cis 465 - computer-mediated communications 1 communication concepts * computer-mediated...

CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 1

Communication Concepts*

Computer-Mediated Communications

*GroupWare

Communication Concepts*

Computer-Mediated Communications

*GroupWare


CommunicationCommunication

Communication is an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with messages attached to them.


General Model of a Communication SystemGeneral Model of a Communication System

Source Transmitterencoder Channel

ReceiverDecoder Destination

Noiseand

Distortion

Feedback


Basic Communication ConceptsBasic Communication Concepts

Social Context Personal, Impersonal, and Anonymous

Communication Time, Place, and Direction of Communication


Social ContextSocial Context

The situation and relationships within which communication takes place.

– Social presence

– Organizational position

– Relationships

– Cultural Norms

– Age

– Gender

– The topic being discussed

Nonverbal communication Media Richness Theory


Personal, Impersonal, and Anonymous Communication

Personal, Impersonal, and Anonymous Communication

Personal - the relationship between sender and receiver matters. It affects form and content.

Impersonal - The sender and receiver’s relationship does not matter. Both serve as agents of the organization.

Anonymous - The sender’s identity is hidden from the recipient.


Time, Place, and Direction of CommunicationTime, Place, and Direction of Communication

Synchronous - The sender and Receiver are available simultaneously

Asynchronous - The sender and receiver are not available simultaneously.

Place Involves Physical Presence Direction: One-way vs. Two Way

communication.

Common Communications Classified By Time and

Place

Common Communications Classified By Time and

Place

SAMEPLACE

DIFFERENTPLACE

SAME TIME DIFFERENT TIME

Presentation SystemsCopyboardsPC ProjectorsFacilitation ServicesPolling SystemsGroup Decision Rooms

Transaction databasesShared FilesElectronic MailVoice Mail

Shift Work Communications

Typical TelephoneVideo Telephone Video ConferencingLive Radio TV Broadcast

EDIElectronic MailComputer ConferencingVoice MailFax


Approaches for Improving CommunicationApproaches for Improving Communication

Presentation Technologies Eliminate Unnecessary Person to Person

Communication Make Communications more systematic Combine and Extend Electronic

Communications


Making Face to Face More EffectiveMaking Face to Face More Effective

Presentation Technologies:– Blackboard

– Prepared Paper Handouts

– Overhead projector or slide projector with color transparencies

– Electronic Blackboard

– Computer LCD Display panels

– Computer for “What-If” Scenarios

– Computer-controlled Multi-media

– Computer controlled multi-media with interactive control.


Eliminate Unnecessary Person to Person CommunicationEliminate Unnecessary Person to Person Communication

Substitute on-line Access to data– Example: Supplier/Customer Relationships

ATM access Automated Telephone Attendants Danger of becoming too impersonal


Making Communication SystematicMaking Communication Systematic

Contrast communication between people vs. communication between machines.

The business Memo Header:– To:

– From:

– Date:

– Re:

Having structure reduces the effort required to figure out what the communication means.

Even with communication between groups of people, repetitive aspects of communication are systematized.


Combine and Extend Electronic Communication Functions

Combine and Extend Electronic Communication Functions

Early communication technologies have been combined and extended to create more powerful communication technologies.

Example: Telegraph, Telephone, Radio Broadcast


Collaborative WorkCollaborative Work


Supporting Collaborative WorkSupporting Collaborative Work

The term group, or work group refers to two or more individuals who act as one unit to perform a task.


Benefits of Working in A GroupBenefits of Working in A Group

Groups are better than individuals at understanding problems.

People are accountable for decisions in which they participate.

Groups are better than individuals in catching errors.

A group has more information (Knowledge) than any one member, and, as a result, more alternatives are generated for problem solving.

Synergy may develop so that the effectiveness of the group is greater than what could have been produced individually.


Benefits of Working in A Group - 2Benefits of Working in A Group - 2

Working in a group may stimulate the process and the individuals.

