;accordingtohim,whilebothsubjectscanbetracedtoattractingandrepulsingobjectswithinacircuit,electricityandmagnetismaredifferentconcepts.Thekeytounderstandingelectromagnetism,therefore,istounderstandtheindividualterms;particularly,understandtheirrelevanceanddistinction.
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Aconflictregardingelectromagnetismisthat,despiteagreeingtoAlbertEinstein’sSpecialRelativity,itgoesagainstsomeoftherulesofmechanics;itisonlydependentontheelectromagneticpermeabilityof0space.Itfollowsthatinthecaseofmovingframes,theelectromagneticfieldissubjectedtotransformationtoincludespace.
Moreover,allelectromagneticphenomenaarecoveredunderquantummechanics.Thismakestheelectromagneticfieldofacircuitaccountableforthephysicalphenomenathatareobservable,especiallymagnetismandelectricity.
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ChapterVIII–Let’sTalkCircuitBoards
Areyoufamiliarwithcrocodileclips?
Crocodileclipsaredevicesthatcanbeusedfortheassemblyofacircuit;thesetoolsareso-namedfortheirresemblancetothejawsofacrocodile.Withthem,asolidgriptoconnectacomponentispossible.Ifyou’rewonderinghowelectricalengineerscancreateelectricalconnectionswithouttheassociateddangers?Well,there’syouranswer.
Byusingcrocodileclips,youcanmakeamodelofaworkingcircuit.Whetherbeitabasiccircuit,aseriescircuit,oraparallelcircuit,youcancreateforanaudiencetoanalyze.
VIII.A.-PrintedCircuitBoards101
Printedcircuitboards(orPCBs)aredevicesthatenableelectricalconnectivityeveninan“open”environment;withintheirsystem,thereareresistors,inductors,transformers,capacitors,conductors,andsemi-conductors.Thesetoolssupporthighcomponentdensity.Inaway,printedcircuitboardsarereferredtoaslivecircuits.
Sincefunctioningcircuitboardscanberatherrisky,especiallywhenexposedtoextremeenvironments,theyarepackagedaccordingly.Inmostcases,thesedevicesaresubjectedtoaseriesofcoatingproceduresandaredippedinacrylic,wax,polyurethane,andepoxy.
Designstandards:
Templatesandcarddimensionsaredesignedaccordingtorequiredcircuitryregulations
ManufacturedGerberdataaregenerated
DesignisplannedthoroughlywiththeassistanceofanEDAorElectronicDesignAutomationtool
Tracesforsignalsarerouted
Copperthicknessandlayerthicknessarecarefullyevaluated
VIII.B.–CircuitBoardTests
Toseeifacircuitworks,certaintestsareperformed.Particularly,itisdeterminedwhetherornotitisfunctionalandcanperformdesiredtasks.Alongwithitscapacitors,resistors,transformers,andothercomponents,itisanalyzedforopensandshorts.
Objectivesoftestingmethods:
Todetectflaws
Todetecterror-freeoperationsofeachofitscomponents
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Todeterminesystemstability
Toevaluatewhetheritisfitforuse
Toevaluatesafetyissues
Toverifytestsystems
Exampletestingmethods:
Analogtests
Contacttests
Contacttests
Electrolyticcapacitortests
Flashtests
Powereddigitaltests
Shorttests
VIII.C.–Let’sLearntoPrototype
Prototypingistheabilitytoputaparticularideatotestbypreparingamodelfromwhichothercircuitsaredeveloped.Especiallywhenthecircuitinsubjectinvolvesacomplexsystemorexpensivecomponents,aprototypeisinitiallydesigned.
Ifthecircuitcreatorisunsureofhowaparticularcircuitwillfunction,hisbestbetistocreateaprototype.Thisway,hecanevaluatehiscreationandseehowitcanbeimproved.Ifit’snotyieldinghisdesiredresults,hecanmodifytheplacementsofeachofitscomponentsuntilheachievesanecessaryoutput.Otherwise,hecanproceedtotheactualcircuit-makingprocess.
VIII.D.-TheArtofBread-Boarding
Breadboardsallowthecreationofacircuitprototype,whichisthereasonwhythesetoolsareidealforbeginners.Bread-boarding,therefore,istheprocessofcreatingacircuitprototypeinaboardtoresembletheoperationsofarealcircuit.Itshistorycanbetracedtothetimethatelectricalenthusiastswouldusealiteralbreadboard(i.e.theboardusedforslicingbread).
Accordingtoexperts,it’srecommendedtolearnandunderstandbread-boardingpriortomakingyourfirst-evercircuit.It’sadvisedtobefamiliarwitheachofitscomponents,aswellashowitworks.
Breadboardcomponents:
Chips–thesearelegsthatcomeoutofbothsidesofabreadboards;thesecomponentsfitperfectlyandserveasconnectorsofdifferentparts
Posts–thesearecomponentsthatenableconnectionsfrompowersources
Powerrails–theseareverticalmetalrowsstripsthatareadjacenttoterminals;throughthesecomponents,easyaccesstoapowersourcecanbe
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provided
Powersupplies–thesearecomponentsthatenablethesupplementationofawiderangeofelectriccurrentandvoltagelevels
Terminals–thesearehorizontalmetalrowstripsthatareadjacenttopowerrails;throughthesecomponents,wiresareallowedtobeinserted,then,beheldintact
VIII.E.–EssentialSkillsinCircuitry
Afterunderstandingbread-boarding,you’realmostreadyforsomehands-oncircuitlessons.First,however,youshouldadoptacertainsetofskills;whilebread-boardingishelpful,it’sonlypractice(i.e.forinstance,thereisnosolderinginvolved).Sinceyou’llbemakinganactualfunctioningcircuit,it’stimetogetyourhandsdirty.
5skillsrequiredincircuitry:
1. Stripping(wire)–itisaskillthatpromotessecureelectricalconnections;itinvolvestheknowledgeonvarioustypesofwires,thicknessofwires,andhowtomaintainasolidgrip;sinceexposuretoelectriccurrentisarisk,itisbesttocheckouttheappropriatetoolsforwires
2. Drilling–itisaskillthatfocusesontheproperdrilling(ofholes)inacircuit,then,makingsurethatelectricalconnectionscanremainintact;itisaslowprocessthatrequirespracticewithaccuracyandprecision
3. Howtotestbatteries–itisaskillthatrequirestestingthecapacityofabattery;particularly,itinvolvesmeasuringthecurrentloadinopenandshortcircuits
4. Howtouseagluegun–itisaskillthattakesadvantageofagluegun’sconductiveproperty;itteacheshowtoinsulateandhowtosetasemi-permanentcoating;especiallywhenthereisaneedtostrengthenthejointsofacircuit,itcomesinhandy
5. Howtouseliquidelectricalcoating–itisaskillthatfocusesontheabilitytoapplyliquidelectricalcoatingwhereconventionalelectricaltapeislikelytofail;itrequiresprecautionsinceabout30%ofthepartsintheliquidcoatingarequitevolatile
VIII.F.–TheSecretsofaSolder
Solderingisaprocessthatinvolves(atleast)2metals(oranyconductivematerial);the2metalsarejoinedbyflowingandmelting.Intheindustryofcircuitry,itisoneofthemostfundamentalmethodsincircuitcreation;itallowsindependentcomponentstoworkasone.
Atechniqueofgoodsolderingrevolvesaroundtheknowledgeoftheamountofheatthatisapplied.Forbasicsoldering,361Fisthetemperaturetoconsiderandforadvancedsoldering,thegoalistoarriveatatemperatureofsomewherebetween361Fto419F.
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Inmetallurgicalengineering,atermnamedfluxiscommonlyused;incircuitengineering,assoonasthecircuitcreationprocesscommences,itwillbeintroduced,too.Itiscleaningagentandaflowingmaterialthatfacilitatesthesolderingprocess.Shouldtherebeinvisibleimpurities(e.g.oil,dirt,etc.),theywillberemovedforthepurposeofnotriskingtheintegrityofacircuit.
