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CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION:SOME LESSONS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES

Readership: primary, secondary,

The decision to include citizenship education in the NationalCurriculum marks an historic shift in the approach to this area inEnglish schools. But research shows that there is no great traditionof explicit teaching in citizenship education in English schools or ofvoluntary and community service for young people. As a result, thereare huge gaps in the knowledge and research base that underpinsthis area in England. David Kerr looks at what lessons can be learnedfrom other countries where citizenship education is a recognisedpart of the school curriculum.

INTRODUCTION

Citizenship education concerns the preparationof young people for their roles and responsibilitiesas citizens, and, in particular, the role of education(through schooling, teaching and learning) in thatpreparatory process. Citizenship education ishighly topical in many countries at present, asthe new century dawns and urgent considerationis given to how better to prepare young peoplefor the challenges and uncertainties of life in arapidly changing world. England is no exceptionto this period of review. Indeed the place andpurpose of citizenship education in schools wasre-examined in the National Curriculum review.

The advisory group on Education for Citizenshipand the Teaching of Democracy in Schools (CrickReport, 1998) set out the aims and purposes ofcitizenship education and how it could besuccessfully delivered, both within the schoolcurriculum and through links between schools andthe wider community. The advisory groupdefined citizenship education as made up of threestrands that are interrelated but also distinct; theyare:

◆ social and moral responsibility;

◆ community involvement;

◆ political literacy.

Citizenship is included in the revised NationalCurriculum, for the very first time. It is part of anon-statutory framework alongside Personal,Social and Health Education (PSHE) at key stages1 and 2 from August 2000, and a new statutoryfoundation subject at key stages 3 and 4 fromAugust 2002.

The decision to include citizenship education inthe National Curriculum marks an historic shiftin the approach to this area in English schools.Research shows that there is no great tradition ofexplicit teaching in citizenship education inEnglish schools or of voluntary and communityservice for young people. As a result, there arehuge gaps in the knowledge and research basethat underpins this area in England. Given thislack of expertise, it was decided to see whatlessons could be learned from other countrieswhere citizenship education is a recognised partof the school curriculum. These lessons couldthen help to inform approaches to Citizenship inthe revised National Curriculum.

THE THEMATIC STUDY

A thematic study was carried out in citizenshipeducation in 1999 as part of the InternationalReview of Curriculum and AssessmentFrameworks (IRCAF) Project (2). The IRCAFProject involves an international review ofcurriculum and assessment frameworks in 16countries and is managed by NFER for theQualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).The 16 countries are Australia, Canada, England,France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea,The Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain,Sweden, Switzerland and the USA.

Thematic studies are conducted into specific areasor themes in order to provide:

● richer descriptions of practice in the countriesconcerned

● clarification of context

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12● an analysis of fundamental issues, related to

the English framework.

The citizenship education thematic study wasdesigned to enrich our understanding of this areaby examining a number of central aspects:

● curriculum aims, organisation and structure

● teaching and learning approaches

● teacher specialisation and teacher training

● use of textbooks and other resources

● assessment arrangements.

The thematic study combined material from: theIRCAF Project; specific enquiries aboutcitizenship education addressed to the 16countries; discussion at the invitational seminaron Citizenship Education, held in London, inJanuary 1999; and published sources such as theNational Case Study chapters from Phase 1 ofthe IEA Citizenship Education Project (3). Thecombination of sources produced deeper insightsinto policy and practice in this area at theindividual country level, and raised fundamentalquestions about aspects of citizenship educationacross countries.

KEY LESSONS

A number of key lessons emerged from each ofthe central aspects that have implications forpolicy and practice in citizenship education inschools in England.

Curriculum aims, organisation andstructure

◆ Context – the important role that context andculture play in developing effective policy andpractice. What works in one cultural contextcannot simply be adopted and expected toachieve the same ends somewhere else. Itrequires careful adaptation to suit the newcontext. This applies whether at national,regional, local, school or individual classroomlevel. For example, a number of newerdemocracies among the 16 countries reporteddifficulties when attempting to introduce ideasand practices from the longer-establisheddemocratic countries into their schools. Thiswas very evident in Korea and Hungary.