Group members have their own egos imbedded in the decision they make, so they will be committed to the implementation.

The participation of the members means less likelihood of their resisting implementation.


Dysfunctions of GroupsDysfunctions of Groups

Social Pressures of Conformity (groupthink) may eliminate superior ideas.

Time-consuming, slow process (e.g. tendency to repeat what was already said).

Lack of coordination of the work done by the group.

Inappropriate influence of group dynamics (domination by some, fear to speak by others).

Tendency of group members to rely on others (“free ride”)


Dysfunctions of Groups -2Dysfunctions of Groups -2

Tendency toward compromised solutions of poor quality.

Inability to complete a Task Large non-productive time . Larger cost of making decisions (many hours

of participation, travel time, etc.). Incomplete or inappropriate use of

information.


Improving the Work of GroupsImproving the Work of Groups

Nominal Group Technique Delphi Methods Computer-Supported Cooperative Work


Nominal Group TechniqueNominal Group Technique Typical group dynamic method. Includes a sequence of activities:

– 1. silent generation of ideas in writing

– 2. round-robin listing of ideas on flip chart

– 3. serial discussion of ideas

– 4. silent listing and ranking of priorities

– 5. discussion or priorities

– 6. silent re-ranking and rating of priorities

Based on social-psychological research which indicates procedure is clearly superior to conventional discussion groups for generating higher quality decisions, greater quantity of ideas, and improved distribution of information on fact-finding tasks.


Nominal Group Technique - 2Nominal Group Technique - 2

The success of the NGT technique and similar methods depends considerably on the quality of the facilitator and on the training given to participants.

The approach does not solve several of the dysfunctions of groups such as fear to speak, slow process, poor planning and organization of the meeting, compromises, and lack of appropriate analysis.


Delphi MethodsDelphi Methods

Originally designed by RAND Corp. as a technological forecasting technique for a group of experts.

Designed to eliminate undesirable effects of interaction among group members.

The experts do not meet face-to-face, and they do not know who the other experts are.

Each group member provides individual ideas, opinions, etc. with supporting arguments, assumptions, rankings, etc.

A facilitator edits, clarifies, and summarizes the data.


Delphi Methods - 2Delphi Methods - 2

Results are provided as anonymous feedback to group members along with second round of questions.

Questions and feedback continue anonymously for several rounds becoming increasingly more specific until consensus is reached or their is no more movement of group members on their individual positions.

Through anonymity, negative effects associated with face to face solutions are avoided (e.g. dominant behavior, groupthink, and stubbornness to change one’s mind).


Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)

The electronic workplace - an organization wide system that integrates information processing and communication activities.

The study of such activities is part of a multi-disciplinary field called computer-supported cooperative work.

CSCW looks at how groups work together and seeks to discover how technology can help them work.


What’s In A Name?What’s In A Name?

Very often the following terms are used interchangeably;

– computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW)

– Electronic meeting systems (EMS)

– Computer-mediated Communications (CMC)

– Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)

– GroupWare

– Coordination Systems


GroupWareGroupWare

Commercial CSCW products (The Coordinator, Lotus Notes) are often referred to as examples of GroupWare.

It is often used synonymously with CSCW technology.

Others may look at GroupWare as the class of applications arising from the merging of computers are large information databases, and communication technology.


GroupWare OriginsGroupWare Origins

Most software systems originally supported only the interaction between a user and the system.

Whether preparing a document, querying a database, or playing a game, the user only interacted with the system.

However, this is not the way most people work in daily life.

The term personal computer is becoming an oxymoron.

Three key ideas in group interaction: communication, collaboration, and coordination.


Communication Communication

Computer-based or computer-mediated communication is not fully integrated with other forms of communication.

Asynchronous text-based e-mail and bulletin boards vs. synchronous telephone and face to face conversation.

One can not transfer a document between two phone numbers, and can not originate a voice conversation between two workstations.