Moreover,itisimportanttonotethatinsoldering,theproperapplicationoffluxissuggested.Impropermethodscanresulttojointfailure.Thesystem’sdamage(duetoincorrectfluxapplication)maynotbeobviousatfirst,butgradually,itiscapableofcorrosionandrenderingacircuituseless.
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ChapterIX–SufficientSafety
Onasunnyday,tryheadingoutsideofyourhouse,then,checkingouttheelectricalconnections(wires)fromoneposttoanother.Morelikely,one,two,orevenaflockofbirdsarecalmlyrestingonpowerlines.
Doyoueverwonderwhytheydon’tgetshocked?
No,birdsarenormalcreatures;theydonotpossessextra-specialpowers.Intheirheads,theyunderstandthatit’samustnottosteponopenelectricalnetworks,whichisoneofthethingsthatneedtobecoveredforbeginnersincircuitengineering.
IX.A.–TheLackofElectricalSafetyCourses
Whilesomecircuitengineeringprofessorsteachenoughlessonsaboutelectricalsafety,othersarequitebehindonthearea.Theyassumethatpracticalknowledge,aswellasageneral“becareful”wouldsuffice;sincethebeginnersincircuitengineeringarefrequentexposuretoelectricaldevices,no,thestatementwon’tcutit.Therefore,itisimportanttostressouttheneedtobecarefulespeciallyduringtheirfirsthands-onactivity.
Electricalsafetytips:
Treateachelectricaldeviceasiflivecurrentisrunninginsideit(regardlessifyou’reawarethatthereisn’t)
Overloadingsocketsforacircuitboard?Notagoodidea
Tocutoffrunningcurrent,addaresidualcurrent
Alwaysdisconnect(andnotjustturnoff)electricaldeviceswhenworkingonacomponent
Alwaysturnoffanyelectricaldeviceifnotinuse
Regularlychecktheconditionsofsocketsandplugs
Practiceextremecautionwhendealingwithliquidsandelectriccurrent
Makesureyourhandsaredry
Avoidoctopusconnections(i.e.devicesthatenablemultipleplugsorsockets)
Keepelectricalwiresandcordstuckedneatly
Weartheproperattirewhencreatingacircuit;putonnon-conductiveglovesandfootwearwithinsulatedsoles
IX.B.-TheImportanceofHands-onCircuitLessons
Hands-onlearningisimportantforabeginnerincircuits.Itgiveslighttothefact
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thatincircuitengineering,itismoreaboutactualfieldwork.Oncetheconceptsareunderstood,it’sbesttomoveontocreatingfunctionalcircuitboards.
Acommonproblemthatisencounteredbybeginners?Sweatyhands.Eveninanair-conditionedlaboratory,therearepeoplewhohavetodealwithsweatyhandswhenhandlingcircuits.Alongside,theyhavetodealwiththeneedofmaintainingastrongandsolidgriponvarioustools.Althoughthismaybeaconcern,it’sonethatrequirespractice.
IX.C.–The80-20RuleofCircuitSafety
Incircuitry,thereisarulethatfocusesontheinstallmentsoftransmittersinhazardousareasfordeviceswithacircuit;itiscalledthe80-20RuleofCircuitSafety.Accordingtotherule,itisrecommendedtotakeextraprecautionwhendealingwithparticularportionsofanelectronicdevice;therearesomepartsthatincreasetheriskofelectricalshockwhentouchedormoved.
Hazardousareasofacircuit(thatrequireextraprecaution):
Pointwithhighimpedance
Pointwithhighresistance
Areanearthevoltagesource
Areanearanopening
Areawithconductiveelements
IX.D.–TroubleshootingConcerns
Intheeventthatadevicewithacircuitisnotfunctioncorrectly,itisrecommendedtohaveitevaluatedaccordingly.Whileabeginnermayhandlethetaskofchecking,aprofessionalincircuitryistheonewhoisadvisedtoassessthesystem.Sinceanexpertisalreadyfamiliarwithdifferentcircuitcomponents,andheknowsexactlywheretolookforpossiblefaults,heismorequalifiedforthejob.
Troubleshootingtips:
Determinewhethertheconnectionsaresecure
Determinewhetherthewiresarecorrectlyconnectedtooneanother
Checkforcircuitcomponentsthatseemoutofplace
Checkforcircuitcomponentsthatmaybelargerinsize
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ChapterX–Here’saMultimeterforYou!
Animportantandindispensibletoolincircuitryisamultimeter.
Imagineasituationwhenacircuitprojectwaspresentedtoyou.Sinceyouwererequestedtodetailaccuratemeasurementsforitselectriccurrent,voltage,andresistance,yougotothenearestequipmentlaboratorytoborrowastackofdevicesforassistance.
Now,imaginethesamesituation,butthistime,youhavethistool;insteadofhavingtogototheequipmentlaboratorytoborrowastackofdevicestomeasuretheelectriccurrent,voltage,andresistance,youturntothattool.Thisparticulartime,youhaveamultimeter.
Ifyou’renotfamiliarwiththeoperationsofamultimeter,letitbeyourfirstjobpriortocreatingacircuitproject.It’sactuallyquiteeasytouse.Solongasyouareattentivetoinstructions,andyouknowitscomponents,certainrestriction,andthetechniquetomaximizingitsfunctions,you’reset.
X.A.-What’saMultimeter?
Amultimeter,alsocalledamultitester,Volt-Ohmmillimeter,andVolt-Ohmmeter,isanelectronicdevicethatmeasurestheelectriccurrentinacircuit;itiscapableofmeasuringvoltage,resistance,andavarietyofotherunitsinacircuit’ssystem.Toknowhowtousethedevice,it’simportanttobefamiliarwitheachofitscomponents;ifyoucanunderstandhowthecomponentswork,youcanalsounderstandtheoperationsoftheentiredevice.
Partsofamultimeter:
1. Theselectionknob–itenablesausertochooseaparticularsettingthatissubjectformeasurement
2. Thedisplaymeter–itenablesthedisplayofthemeasuredreading;itcancontainupto4digits,aswellasanegativesign
3. Theprobes–thesearepluggedintoamultimeterthatcaninterpretandconvertmeasurementsfromadeviceintoamultimeter;usually,thesecomeinapairofredandblackprobes
Typesofprobes:
1. IChook
2. Alligatorclips
3. Testprobes
X.B.-AMultimeterintheWorks
Inarguably,amultimeterisoneofthemostusefultoolsincircuitryandoneofthetoolsthatcanmakethetaskofbuildingcircuitseasy.Itcanbeusedtomeasureanyobjectordevicethatcontainsacircuitandanelectriccurrent.Usingit,however,
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comesthehardpart;infact,intheworldofcircuitsandelectronics,itearnedthetitleasoneofthemostchallengingjobs.Itmaybeeffortlesstogetareading,butgettinganaccuratereading,theninterpretingthereadingisanotherstory.
Howtouseamultimetertomeasure(abasicexample):
1. PrepareanAAAbattery.
2. Plugtheblackprobeofamultimetertothenegativeside(i.e.thesidewitha“-“)oftheAAAbattery.
3. PlugtheredprobeofamultimetertothepositivesideoftheAAAbattery.
4. Checkthedisplaymeter;asrecommended,checkthemetertwice.
5. Listdownthereadingandbegintheinterpretation.
X.C.–Resolution,Accuracy&InputImpedance
Thesmallestpartofamultimeter’sscaleiscalledastheresolution.Itisresponsibleforachievinganaccuratereadingandinterpretation.Inmanymultimeterkinds,especiallydigitalones,itcanbeconfiguredorcalibrated.And,astherulesgo,adevicewithlowresolutiondoesn’trequiremuchcompletiontime;adevicewithhighresolutioncanrequireademandingprocessingtime.