FRANCE

In France, civics education is a well-established part of the statutory curriculum at primaryand secondary school level. It aims to teach what the French call ‘republican values’ suchas equality, democracy, rights and duties. Topics addressed include the Declaration ofHuman Rights , appropriate behaviour at home and in school, moral and ethical issues, andacting responsibly.

At primary level, pupils learn, through Discovering the World , about behaviour and ruleswithin the class and school, respect for others and oneself and the rules for living together.They also learn to respect the rules and values of the school and to understand thetraditions and institutions which underpin democracy in France. These include the strugglefor universal suffrage and the role of the National Assembly. All compulsory subjectscontribute to civics education. At secondary level, through Civics , linked to History andGeography, students follow a more structured programme. They begin by learning abouthuman rights and responsibilities. They then learn about the values that make up ademocratic society such as equality, solidarity, freedom, safety/security and justice. Finally,they learn about citizenship in France, Europe and around the world and receive generalinformation on political institutions.

However, as part of the reform of schools, new measures have recently been introduced for‘improving living together and good citizenship at school’. Such measures emphasise therole of both the formal and informal curriculum in contributing to civics education. Theyinclude a new charter for every school, to be signed by teachers, pupils and parents, whichdefines everyone’s rights and duties. Civics, legal and social education are now to be taughtto all students at secondary level. There are also to be education for citizenship and healthlessons every two weeks, in addition to the civics classes. The aim of these lessons is toenable students to discuss and debate issues which are of interest to them. School councilsare also to be set up in schools representing the interests of teachers and students.

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12◆ Values – that an explicit statement of shared

values underpinning citizenship education canmake a difference to policy, practice andoutcomes. Those countries with a ‘values-explicit’ tradition are better able to set out theaims and goals of citizenship education(policy), how those are to be delivered(practice) and what the end-results should be(outcomes) than those countries with a‘values-neutral’ tradition. However, it shouldbe noted that clarity of aims does not guaranteesuccessful outcomes. This has implicationsin England given the appearance for the firsttime of a statement of values underpinning theschool curriculum.

◆ Breadth – citizenship education is broaderthan the formal curriculum, involving the

hidden curriculum, whole-school andextracurricular activities, as well as pupils’everyday experiences of life. Somecountries are attempting to build theseactivities into the formal curriculum. Forexample, Japan has special activities, whileSingapore has developed a communityinvolvement programme and learningjourneys around the key institutions. Othercountries have left the choice to schools. Inthe USA there has been an expansion in‘service learning’ education based on activepartnerships between schools and their localcommunities. It is a growing area of interestin England. Meanwhile some countries arestrengthening the involvement of studentsin school or class councils.

APPROACHES TO CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION IN THE FORMAL CURRICULUM

Table 1 examines the curriculum for pupils aged five to 11 years, and what is termed in INCA as the‘primary phase’. Table 2 looks at the curriculum for students aged 11 to 16 or 18.

The primary curriculum (ages 5 to 11 years)Table 1. Organisation of citizenship education in the primary phase

Country Terminology Approach Hours per week

England Citizenship as part of combined Non-statutory Schools to decidePSHE framework

Australia Human society and its environment (HSIE) Non-statutoryIntegrated Not specified

Canada Social studies Non-statutory Not specifiedIntegrated

France Civics as part of ‘Discovering the World’ Statutory core 4 hours out of 26Separate and integrated

Germany Sachunterricht Non-statutoryIntegrated Not specified

Hungary People and society Statutory coreIntegrated 4–7% of curriculum time

Italy Social sciences Statutory coreIntegrated Not specified

Japan Social studies, living experience and Statutory core 175 x 45 min per yearmoral education Separate and integrated

Korea A disciplined life and moral education Statutory core Varies dependent on yearSeparate

The Netherlands Social structures and life skills Statutory core 80–100 hours per yearIntegrated

New Zealand Social studies Statutory core Not specifiedIntegrated

Singapore Civics and moral education Statutory core 3 x 30 min lessonsSeparate and Integrated

Spain Knowledge of the natural, Non-statutory 170 hours per yearsocial and cultural environment Integrated

Sweden Social sciences Non-core 885 hours over 9 yearsIntegrated of compulsory schooling