Telecommunications technologies and computer processing technologies will still grow closer together.


CollaborationCollaboration Collaboration is the cornerstone of group activity.

Effective collaboration demands people share information.

Current database systems insulate users from one another.

CAD system designers: Seldom are they able to simultaneously modify different parts of the same object.

Many tasks require a finer granularity of sharing. Needed: Shared environments that unobtrusively

offer up to date group context and explicit notification of user's actions.


CoordinationCoordination

The effectiveness of communication and collaboration can be enhanced if a group’s activities are coordinated.

Without coordination, a group may engage in conflicting or repetitive actions.

Coordination is an activity itself - necessary overhead when several parties are performing a task.

Although most databases provide multiple accesses to shared objects, most tools accomplish this from a single-user perspective.


GroupWare: Formal DefinitionGroupWare: Formal Definition

GroupWare: computer-based systems that support groups of people engaged in a common task (or goal) and that provide an interface to a shared environment.

Timesharing would not generally be considered GroupWare.

The activity need not be simultaneous. Johnson-Lenz’ definition of GroupWare:

computer-based systems plus social group processes.


GroupWare SpectrumGroupWare Spectrum

Common Task Dimension

LOWTimesharing

System

HIGHSoftware System

Review or CollaborativeWriting

Shared Environment Dimension

LOWElectronic

Mail

HIGHVirtual

Classroom


Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Time-Space Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Time-Space

SAME TIME DIFFERENT TIME

SAMEPLACE

DIFFERENTPLACES

Face to Faceinteraction

AsynchronousInteraction

SynchronousDistributedInteraction

AsynchronousDistributed Interaction

AnyTimeAny

Place


Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Application-Level

Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Application-Level

Message Systems Screen Sharing GDSS and Electronic Meeting Rooms (EMS) Computer Conferencing Intelligent Agents Coordination Systems Workflow Systems


Message SystemsMessage Systems

Asynchronous exchange of textual and non-textual messages between groups of users.

Concept of attachments Danger of Information Overload Filtering and Filing functionality Attachment of scripts


Screen-SharingScreen-Sharing In collaborative work, members are often in

different locations. As an example, special software allows groups to

jointly compose and edit a document, spreadsheet, or other entity.

Synchronous and asynchronous use. Concurrent read access to entire document, but

only one writer updates a segment at a time. Locking as in database management with

versioning is important. Explicit notification of other user actions. Another example: electronic whiteboards.


GDSS and EMSGDSS and EMS

GDSS provide computer-based facilities for exploration of unstructured problems.

Goal is to improve the productivity of decision-making meetings, by speeding up the process or improve the quality of the resulting decisions.

Many GDSS’s are implemented at EMS’s. Arizona’s Groupsystems).


Computer ConferencingComputer Conferencing

Real-time computer conferencing teleconferencing (voice and video) asynchronous computer conferencing


Intelligent AgentsIntelligent Agents

Not all participants in electronic meetings are people.

In general, intelligent agents are responsible for a specific set of tasks, and the user interface makes their actions resemble those of other users.


Coordination SystemsCoordination Systems

The coordination problem is the integration and harmonious adjustment of individual work efforts.

Typically such systems allow individuals to view their actions, and those of others, within the context of the overall goal.

Systems may trigger user actions. Four types of Models: form, procedure,

conversation, or communication-structure oriented.


The CoordinatorThe Coordinator

The Coordinator is a commercial GroupWare product for messaging.

It is based on a set of speech acts (i.e. requests promises, etc.) and contains a model of legal conversation modes (e.g. a request has to be issued before a promise can be made).

As users make conversational moves, typically through e-mail, the system tracks their requests and commitments


Workflow SystemsWorkflow Systems

Perhaps a special case of coordination systems.

Business process automation tools that place system controls in the hands of user departments.

Highly flexible and can be designed to automate almost any information processing task.