Meanwhile,theaccuracyofamultimeterreferstoanerrorinthemeasurementofanelectriccurrent,incomparisontoaperfectreading.Itisrelativetothedevice’sresolutionsinceresolutionmaynotbecalibratedaccordinglyiftheabsoluteaccuracylevelisquestionable.Therefore,todeterminethetotalaccuracyofamultimeter,itsrelativeaccuracyshouldbeaddedtoitsabsoluteaccuracy.
Formulaforthecomputationoftotalaccuracy:
**representations:TA=totalaccuracy
RA=relativeaccuracy
AA=absoluteaccuracy
TA=RA+AA
Whentalkingaboutamultimeter’sresolutionandaccuracy,inputimpedanceisasetoftermsthatneedstobeacknowledged,too.Thisisduetothedevice’sinabilitytoachieveaccuratereadingswhenitisnotsetaccordingly.Especiallyforthemeasurementofacircuit’svoltage,itsinputimpedancehastobecalibratedhigh(i.e.higherthanacircuit’svoltage)sotheoperationremainssmoothly.
X.D.–SafetyConcerns
Groupsthatareinchargeofthemanufactureofmultimeters,aswellastheauthoritiesthatpromotethesafeuseofsuchdeviceshavesetsafetystandards.Thisistoemphasizetheimportanceoftherightemploymentoftheelectricaltools.Althoughthemethodforusecanberatherstraightforward,recklesshabitscanresulttoproblems.Alongsidethepossibilityofinaccuratereadings,itcancauseharmtotheindividualthatishandlingthedevices.
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Categoriesofsafetystandards:
Category1–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancenearmainconnections
Category2–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancesomewherenearthefirstphaseofmainconnections
Category3–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancenearpermanentlyinstalledloads
Category4–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancenearfaultycurrentlevelsthatcanbequitehigh
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ChapterXI-DIYCircuits:SimpleProjects
Whenyou’reintocircuits,aswellaselectronicsandelectricalengineering,youneedtostepupyourgamewhenitcomestobuildingitems.Isn’tthemainreasonforlearningthebranchofelectricalengineeringforthecreationofcircuits,then,puttingthemtogooduse?
Intheeventthatyourfirstcircuitprojectwouldn’tturnoutasdesired,trynottogetdiscouragedeasily,andinstead,givemattersanothergo.Notgettingtheresultsyouwantedmaybeabitofadowner,buteventually,theoddswillbeinyourfavor;lookatthesetbackasanopportunityforlearning.Ifyourheart’sintocircuits,you’llsoongetthehangofhowthingsaredone.
XI.A.–CommonToolsinCircuitry
Forthecreationofacircuit,youcanmakeuseofjustaboutanytoolyoucomeacross;ifyoufindequipmentthatwillmakeyouaccomplishataskeasier,then,maybeyoushouldputitinyourarsenal.Youcanusejustanytool,yes,but,doingsoisnotadvised.Itisbesttochoosetherightset(i.e.asetoftoolswithanon-conductivehandle)tonotputyoursafetyatrisk.
Commontools:
Crimper
Cutters(e.g.cablecutter,electricalcutter,etc.)
Extractiontool
Gluegun
Non-metallictweezers
Pliers
Screwdriver
Solderinggun
Wire-wrappingtools
XI.B.-BeginnerCircuitProjects
Buildingyourfirstcircuitcanbeachallenge;sinceyou’restillabeginner,youmayendupmakingmistakes.Maybeyourcircuitwon’tendupasfunctionalasdesired,despitehavingfollowedyourunderstandingofaseriesofprocedures.Insuchacase,thisiswhereyouhavetotweakyourwork;bediligentinfiguringoutwhereyouwentwrong.Ifyou’reuncertainofyouractions’impact,don’tworrytoomuch.Theimportantpartistobegin;youcan,then,figureouttherestalongtheway.
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7easycircuitprojects(derivedfromhttp://www.instructables.com):
Project#1–StaticElectricityAnalyzer
TheStaticElectricityAnalyzercandetectnearbystaticelectricity;toindicatethatstaticelectricityispresent,itsLEDcomponentglows.Apartfromadetector,itcanbeusedtoanalyzetheelectricityinitssurroundings.Itisanextremelysensitivedevicesinceitcanevendetectnearbyhandmovementwithouttouchingtheantenna.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
1pieceLED
1piecestaticelectricityantenna
1piece100Kresistor
1piece1Mresistor
3pieces2n222transistor
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. Totheleftsideofthecircuitboard,connectthe1Mresistorto2n222transistor.
2. Besideit,attachthewire,then,attachthestaticelectricityantenna.
3. Onthebottom,attachthewire,then,attachtheother2n222transistor;nexttoit,attachthewire,andfinally,attachthethird2n222transistor.
4. Placethe100Kresistoradjacenttothesecond2n222transistor.
5. PlacetheLEDadjacenttothethird2n222resistor.
6. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
Project#2–DarkLEDLight
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TheDarkLEDLightisacircuitprojectthatcandetectdarkness.Itfollowsthatwheninsufficientlightissupplied,anICtimerisalerted;consequently,ahighoutputisproducedandLEDlightwillbeswitchedon.Theideabehinditissimilartothatofastreetlightthatautomaticallyturnsononceitdetectsthatit’salreadyevening.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
1pieceLED
1pieceLDR
1piece10nfcapacitor
1piece100nfcapacitor
1piece10Kresistor
1piece100Kresistor
1piece555ICtimer
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. OntopoftheLDR,attachthe100Kresistor.
2. OnthebottomoftheLDR,createaconnectiontotheLED.
3. TotheleftoftheLED,createaconnectiontothe10nfcapacitor.
4. Totheleftofthe10nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe100nfcapacitor.
5. Nexttothe100nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe10Kresistor.
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6. Placethe555ICtimerbetweenalltheconnections;establishthemainconnectionbyattachingtheotherendsoftheLED,LDR,capacitors,andresistorstothe555ICtimer(directlyorwithawire).
7. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
Project#3–TheTickingBomb
TheTickingBombismeantforcreatingatickingsoundthatresemblesabomb.Onceitisturnedon,itproducessoundthatisadjustable,butismodifiedto1tickpersecond.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
2pieces10ufcapacitors
1piece555ICtimer
1piece47Kresistor
1piece8ohmspeaker
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. Makethe555ICtimerasthecentralcomponent;toitsleft,createaconnectiontothe47Kresistor.
2. Onthebottom,createaconnectiontothefirst10ufcapacitor;then,createaconnectionfromthe10ufcapacitortothe47Kresistor.
3. Totherightofthe555ICtimer,createaconnectiontothesecond10ufcapacitor.
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4. Fromthesecond10ufcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe8ohmspeaker.
5. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
Project#4–TheRemoteTester
TheRemoteTester,asitsnamesuggests,isacircuitthatcheckswhetherornotaremotecontrolisworking.Behindit,theideaisfocusedonthesufficientamountofsignalsthattheIRreceiverisgetting.Ifitreceivesenoughsignals,theLEDlightsup,whichmeansthataparticularremotecontrolisfunctioning;conversely,iftheLEDremainsasis,itisanindicationofafaultycomponentinthedevice.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
1pieceLED
1pieceIRreceiver
1piece1Kresistor
1piecebc557transistor
1piece10ufcapacitor
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. Ontopofthebc557transistor,createaconnectiontotheLED.
2. Adjacentofthebc557transistor(totheleft),createadirectpathtothe1Kresistor,then,totheIRreceiver.
3. Onthebottom,createaconnectiontothe10ufcapacitor.
4. Connectthe10ufcapacitor(directlyorwithwire)toclosethe
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connection.
5. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
Project#5–TheBellExperiment
TheBellExperimentisabasicprojectthatproducesamusicalsound;theresultisadevicethatmaybesimilartoadoorbell.Itworksaccordingtoeachofitscomponents;iftheresistor,transistor,andICaretriggered,thebunchsendsasignaltothespeaker,whichwillthen,createthesound.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
1piece1Kresistor
1piece2n222transistor
1pieceUM66IC
1piece8ohmspeaker
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. Ononeendofthe8ohmspeaker,createaconnectiontothe2n222transistor.