Switzerland Social studies Non-statutory Not specifiedIntegrated

USA Social studies Statutory core Time specified per weekIntegrated varies among states

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12The major pattern in the primary curriculum isthe organisation of citizenship education throughan integrated approach of domains in manycountries. It suggests a deliberate emphasis,particularly in the early years of this phase, onthe integrated learning of the child’sunderstanding of themselves with respect totopics and aspects. For example, France linkscivics with sciences, technology, history andgeography under the heading ‘Discovering theworld’. Hungary has eight curricular areas, oneof which is ‘People and society’, while Spain usesthe term ‘Knowledge of the natural, social andcultural environment’. Moral education is alsoan important component of citizenship educationin many countries, particularly those in South-east Asia.

The striking example is that of Korea, whichaddresses citizenship education through thedomain of ‘a disciplined life’ – an integratedcourse covering social studies and moraleducation. Time allocations indicate that moraleducation features heavily in early education. Thesame is true for Singapore, where moral educationis part of mother tongue teaching, and for Japan.In some countries the range of the curriculum isextended as the primary phase progresses andthere is increased time and focus on citizenshipeducation. In Singapore, for instance, the seven-area curriculum from grade 1 (including civicsand moral education) is supplemented by theaddition of social studies from grade 4, withsubjects increasingly taught through the commonmedium of English as pupils progress.

The secondary curriculum (ages 11 to 16 or 18 years)

Table 2. Organisation of citizenship education in the lower and upper secondary phase

Country Terminology Approach Hours per week

England Citizenship Statutory Schools to decideAustralia Human society and its environment (HSIE) Non-statutory Not specified

IntegratedCanada Social studies and also history, law, Non-statutory Not specified

political sciences and economics IntegratedFrance Civics linked to history and geography Statutory core 3–4 hours out of 26

Separate and integratedGermany Social studies linked to history, Non-statutory Not specified

and economics IntegratedHungary People and society with specific social Statutory core 10–14% of curriculum time

studies, civics and economics courses Integrated and specificItaly Civics linked to history and geography Statutory core 4 hours

Separate and integratedJapan Social studies, history, geography and Statutory core 175 x 50 min per year

civics and moral education Integrated and specific (Grades 7 & 8)140 x 50 min per year(Grade 9)140 x 50 min per year(Upper secondary)

Korea Social studies and moral education Statutory core Ranges 170 x 45 minIntegrated and specific to 204 x 45 min per year

The Netherlands Civics and citizenship and social studies Statutory core Integrated 180 hours over 3 years(age 12–15)2–4 hours per week(age 16–18)

New Zealand Social studies Statutory core Not specifiedIntegrated

Singapore Civics and moral education Statutory core 2 x 30 min lessonsIntegrated and specific

Spain Civics linked to history, geography Non-statutory Non-statutoryand social sciences Separate and integrated

Sweden Social sciences including history, Non-core 885 hours over 9 years ofgeography and social studies Integrated compulsory schooling

Switzerland Social studies Non-statutory Not specifiedIntegrated

USA Social studies including civics Statutory core Time specified per weekand government Separate and integrated varies among states

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12Citizenship education in the secondarycurriculum is still organised through an integratedapproach in most countries, but often as a discrete,explicit component alongside other subjects andaspects. The most common approach is throughsocial studies or social sciences courses, wherecitizenship or civics is closely linked to thesubjects of history and geography. For example,in Hungary the domain is entitled ‘People andsociety’ but incorporates specific reference tosocial studies, civics and economics courses. InJapan, in junior high school (age 12+ to 15), socialstudies is divided into three subjects: geography,history and civics to be taught from 2002alongside a new general studies course; and inhigh school (age 15+ to 18) social studies isdivided into two subjects: civics, and geographyand history together, and where civics is furthersubdivided into modern society, ethics andpolitics and economics. In The Netherlandscitizenship education is part of history and civics

at lower secondary level (age 12 to 15) and is anintegral part of social studies (maatschappijleer)courses, while in some Canadian provinces socialstudies is linked with history, law, politicalsciences and economics.