Primary purpose is to provide users with tracking, routing, document imaging, and other capabilities designed to improve business processes.


Assumptions and Goals of various

forms of Computer-Mediated Communication

Assumptions and Goals of various

forms of Computer-Mediated Communication


Assumptions and GoalsAssumptions and Goals

for the group to exhibit collective intelligence support communications 24 hours per day, 7 days

per week, both synchronously and asynchronously.

tailorability of communication structure for groups’ needs

Appropriate communication structures are extremely sensitive to group norms and organizational culture.

Individuals have a great deal of leeway as to what mode of communication they will use. You can nor force users to use electronic means.


Assumptions and Goals - 2Assumptions and Goals - 2

Individual and group problem solving requirements imply that one must integrate computing and data resources as part of the communication process.

Individuals and groups must be able to exercise a high degree of tailorability to the communication environment and interface.

Privacy and security of human communication are essential to the acceptance of the system.

Human roles, and computer support of human roles are key factors in the success of group activities.


AsynchronousGroup OperationsAsynchronousGroup Operations

Fallacy: The best way to automate something is the way it was originally done manually.

Although it may sound easy to sell a system that way, it may be the worst way to design a system for increased benefits.

Example: Asynchronous Communication should not necessarily be thought of as problem because it is not the sequential process used in face-to-face mode.

Issue should be to exploit the opportunity of asynchronous communication to make a group process better than face to face communication.


AsynchronousGroup Operations - 2AsynchronousGroup Operations - 2

The potential for real improvement in group processes lies in the fact that individuals can deal with that part of the problem they can contribute to at a given time, regardless of where the other individuals are in the process.


What’s In a name? (again)...What’s In a name? (again)...

Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) Computer-Supported Cooperative Work

(CSCW) Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)


Designing GroupwareDesigning Groupware What would some of the “entities” or “objects of

discourse” be in a Group Decision Support System (GDSS)?

– PROBLEMS, ISSUES, QUESTIONS

– GOALS, OBJECTIVES, PLANS

– STRATEGIES, POLICIES, AGENDAS

– CONCERNS, CRITERIA ARGUMENTS

– ASSUMPTIONS, VIEWPOINTS

– OPINIONS, VALUES, INTERESTS

– CONSEQUENCES, SCENARIOS, IMPACTS

– TRADEOFFS, COMPROMISE, PROPOSALS

– SOLUTIONS, DECISIONS, PROJECTS

– TASKS, ALLOCATIONS, POSSIBILITIES


Designing Groupware - 2Designing Groupware - 2

What are some desirable features in a GDSS?

– ALTERNATIVE GENERATION

– STANDARD SETTING

– GOAL AND OBJECTIVE SETTING

– PROJECT FORMULATION

– PROJECT STATUS TRACKING

– PROBLEM EXAMINATION

– RISK DETERMINATION

– MODEL BUILDING

– COLLABORATIVE WRITING


Designing Groupware - 3Designing Groupware - 3

Some GDSS “Tools”:– VOTING SCALES

RANK ORDERING COMPARATIVE ORDERING INTERVAL & RATIO SCALING

– DECISION TREES

– INFLUENCE MATRICES

– RISK ANALYSIS

– DECISION TABLES

– STAKEHOLDER ROLES

– GAMING


COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS (CMC)COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS (CMC)

OBJECTIVES

– FACILITATION OF GROUP ACTIVITIES

– TAILORING COMMUNICATION STRUCTURES AND PROTOCOLS AROUND THE APPLICATION AND THE GROUP

– COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE CAN THE GROUP PERFORM BETTER

THAN THE BEST MEMBER ACTING ALONE (SPEED AND QUALITY)


COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCECOLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE

CAPTURING INDIVIDUAL KNOWLEDGE FORMING A GROUP SYNTHESIS FEEDBACK TO GROUP EVALUATION BY THE GROUP EVOLUTION AND ADOPTION BY GROUP USE BY THE GROUP FOR THE GROUP AND

THIS GDSS SHALL NOT PERISH INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER RESOURCES POWER TO THE GROUP


Theoretical Foundationsfor Electronic Meeting Systems

Theoretical Foundationsfor Electronic Meeting Systems


Remember...Remember...