2. Onanotherend,createaconnectiontothe1Kresistor.
3. Fromthe1Kresistor,createaconnectiontotheUM66IC;makesurethattheUM66isparalleltothe8ohmspeaker.
4. ConnecttheUM66(directlyorwithwire)tothe2n222transistortoclosethecircuit.
5. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
Project#6–TheLEDThatFades
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TheLEDThatFadesisaprojectthatproducesandsometimes,blinkinglights.Itoperatesaccordingtotheweaknessorstrengthofthesignalsthatareinterpretedbyeachofitscomponents.IfitsICtimer,transistor,resistor,andcapacitorreceivestrongsignals;theLEDwillglow;conversely,iftheyreceiveweaksignals,thelightstartstofade.Intheeventthatthesignalsthataresubmittedareunstable(i.e.theyalternatebetweenweakorstronginafewminutes’time),theblinkingpatterncomesin.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
1pieceLED
1piece555ICtimer
1piecebc547transistor
1piece33Kresistor
1piece220ohmresistor
1piece100ufcapacitor
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. Tothebottomofthebc547transistor,createaconnectiontotheLED.
2. ParalleltotheLED,createaconnectiontothe100ufcapacitor.
3. Ontopofthe100uf33Kresistor,createaconnectiontothe220ohmresistor.
4. Nexttothe220ohmresistor,createaconnectiontothe555IC
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timer.
5. Createaconnectionaroundthe555ICtimerforaclosedcircuit.
6. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
Project#7–TheLEDwithActivatedLight
TheLEDwithActivatedLightisabasicprojectforbeginnersincircuitengineering;itismeantforaclearerunderstandingoftheconceptofresistance.TheLEDlightsupwiththeapplicationofsufficientresistance;ifresistancelevelsareinsufficient,thelightwon’tbeactivated.
Materials:
Around10pieceswire
1pieceLED
1pieceLDR
1piece10nfcapacitor
1piece100nfcapacitor
1piece10Kresistor
1piece4.7Kresistor
1piece555ICtimer
1piece220ohmresistor
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. TothebottomoftheLDR,createaconnectiontothe4.7Kresistor.
2. Paralleltothe4.7Kresistorconnection,createanewconnection
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totheLED,followedbythe22ohmresistorontop.
3. Fromthe22ohmresistor,createaconnectiontothe555ICtimer.
4. Tothebottomofthe555ICtimer,andparalleltotheLEDconnection,createanewconnectiontothe10nfcapacitor.
5. Totheleftofthe10nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe100nfcapacitor.
6. Ontopofthe100nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe10Kresistor.
7. Createaconnectiontoclosethecircuit.
8. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.
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ChapterXII–MakingYourWaytoCircuitDesign:PCBLayouts&SchematicDiagrams
Ifyouarefamiliarwitheachofitscomponents,youmayhaveagoodgraspofhowanelectroniccircuitworks;grantedthattheintegralparts(e.g.powersource,conductor,resistor,diode,etc.)areinplace,andyouwereintroducedtodifferenttechniquesonestablishingconnectionsproperly,there’sahighchancethatanycircuitprojectyoutakeoncanbeasuccess.Onceanopeningforapowersourceisidentified,andthestabilityofanarrangementfortherestinaseriesisachieved,you’reset.
However,ifgiventheopportunitytomakeaparticularcircuitmorefunctional,wouldn’tyoutakeit?Insteadofsettlingforarandomcircuitdesign,whynothaveitmodifiedforsuperiorperformance?
XII.A.-CircuitDesign101
Everwonderwhycircuitengineersarepaidhighlyand(dependingontheirchosencareerpath)arepresenteddifferentcareeradvancementopportunities(e.g.workascomputerengineers,roboticsspecialistsjobs,etc.)?
Theresponsibilitiesofcircuitengineersareratherdemanding;theyneedtobementallytoughandbeopentodifferentchallenges.Theyspendhoursandhoursrackingtheirbrainsouttodeterminehowsystemscanbemademoreefficient.Chancesare,there’salwaysaway;it’suptothemtolookforone.Whenaparticularprojectasksforit,it’smandatoryforthemtolettheircreativejuicesflowtoarriveatacompatiblesolution.Otherwise,theirbuiltcircuitsmaystopfunctioningeventually.
Asmentioned,it’spracticaltodesignacircuitaccordingly;especiallywiththeiremploymentforthefieldsofcommunication,navigation,telecommunication,travel,andotherindustries,theirdesignsshouldconsideraparticularpurpose.Apartfromtheobjectiveofmeetingdifferentrequirements,thereneedstobeastrategysinceamorefunctionalcircuitcomeswithhigherquality;itcanmakeaprojectconsumeareducednumberofresources,too.
Reasonswhytherearevariouscircuitdesigns:
Improvementofacircuit’sefficiency
Improvementofacircuit’ssizeandweight
Guaranteeacircuit’sdurabilityforasetperiod
Guaranteeacircuitissafetouse
XII.B.–TheDesignProcess
Manytimes,aPCBlayout(asdiscussedinchapterVII,Let’sTalkaboutCircuitBoards)andaschematicdiagramareofteninterchangedincircuitry;ithasled
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others,especiallythenovicesincircuitengineering,tobelievethattheyareoneandthesame.Inaway,sincetheyarebothpresentationsofacircuit’ssystem,theymayseemsimilar.However,uponcloserinspection,theyarenot.Itis,therefore,essentialinthecircuitdesignprocessthatthedifferenceisacknowledged.
APCBlayoutisaphysicalrepresentationorarealmodelofacircuit.Itpresentsalloftheelectricalcomponentsthatareincluded;italsodetailswhichofthecomponentsareactiveandwhichonesarepassive.Althoughitcanshowanactualworkingcircuit,understandingthefunctionsofeachofitspartscanbetedious.
APCBlayoutisanactualcircuitmodel
Ontheotherhand,aschematicdiagram,alsocalledsimplyasacircuitdiagram,isadescriptiveoutlineofacircuit’ssystem;itisthestandardandlesscostlywayofcircuitrepresentation.ItislikeaPCBlayoutthatshowsbothoftheactiveandpassivecomponentsinacircuit;unlikeaPCBlayout,however,itspresentationscanbeeasilyunderstood.
Aschematicdiagramcanincludeimportantnotesfortheimprovementofacircuit’sdesign
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Stagesofcircuitdesign:
Meetingspecificrequirements
Thecreationofacircuitdiagram
Buildingabreadboard,oraPCBlayout
Thepresentationofeachcircuitcomponent(forprofessionalevaluation)
Applyingtheresultsofevaluation
Testing(andretesting)
Gettingapprovalfromprofessionals
Circuitdesigntipsforbeginners(preparationprocess):
Categorizethecomponents
ConstructaPCBlayout,aswellasaschematicdiagram
Determinethecompatibilityofeachcircuitcomponent
Circuitdesigntipsforbeginners(circuit-buildingprocess):
Alwaysavoidcoldsolderjoints
Alwaysseparatepowercontrolsandotherconnections
Alwaysseparateanaloganddigitalcomponents
Createtracesshouldhard-to-findcomponentsbeincluded
Remembertoalwaysmakeintegralnodesaccessible
Solderthecomponentssystematically;soldersmallcomponentsfirst,then,solderlargercomponentsnext
Strategizethespacesyouallowbetweencomponents
Takenoteofanyheatspots
XII.C.-CircuitSymbols
Ontheprocessofbuildingacircuitandmodifyingitsdesign,anunderstandingofdifferentcircuitsymbolsisimportant.Descriptionsofcircuitcomponentscanbeputinsimplewords;itiscalledaverbaldescription.However,sinceathoroughapproachisrecommendedinmanycircuitrylessons,avisualrepresentationcanenableyoutounderstandtheelectricflowinacircuit.
Here’sagoodcomparison:
Verbaldescription Visualrepresentation
Circuit#1containsalightbulb,aswellasD-cellbatteryaspowersource.
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Moreover,circuitsymbolsforavisualrepresentationofacircuitispreferredoveraverbaldescriptionssincetheymaybelesscomplicatedtounderstand.Especiallyiftheparticularcircuitisquiteadvanced,adescriptioncontainingwordscanbechallengingtouseasbasis.Ifavisualmodelisemployed,however,youcansimplyfocusonconnections,insteadoftheinterpretationofawordeddescription;thereisabetterchanceofbuildinganimpressivecircuitdesignsuccessfully.Especiallyifyouhaveplansofadvancingyourplaceincircuitengineeringbysoonmovingforwardfromanovicetoacircuitexpert,memorizingthedifferentcircuitsymbolsisamust.
Listofbasicsymbols:
Symbolname Symbol
AC
DC
Capacitor
Resistor
Fuse
Diode
LED
Regulator
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Transistor
Listofbasiccapacitorvariationsymbols:
Listofbasicdiodevariationsymbols:
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Listofbasicswitchesvariationsymbols:
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Listofbasictransistorvariationsymbols:
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XII.D.–FactorstoConsider
Astrategiccircuitdesignisimportantsinceacircuitmaynotfunctionatallintheabsenceofagoodplan;iftheplacementofeachofitscomponentswasn’taccomplishedaccording,youmayhavejustwastedresources.Youmayhavethecorrectcomponentsbutiftheyarenotdesignedproperly,acircuitisfarfromworking.Besides,attherealizationthatyoumaynotbedesignacircuit’ssystemaccordingtorequirements,youwouldn’twanttoputthecircuit-buildingprojecttoanendatthemiddleoftheprocess,right?
Moreover,theproperdesignstructureofacircuitneedstobeprioritized.Regardlessifitisnotmeanttoimpressanother,itshouldstillbedesignedaccordinglyastobeasteppingstoneinthepossibilityofhandlingmoreprojectseventually.Withtheknowledgeofhowtodesignacircuitproperlyasabeginnercomestheeffortlessknowledgeontheconstructionofmoreadvancedcircuitseventually.
Whattokeepinmind:
Timeavailability(ofthecreator)–althoughitcanbecompletedquickly,acircuitprojectshouldn’tberushed;theprojectcreatorshouldbeavailableforasetperiodsohecanconcentrateproperlyonacircuit.Especiallyifhehashardlyanytimetospare,it’ssuggestedthatheeitherdeterminesawaytofindadditionaltime,ortakesonadifferentproject
Difficultylevel–theassessmentofacircuitprojectisimportantpriortoacceptance.Whiletherearesimpleones,someprojectsarerathercomplicated.Ifacreatoriscertainthathecan’tfollowthroughtheproceduresofaparticularproject,hemaywanttoconsiderotherundertakings
Totalcostoftheproject–onereasonthatthecreationofaschematicdiagramandotherpreparationsaresuggested(priortotakingonacircuitproject)isduetopracticalityregardingtheoverallexpenses.Asmuchaspossible,thecreatorshouldconsiderhisabilitytofundaproject.Especiallyifheplansonusingexpensivecircuitcomponents,heneedstothinkaboutwhetherhecanaffordtheprojectuntilcompletion.
Thedesiredfunction–identifythereasonwhyyoutookontheproject.Isitforexperimentationandpersonaluse?Or,wasitarequestfromacompany?Especiallyifthepurposeisforacommercialcompany,designacircuittoachievefirst-ratequality.
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XII.E.-Documentation,Verification&Testing
Aprimarybenefitofthedocumentationprocessisitsadvantageoflettingyouidentifypossibleerrorsinputtingtogetheracircuit.Ifyouweren’tsuccessfulattheendstageofyourproject,youcanfigureoutexactlywhereyouwentwrong;infavorofhavingtodisregardyourcurrentprogressandstartingfromscratchthesecondtimearound,youcansimplyhavecertainmethodsmodified(forimprovement).
Verification,asdefinedincircuitry,istheprocessofthoroughlyevaluatingeachofacircuit’scomponents,aswellaseachofthestagesinthemaking.Theobjectiveistodeterminewhethertheprocesshasbeenadheredtocorrectly.Usually,thiscanbeatime-consumingprocess,butsinceitisintendtoensurequality,itisanimportantone.
Inaway,thereal-worldversionoftheverificationprocessistesting.Priortoacircuit’slaunchanditsexposuretodifferentcommercialindustries,itistestedinresearchlaboratories.Likeverification,itcanalsobeatime-consumingprocess,andsinceitisthelastprocessbeforeacircuitispassedontoanothersource,itcanbealabor-intensiveseries.
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ChapterXIII–AWayIsthroughEDA
AreyoufamiliarwithFABSorSemi-conductorfabricationfacilities?
FABSareplaceswherecircuitdesigns,evencomplexones,canbeputtogether;theyareusuallyextensivesincetheyaremeanttoaccommodatebulkcircuitprojects.InsidethemarevariousequipmentforEDA,whichiswhycircuit-productionisrapid.
WiththeproductivitylevelofFABS,semi-conductorsarecontinuouslybecomingpopular.And,sincesemi-conductorsarecomponentsinacircuit,circuitsgrewinpopularity,too.
XIII.A.-WhatIsEDA?
EDA,alsoknownasElectronicDesignAutomationisaclassofsoftwareequipmentespeciallyfordesigningacircuitordifferentelectronicdevices.Itiscategorizedalongwithothermoderntoolsusedincircuitry;iteliminatestheneedtodesignacircuitbyhand,whichminimizessimpleandcriticalerrors,repairglitches,andsuggestpossibleimprovements.
Moreover,it’sduetoEDAthatcircuitcreationandcircuitproductionbecamefaster.Ifyou’reconcernedregardingthequalitysincetheprocessisdoneinanautomatedfashion,beconfidentthateachdesignunderwentthoroughanalysis.Remember,thesoftwareequipment’sdesignwasspecificallymeanttoaddressacircuit’ssystem.
XIII.B.–DesignFlows
Intheworldofcircuitry,it’simportanttobeinformedoftheconceptsofEDA;itprivilegesacircuitcreatorwithagoodgraspoftheproperwaytobuildcircuits.TheemployeesofgrandelectronicscompaniessuchasIntel,HewlettPackard,andValidLogicSystemsarealltrainedtohaveimpressiveknowledgeofthetools,despitealreadyhavinggonethroughyearsofeducation.
Throughtheyears,EDAtoolshaveundergonecontinuousdevelopment.Initially,theconceptswereratherlimited;intheAgeofEDAInvention,thefocuswasmerelyonrouting,logicsynthesis,staticanalysis,andplacement.Eventually,intheAgeofEDAImplementation,theseconceptsweresubjectedtomajorimprovements;moresophisticatedandadvancedalgorithmfortheEDAtoolswereconsidered.CometheAgeofEDAIntegration,theywerefurtherstudiedandweredesignedtocatertointegratedenvironments.
Now,youmaybewonderingwhythereisaneedtobuildcircuitsmanuallywhenthereareEDAtools.Well,althoughtheprocesscanbeaccomplishedeasierandfaster,sometimes,bringingtheexpertiseofacircuitengineeronthetableisrecommended;thisway,hecanthoroughlyevaluatethequalityofacircuit’ssystem.
Additionally,theoperatorsofEDAtoolsareselectedcarefully;usually,theyare
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theoneswithabackgroundintheoperationsofEDAtoolsandsimilarequipment.Thisisduetotheexpenses,aswellasthepossiblecomplications,involvedinusingsuchdevices.Intheeventthataneedfortroubleshootingarises,it’sbesttohavesomebodywhoisknowledgeableincircuitdesignsonstandby.