What’s in a Name?– Group Decision Support System

– Electronic Meeting System

– Computer Mediated Communication Systems

Theoretical Foundations for Electronic Meeting

Systems

Theoretical Foundations for Electronic Meeting

Systems

Group

Task

Context

Technology

Process Outcome


Theoretical FoundationsTheoretical Foundations

Meeting outcomes (e.g. efficiency, effectiveness, satisfaction, etc.) depend on the interaction within the meeting process of four things:

– the group members

– working on a task at hand

– context factors – with the technology of the electronic

meeting system and the components of the technology the group uses (e.g. anonymity).


Theoretical Foundations: Group CharacteristicsTheoretical Foundations: Group Characteristics

Group Size Group Proximity Group Composition (peers or hierarchical) Group Cohesiveness, etc.


Foundations: Task CharacteristicsFoundations: Task Characteristics

Activities to accomplish the task (idea generation, decision choice, etc)

Task complexity, equivocality, structure, analyzability, importance, etc.

Task Type:

– Creativity

– Intellective

– Preference

– Planning

– Cognitive Conflict

– Mixed Motive


Foundations: Context CharacteristicsFoundations: Context Characteristics

Environment:– competition,

– uncertainty,

– time pressure,

– evaluative tone (critical vs. supportive)

Organizational:– information system

– age

– culture

– reward structure (none vs. individual vs. group)

– power structure


Foundations: Technology CharacteristicsFoundations: Technology Characteristics

The Technology used– (the computer-mediated communication system,

– The GDSS

– The EMS

– How it was designed, its structures, its features etc).

In other words, the design of the technology is important.

Example: Try comparing 2 simple e-mail systems,


Group ProcessesGroup Processes

Certain processes improve outcomes while others impair outcomes

Meeting outcomes depend on the processes losses and gains


Group Processes GainsGroup Processes Gains

More information - group as a whole has more information than any one member

Synergy - A member uses information in a way that the original holder did not, because that member has different information or skills.

Stimulation - working as a group may stimulate and encourage individuals to perform better.

Learning - Members may learn and imitate more skilled members to improve performance.


Group Process LossesGroup Process Losses

Air time Fragmentation - The group must partition available speaking time among members.

Attenuation Blocking - members who can not contribute comments as they occur to the member, forget or suppress them later in the meeting because they seem less relevant.

Concentration Blocking - Fewer comments are contributed since members concentrate on these until they can be contributed.

Attention Blocking - New comments are not contributed since members must constantly listen to others.


Group Process Losses - 2Group Process Losses - 2

Failure to Remember - Members lack focus on communication, missing or forgetting the contributions of others.

Conformance Pressure - members are reluctant to criticize the comments of others due to politeness or fear of reprisal.

Evaluation apprehension - fear of negative evaluation causes members to withhold ideas

Free Riding - Members rely on others to accomplish goals, due to cognitive loafing.

Cognitive Inertia - Discussion moves along one train of thought without deviating..


Group Processes Losses - 3Group Processes Losses - 3

Domination - Some group members exercise undue influence or monopolize group time.

Socializing - Non-task discussion Information Overload - Information is presented

faster than it can be processed. Coordination problems - Difficulty coordinating

member’s contributions. Incomplete Use of Information - Incomplete access

to and use of information necessary for successful task completion.

Incomplete Task analysis - groups engaging in superficial discussions might face this problem


EMS EffectsEMS Effects

EMS can affect this balance of gains and losses through four mechanisms

– process support

– process structure

– task structure

– task support


Process SupportProcess Support

Communication infrastructure (i.e. media, channels, devices, etc. electronic or otherwise) that facilitates communication among the group members.

Example: electronic communication channel, blackboard.


Process StructureProcess Structure

Refers to the techniques or rules concerning the timing, content, pattern, etc. of communication

Example: agenda or process methodology such as the Nominal Group Technique

Example: Robert’s Rules of Order provides a process structure.


Task SupportTask Support

refers to the information and computation infrastructure for task-related activities.

Example: external databases, calculators, etc.

Example: Suppose the group has some data but they would like to have some descriptive statistics to better understand the data.

Example: Access to public information on the Web.


Task StructureTask Structure

Refers to the rules, techniques, models to help analyze task relation information to gain new insight

Example: models used in a DSS


Electronic Meeting SystemsElectronic Meeting Systems

EMS can be looked as a convenient means by which to deliver process support, process structure, task support and task structure

Nunamaker et al. from University of Arizona emphasize process support

The important to note is that the four mechanisms (Process Support, Process Structure, Task Support, Task Structure) change the process losses and gains


Process SupportProcess Support

This can be provided by the EMS in three ways

– parallel communication

– group memory

– anonymity


Parallel communicationParallel communication

each member has a workstation with an electronic channel enabling everyone to communicate

Reduces following losses– air time fragmentation

– attenuation blocking

– concentration blocking

– domination, etc.

Process gains enhanced– synergy

– use of more information

– increased interaction

– stimulate and promote learning


Group memoryGroup memory

EMS can record all electronic comments Reduce following losses

– failure to remember

– attention blocking

– incomplete use of information may promote synergy and reduce information

overload Support for automatic indexing, keywords,

filtering, etc. can make “recall” even easier.


AnonymityAnonymity

EMS may provide some degree of anonymity This may reduce the pressure to conform and

evaluation apprehension Might increase free riding since it becomes

more difficult to find out who contributes and who does not.

Might provide a low threat environment and increase contributions.


Media EffectsMedia Effects

Media speed (typing slower than talking) media richness (less richer media than face-

to-face) depersonalization (separation of individuals

from comments) deindividuation (loss of self or group

awareness) Loss of global view of task Flaming, etc


Typical EMS Tools for Process Support

Typical EMS Tools for Process Support


Activity: Idea GenerationActivity: Idea Generation

Brainstorming - anonymous generation of new ideas.

Topic Commentator - A set of electronic index cards for simultaneous entry of information on multiple topics.

Group Outliner - Organization of Ideas according to a structured outline form,


Activity: Idea OrganizationActivity: Idea Organization

Idea Organizer - Organization of comments received from idea generation.

Issue Analyzer - Identification and consolidation of comments from idea generation into major issues.

Group writer - Joint authoring of a document by meeting participants.


Activity:| PrioritizingActivity:| Prioritizing

Vote Selection -Choice of voting method (e.g. yes/no, multiple choice, ranking), voting, and vote results presentation.

Alternative evaluation - ranking of alternatives (using multiple criteria).

Questionnaire - electronic questionnaire form. Group matrix - ratings of ideas on a two

dimensional matrix.


Activity: Policy DevelopmentActivity: Policy Development

Policy Formulation - Structured support for reaching consensus on policy statements.

Stakeholder identifier - structured stakeholder identification


Activity: Knowledge Accumulation & Representation

Activity: Knowledge Accumulation & Representation

Another name for Knowledge Accumulation is Organizational Memory.

Enterprise Analyzer - Organizing and analyzing group information.

Graphical browser - Identify and zero in on nodes of enterprise analyzer.

Group Dictionary - development and storage of formal definition of terms used by participants.

Brief case - immediate read-only access to any stored information


SummarySummary

Each of these activities:

– Idea Generation

– Idea Organization

– Prioritizing

– Policy Development

– Knowledge accumulation and representation

is a form of Process Support Note the resemblance to Simon’s stages of

Decision Making.

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