PrimaryfocusesofEDA:
Thepresentationofschematic-drivenlayout
Advancedandlogicalinterpretationofeachcircuitcomponent
Hardwareandtransistorsimulation
XIII.C.-Circuit-LevelOptimization
Thecircuit-leveloptimizationorpoweroptimizationofEDAtoolsreferstothevarioustechniquesthatareemployedforthereductionofthetotalpowerinacircuit.Althoughtheintentistomodifyacircuit’ssetupeconomically,theprocessesshouldn’tcompromisetheproduct’soverallquality.Withthemaingoalofenhancingacircuit’sefficiency,theotherobjectivesaretoincreasespeed,eliminatepossibleleakage,enhancepowerdistribution,andimprovefunctionality.
Circuit-leveloptimizationtechniques:
Modificationofvoltagescales,thresholds,variables,blocks,supplies,andothervoltage-relatedconcerns
Modificationandre-sizingoftransistors
Modificationoflogicstyles
Re-routingofnetworks
XIII.D.-Interpretation,Analysis&Verification
AlthoughtheautomationprocessofEDAtoolsmayeliminateerrorsinacircuit’ssystem,aproductremainsasubjectofvarioustestingmethods.Thisisduetotheindustryofcircuitry’sinsistenceonguaranteeingtheflawlessnetworksofcircuitsystems.Intheaimofmakingsurethatacircuit’sfunctionsareintunewithspecificrequirements,itisinterpreted,analyzed,andverified.
Intheeventwhenacircuit(thatwascreatedwithEDAtools)hadn’tundergonetests,thereisalikelihoodthatitwon’tfunctionforaspecificpurpose.Especiallyiftheprojectwillbeemployedforcommercialagenda,theindustryexpertsarenotgrantingpermissiontodistribute“unevaluated”circuitsystems.
Circuitevaluationmethods:
Assessmentofacircuit’smaintenancerequirements
Inspectionofdesiredandundesiredeffects(inrelationtomathematicallogic)
Inspectionofacircuit’sfunctionality
Inspectionofacircuit’sstability
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Verificationofphysicalcomponents
Verificationofstatictiming
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ChapterXIV–TheOtherWayaround:ReverseEngineering
Oneofthecoolestwaysofunderstandingcircuitsistodisassembleallofitscomponentsonebyone.First,makesurethatitisnotconnectedtoanypowersource.Afterputtingonprotectivegloves,begintakingapartacomponent;then,determineitsfunction.Repeattheproceduresuntilyouknowthepurposeofthepartsandtheimportanceofhavingthemworkasanetwork.
Now,putthemallbacktogether;makesurethecircuitworks.
Suchaprocessiscalledreverseengineering.
XIV.A.-AnIntroductiontoReverseEngineering
Reverseengineering,alsocalleddeconstruction,reversing,backwardsengineering,andbackengineeringistheprocessofextractingknowledgefromanydeviceorelectronicequipment.Itinvolvestheneedtodeconstructanentirecircuitforfurtheranalysisofitscomponents.Althoughthemethodsthatwillbeemployedareoppositetotheprocessofcreation,itisconsideredasapracticalapproachoflearningcircuitry.
Moreover,reverseengineeringgiveslighttoAristotle’sconceptthatthekeytounderstandingtheoperationsofadeviceisstudyingeachoneofitsparts.Backinthedays,thefieldislimitedtoitsemploymentonacircuitandotherelectronicequipment;now,inthemodernworld,theapplicationofa“reverse”methodologyincludesalmostanything–fromchildren’stoysandhouseholdappliancestoneuroscience,computerprogramming,andDNA.
XIV.B.-ReasonsforReversing
Oneoftheprivilegesthatreverseengineeringcangranttoacircuitcreatoristheguaranteethatadeviceismadeaccordingly.Intheeventthathechoosestobasehiscircuitprojectonanothercircuitthatwascreatedwithquestionableprivacy,hecandetermineanyunethicalpractices.Ifhetakesapartallofitscomponents,hehasthechancetohaveaninsiderlook;bythen,hecanconfirmwhetherunregulatedmodificationsareinplace.
Whyusereverseengineeringtechniquesforcircuit-creation:
Documentationpurposes–especiallyinthecaseofshortcomingsandlow-qualitycircuitdocumentation,thediagnosisofacircuitisnecessarytopresentnewinformation
Interfacing–withreverseengineeringtechniquescanbesubjectedtointerfacing;itcanbeevaluatedaccordingly,regardingitscompatibilitywithanothercircuit
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Bugfixing–iftherearecriticalfaultsinacircuit’sdesign,itcanberecognizedbetterwithacloserlookateachofitscomponents;insteadofresortingtoassumptions,acircuitcreatorcanidentifywhichpartofhisprojectneedsmodification
Advancedtechnicalinformation–advancedtechnicalinformationisrewardedwhenopeningupacircuit;especiallyforbeginners,reverseengineeringisapracticalwayoflearningaboutthestraightforwarddetailswithinthesystem
Incorporationofanewfunctionality–reverseengineeringcanallowtheincorporationofafeatureinacircuit;ratherthandesignanothercircuit,acircuitcreatorcansimplymakemodificationsonhiscurrentproject
Modernization–reversingisbeneficialincircuitrysinceitcanbeusedtomodernizeaproject;forinstance,ifmostmoderndevicesarepopularinthemarketduetoaninnovativefeature,acircuitcreatorcanemployreverseengineeringtoaddthesamefeaturetohiscircuit
Guaranteeproductsecurity–ifacircuitcreatorisunsureofthesecurityofhisproject,reverseengineeringisawayforhimtodeterminecertainconcerns;hecancheckthespecificationsofeachcomponentandguaranteethatnoneposessafetyriskswhenputtouse
XIV.C.–IsReverseEngineeringSimilartoHacking?
Sinceitisthemethodfortheextractionofinformationonacircuitthatcan’tberetrievedordinarily,reverseengineeringisarguedtobeaformofcorrupthacking;itis,therefore,afieldthatafewothersintheelectronicsindustryattempttoavoid.However,formanynumberofcircuitengineers(aswellasotherengineers),thereisbrillianceintheentireconceptofreverseengineering.
Accordingtothosewhoarenotagainstthefield,reverseengineeringisawayofoutsmartinganalreadyfinishedproduct;additionally,astheywouldinsist,isn’tthepointofengineeringexactlythat–tobuildandre-builduntilsatisfyingoutcomeisachieved?Itmaybeconsideredasaformofhacking,butmanycontesttotheideathatitisbehindcorruptobjectives.
XIV.D.–TheConstructionofReverseEngineeredProjects
Inarguably,reverseengineeringisratherdestructiveandinvasive.Somearenotinfavorofitsincetheydonotwelcometheideaoftearingtheirworksapart.Forothers,however,itisacreativewayofimprovinganalreadycompletedproject;especiallyiftheparticularprojectisoutstanding,theyaregrantedthechancetomakeitevenmoreoutstanding.
Amongthecommonprojectsthatcanbemodifiedwiththeuseofreverseengineeringarealarmclockradios,coffeemachines,andcoloredlamps.Alongside,theknowledgeofinternalsystems,theycanaddauniquefunctionalitythatisnotincludedduringcommercialdistribution.Forinstance,youcanaddanewbeepingsoundtoanalarmclockradio.
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Fortheconstructionofvariousreverseengineeringprojects,it’sadvisedtohaveasetoftoolshandy.Prepareasetofscrewdrivers,magnifiers,andcuttingequipment.Additionally,whenthedisassemblyiscompleted,haveapackofelectricaltapenearby.
Reverseengineeringprojecttipsforbeginners:
Takepicturesofacircuit’sfrontandbacksystempriortodisassembly;youcanuseitasreference
Listdownthesetofproceduresyouplanonfollowing;makesureyouadheretothem
XIV.E.-ReverseEngineering&CAD
ReverseengineeringrodealongwiththepopularityofCADorComputer-AidedDesign.Throughtheyears,thefieldthatusedtobelimitedtothebasicimprovementofacircuit’ssystembeganincorporatingcomplexfeatures.Itprovidesacircuitcreatorthechancetoanalyzetheinternalportionofadevice.
Moreover,insteadofsettlingongettingafundamentalviewofacircuitprojectthatrequiresreverseengineering,acircuitcreatorcanmeticulouslyanalyzeacircuit;hecaninspecteachcomponentthoroughlyandcomeupatthemostpracticalsolution.Foritsdevelopment,circuitengineers,circuitdesigners,andotherprofessionalsonelectronicsstartedcollaborativeworkswitharchitectsandthosewhoareskilledinCAD.
AdvantagesofusingCADtechnologyforacircuitproject:
Toimprovethealignmentofeachcircuitcomponent
Toenhancethedesignationofspaceswithinacircuit’ssystem
Tomodifygeometricsubjectsforboostedperformance
Tozoomin(andlookclosely)oneachcircuitcomponent
XIV.F.-TheLegalityoftheIndustry
Inlighttothedifferentdiscussionsregardingitssimilaritytocorrupthacking,thereverseengineeringindustryissubjectedtovariouslegalcomplaints.Thereareevenlaws(thatusuallyfallundercontractlawsandfraudulentmanufacturinglaws)meantfortheprotectionofallsectorsthatemployreversedcircuitsorelectronicdevices.
Theterminteroperabilityisintroducedinrelationtoavarietyoflegalityconcerns.Withtheemergenceofcasesthatrevolvearoundthedisassemblyofcircuit’spartstocompromisethequalityofacircuit,somewhotacklereverseengineeredprojectarenotreceivedwell.
Reverseengineeringis,therefore,onlyconsideredillegaliftheprimarygoalistoachieveinteroperability.Ifthegoalisfortheimprovementofacircuit’soverallperformance,itisencouraged;alongwithalmosteveryothermeansofrepairingasystem,itisevenrecommendedtoarriveatadesiredpurpose.
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ChapterXV–HackingtheSystem
Differentcommunitiesofhackershosteventsthatgivelighttothosewhoarepassionateincircuitry.
Onecommunity,ArtisanAsylum,hostsacircuithackingnightonceaweek.Inthegathering,circuitengineeringfellows–frombeginnerstoprofessionals,cometogethertodiscussvariousconceptsincircuitryandelectronics.There,like-mindedindividualssharetheirloveforcircuitryandtalkabouttheirfavoriteprojects,andbasically,anythingintheworldofcircuitry.
Moreover,ArtisanAsylum’scircuithackingnightprovidesgreatlearningopportunitiesforcircuithackingenthusiasts.Itpresentslessonsonhowtosolder,howtouseparticularcomputerprograms,andhowtomodifyacircuittofunctionasdesired.Apartfromteachingindividualsthebasicsandadvancedtechniquesonhowtohackacircuit,andhaveitworkasdesired,thecommunityencouragestheattendeestothinkoutsideoftheboxandcomeupwithbrilliantandinnovativeideas.
XV.A.–AboutCircuitHacking
Circuithacking,sinceitislinkedwiththewordhacking,cansometimesbeperceivedasfraudulent.However,thereisnothingfraudulentwithitsincethemainreasonwhytherearecircuithackersisfortheimprovementortherevisionofaproject;hacking,inthisessence,isdefinedasthemodificationofanexistingcircuittouseitforadifferentpurpose.And,inmostcases,acircuithackerisanindividualwhoexhibitscleverness,open-mindedness,andtechnicalaptness.
Duetoafewsimilarconcepts,circuithackingandreverseengineeringaresaidtobeoneandthesame;theyarenot.Whilebothmayincludecertaintechniquesthatareintendedfortheimprovementofacircuit’soperations,theformerismerelyfocusedondevelopinganexistingcircuit;itmaybeinvasive,too,butitdoesn’tinvolvethedeconstructionofanentirecircuit.Especiallyifitwasdeterminedthattheinstallmentofaparticularcomponentcanachieveadesiredfunctionality,havingtotearaparttheothersectionsofacircuitisdeemedunnecessary.
Commoncircuithackingmethods:
Patching–asimplecircuithackingmethodthatdescribesidentifyingacircuit’scontrolmechanismorthemostintegralpartofacircuit.Oncethemaincomponentisidentified,youcaninstallanewandbettercomponent
Componentreplacement–itisdefinedasreplacingatleastonecomponentofacircuitwithanothercomponentthatcomeswithbetterquality
XV.B.–AHacker’sMainTool:FIBTechnology
FIBorFocusedIonBeamTechnologyisconsideredasoneofahacker’smaintoolsinceitgrantshimthechancetohackalmostanycircuit.Eversincetheinitial
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introductionoftheapplicationsinthe1990s,theirusefulnesshadn’tcomeunappreciated.Theearlyversionswerenotonlyquiteexpensive,butalso,clearly,inneedofimprovement;later,thetoolsunderwentcontinuousmodificationsfrommanyelectronicsenthusiasts.
AccordingtoastudythatwasledbytheengineersatBerlinTechnicalUniversity,apersonskilledincircuitrycaninstallFIBTechnology-basedapplicationstohackintoasystem’ssecurity.Fortheparticularresearch,anICwithlow-levelsecuritywasthefocus;theobjectivewastoworkarounditslevelofsecuritywiththegoalofdeliberatelyeliminatingitsdefensivemechanism.Thestudywas,ofcourse,successfulandeventually,itwasproventhatevenhigh-leveltoolscanbehackedwiththesamepractice.And,asitfollows,itshedslightontheconceptthatthereisnosuchthingasatamper-proofcircuit.
Moreover,FIBTechnology,asaclevertechniqueofmanufacturing,developing,andre-wiringacircuit,hasearnedtheapprovalofdifferentcommunitiesofhackersandcircuitengineers.Alongsideitsadvantageofboostingasystem’sperformance,itreducesregularoperationtime.Duetoitsingeniouswayofallowinganindividualwho’sworkingonanelectronicdevicetodesign(andevenre-designrepeatedly)hisproject,itwassubjectedtofurtherdevelopments.
ImportantpartsofapplicationsthatincorporateFIBTechnology(asshowninthelayout):
Aperture–itisinchargeofgatheringvisualaids,then,modifyingthesetoolsforacleardisplayofretrievableinformationfromaparticularelectronicdevice
Deflectorplates–itaccepts,interprets,then,measuresreceivabledata;initially,itacknowledgesallinformationpriortothescreeningoftheunnecessaryones
Extractor–itisinchargeofdrawingoutinformationfromanelectronicdevice,then,transferringthemtothehackingmechanism
Lens–itisinchargeofmakingadjustmentstoassistwhenprocessinginformation
Octupoles–itisalsoknownasdoublequadrupolesoroctopoles,whichmeanssomethingthathaseightpoles;itcontrolsbeamsofions
Suppressor–itisdesignedtopreventpoweroverloadduetovoltagespikes;itworksbyregulatingtheamountofelectriccurrentwithinasystemsoadevicecanremainfunctional
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TheinstallmentofFIBTechnologycanbeverypromisingtoahacker
FunctionsofapplicationsthatincorporateFIBTechnology:
Enableand/ordisableintruderdetection
Evaluateacircuit’sbehavior
Evaluateacircuit’sdefects
Gathersecretcodesandsecuritykeys
Obtainpersonaldetails,sensitivedata,andproprietaryinformation
Removeprotectionsystems(e.g.tampernetworks,tracemeshes,opticalsensors,etc.)
Routeincomingdatatobereceivedbyanothernetwork
Traceandre-tracechanges
XV.C.–CircuitHackingProject
Aplussidetotheknowledgeofhowacircuitoperatesisthatyoucanchooseanyfromyourpackofelectronicdevicesandhaveitupgradedaccordingtopreference;thepossibilitiesofitsnewfunctionsareendless.Youwon’tevenhavetospendagrandamount,solongasyou’refamiliarwiththefunctionsofparticularinstallments.Theresultofhackingtheoriginalsystemmayberatherbizarre,sincetheproductisnolongerthesame,butnonetheless,theresultislikelythewayyoudesired.
Inthesampleprojectbelow,thegoalishackacharger;particularly,modifyanexistingchargerandhaveitoperatewithabattery.ItcanbeconnectedtoanyelectronicdevicewithaUSBport.Thisisusefulduringemergencieswhenanelectricoutletisnowheretobefound.
Projectexample(derivedfromhttp://www.maximumpc.com):USBChargerwithBattery
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AUSBchargerwithbatterycanbeusedforhours(dependingonyourvoltagesource)
Materials:
Charger
5-voltvoltageregulator
9-voltbattery
9-voltbatteryclip
Electricaltape
USBconnector
Copperwire
Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):
1. Onasideofthecharger,drillaholefortheplacementoftheUSBconnector.
2. Ontheothersideofthecharger,drillaholefortheplacementofthe5-voltvoltageregulator.
3. Atthebottomcenter(betweenthe2holes),placethe9-voltbattery.
4. Aboveit,establishagroundusingthecopperwireand9-voltbatteryclip.
5. Solderthecomponentstogether.
6. Wraptheproductwithelectricaltape.
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ChapterXVI–AdvancedCircuitEngineering:Microcontrollers&Robots
Amongtheplethoraofprospectsforacircuitengineeristheopportunitytoengageincircuit-bendingortheart(andscience)ofmodifyingexistingcircuitsofelectronicdevices,andturningthemintonewmusicalinstruments.Inmanycases,heisn’trequiredtofollowasetofrulesfortweakingacircuittoincorporateaparticularsound;infact,hecanre-designanelectronicdeviceasdesired.
Alongside,anadvantageofcircuit-bendingisitsrewardofreducingnecessaryexpenses.Intheeventthatheisveryresourceful,thecircuitcreatorcanmaximizetheadvantageevenmore;hecaninstallused(butinworkingcondition)componentsorlesscostlyparts.
Circuit-bendingismerelyoneoftheexcitingpossibilitiesforafellowincircuitry.Theoptionsareratherlimitless,especiallyifyouletyourcreativityrunloose.Solongasyouarecertainthatacircuitwillworkgivenaparticulararrangement,youshouldn’tholdbackintakingyourbeginner’sknowledgeofcircuitstoanadvancedlevel.
XVI.A.–ACircuitEngineer’sFutureinRobotics&ComputerEngineering
Arewardofbeingskilledincircuitryistheopportunitytoventureintootherengineeringfieldssuchasroboticsengineeringandcomputerengineering.Yourknowledgeofhowacircuitoperates?Youcanlookatitfromabrandnewperspective;youdon’thavetobesimplyintheindustryofcircuitengineeringorelectronicsengineering.Apartfromitsofferofamorebountifulcareer;youcanemployittocreateaproject(orabatchofprojects)thatyoucanbeproudof.Withthemasteryofthebasiccircuitrylessons,delvingintorelatedfieldsbecomeseasierandmoreexciting.
Withyourinterestincircuitry,youmayseekforothercareerpositions;usually,theemployersofroboticsengineersandcomputerengineerswelcomecircuitengineersintotheirworkforceduetotrainability,familiaritywithcircuits,andgoodbackgroundinelectronics.Itmaytakeanothersetofyearsofstudying,alongwithnewskillstolearn,butyoucandefinitelygohigher;ittakescommitmentfromyourend,too.
Advancedlessonsthatwillbeusefulforacircuitengineer:
Integralconnectionsforhardwarecomponents
Softwareandhardwareessentials
Roboticessentials
Computeroperations
Computerarchitecture
Computerprogramming(recommendedprogramminglanguagesareCand
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C++)
XVI.B.–Microcontroller+MicrocontrollerProgramming
Amicrocontrollerisasmalldevicethatservesasthecomputerinacircuit;itisacommontoolthatcanbefoundinremotecontrols,smartmedicalassistanceequipment,officemachines,state-of-the-artappliances,andenginecontrolsystems.Withtherapidpaceofvariousinformation-retrievaloperations,itsfunctionofaddressingsize,cost,time,andperformanceconcernsoffersprivilegesauserwithimprovedoverallperformance.Itisusuallyimplantedonaseparateelectronicdevicebeforeorafterthatdeviceisfinished.Incertaincases,ituses4-bitwordsandlowfrequencyclock-rateoperations.
Amicrocontrollerisdependentonaprogrammer’sinstructions
Moreover,whileamicrocontrollerisaveryusefuldevice,itisonlyasgoodastheprogramthatwaswrittenforit;thisiswheretheimportanceofmicrocontrollerprogrammingentersthepicture.Itisatoolthatmerelyexecutescertaininstructions;intheabsenceofspecificcommands,itwon’tfunction.However,ifyoudesignitwithevenahundredtaskcapabilities,itcanperformeachonewithoutfault;granteditwasprogrammedwell,itcanpoweradeviceasdesired.
Whatamicrocontrollercando:
Enableand/ordisableclockfeature
Enableand/ordisablelightcapabilities
Configureaudioandvideosettings
Addanexternalmonitor
Automaticallydetectand/orrepairerrors
Automaticallyupdateoldcomponents
Magnifyanelectronicdevice’sperformance
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Eliminateunwantedfeatures
Tightensecurityfeatures
Exampleofmicrocontrollerprogramming:
Result MicrocontrollerProgramming(inClanguage)
BytweakingitsUSBcomponents,amicrocontroller’sclocksettingcanbeformatted.ItisalsoprogrammedtoactivateBLorbacklightwithatrigger.
for(;;)[
handleserial();
CDC_USBdevice(&interface)
CDC_USBdevice(&digitalizer)
handleserial();
]
]
/Setup/[
intret
USB_initialize
clock_setup(div1);
BL_off(1),BL_on(0);
ret=digitizer_USB_initialize();
if(ret)
XVI.C.–Robots+Robotics
Anotherwaythatyoucantakeyourknowledgeincircuitryupanotchistoconsideracareerinroboticsengineering.Duetoyourfamiliaritywithacircuit,youcanbeginhoningyourskillsincreatingcoherentcircuits;youcanconstructaseriesthatisdependentontheindividualcircuitstodeliveritsprimaryfunction.
Asyoucommittorobotics,likeinprogramming,alineupofnewskills(e.g.artificialintelligencedevelopments,dynamics,motionplanningtechniques,mappingtactics,etc.)mustbeacquired,too.Thistime,otherthanyourhandincircuitsandotherelectroniccomponents,youhavetovisitaspectsinthemechanicalfields.However,givenyourexposuretosimilarconceptsincircuitry,learninginthefieldmaynotbeachallenge.
Withyourexpertiseincircuits,youcanbebehindinnovativeandextraordinaryroboticsprojectsthatcanbeadvantageousforbothcommercialandpersonaluse.Itjusttakesamatterofdeterminationtomoveforward,andthefactremainsthatacourseincircuitengineeringcanpresentyouwithasatisfyingplaceinrobotics,as
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wellasotherpromisingopportunities.
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ConclusionThankyouagainfordownloadingthisbook!
Ihopethisbookwasabletohelpyouunderstandthefundamentalsincircuitengineering.The lessons shared to you here are meant for a beginner in the subject; the differentdiscussionsarewrittensimply.And,sofar, itmayhavedawnedonyou that there’sstillmoretodiscoveraboutcircuits.
Thenextstepistolearnevenmoreaboutcircuitryandcircuitengineering.Especiallyifyou’reconsideringacareerinthefield,advancedlessonswouldbegood.Sincethisbookhasintroducedyoutothesubject,andmaybeinspiredyoutoseethefunsideincircuits,aswell as electronics and electrical engineering, you may want to take the beginner’sperspectivetoawholeotherlevel.
Finally, ifyouenjoyedthisbook,pleasetakethetimetoshareyourthoughtsandpostareviewonAmazon.It’dbegreatlyappreciated!
Thankyouandgoodluck!