In many countries, the range of subjects that relateto citizenship education is extended as thesecondary phase progresses, taking in economics,law, commerce and political sciences. Moraleducation continues to be an importantcomponent in some countries, particularly thosein South-east Asia. The other feature of thesecondary phase is the increased time given tocitizenship education, especially in the upperyears of this phase. This reflects the growingmaturity of students and their ability to handlecomplex, topical issues. It is spurred by theproximity of students to their entry into the worldas full citizens, with legal, political, economic andsocial rights and responsibilities.

SINGAPORE

In Singapore, citizenship education is a component of an overall compulsory Civics andMoral Education (CME) programme in schools. The goal is to develop in pupils strength ofcharacter and integrity, which enables them to become responsible members of their family,society and nation. Civic education aims to win both the hearts and minds of pupils to takeon leadership challenges in the future.

Underpinning the CME programme is the Five Shared Values of Singapore : namely, ‘Nationbefore community’ and ‘Society above self’; ‘Family as the basic unit of society’; ‘Communitysupport and respect for the individual’; ‘Consensus, not conflict’; and ‘Racial and religiousharmony’. Emphasis is also given to values such as love, care and concern, honesty, justiceand respect for life.

Civic education encompasses both the formal and informal curriculum in schools. The formalcurriculum is based on themes and topics. The themes of CME in primary school are‘Character building’, ‘Bonding with family’, ‘Sense of belonging to school’, ‘Being part of asociety’ and ‘National pride and loyalty’. The themes in secondary school are ‘Characterbuilding’, ‘Family relationships’, ‘Community spirit’ and ‘Our nation, our heritage andchallenges ahead’. Topics in secondary school include personal integrity, and participatingin community life – volunteering, system of government and responsibilities of citizens tothe law. Teachers employ a range of strategies including role-plays, case studies, debates,group discussions and personal reflections.

In the informal curriculum civic education is founded on the idea of the school as amicrocosm of society. Pupils are involved in a Community Involvement Programme , whichentails at least six hours of voluntary work in the community each year, and in a strongHouse-system in schools, centred on team spirit and leadership. They also participate inextracurricular activities such as Community Service Clubs, and in experiential activitiessuch as Learning Journeys; these journeys familiarise pupils with factors underpinningSingapore’s development and the continued challenges of being a small nation state.

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Teaching and learning approaches

◆ Range – a move in many countries away froma narrow, knowledge-based approach tocitizenship education, to a broader approachencompassing knowledge and understanding,active experiences and the development ofstudent values, dispositions, skills andaptitudes. For example, there is evidence inAustralian classrooms of structured discussionand debate as the most favoured approach. Inthe USA there are many opportunities forlearning through extracurricular activities andthrough service learning programmes, nationalcompetitions and mock elections. However,it is accepted in all countries that there is stilla substantial variety in approach from schoolto school and classroom to classroom. Thismeans that not all pupils experience allapproaches.

◆ Teacher culture – the transition to a broaderapproach is proving difficult to manage in anumber of countries because of the impact, inparticular, of teacher culture and beliefs andthe slow adaptation of schools to change.Countries with a tradition of a formal,knowledge-based approach to citizenshipeducation can find it especially difficult tochange teacher attitudes and opinions. Thisis the case in Hungary, where official movesto a more discussion-based approach tocitizenship issues in classrooms are beingfrustrated by the deep-seated belief of teachersthat controversial or sensitive issues shouldbe kept out of the classroom. Japan and Koreaare encountering similar problems in theirofficial attempts to promote more creativityin schools and in what are traditionallyconformist and centralist societies. The powerand durability of teacher culture should not

JAPANIn Japan, citizenship education is covered by the compulsory subjects of Living Experiencesand Social Studies in primary school, and Social Studies, History, Geography and Civics insecondary school. It is also addressed through the theme of moral education which runsalongside the subjects in the curriculum. The main goal is to develop pupils into self-reliant citizens of a peaceful and democratic state and community with a respect for humanvalues. This is at the heart of the objectives for education, which are the development ofbroad-mindedness, a healthy body and creativity in individuals; the rearing of a spirit offreedom, self-reliance and public awareness; and educating the Japanese individual to livein the global human society.

Citizenship education encompasses largely the formal curriculum in schools. At primarylevel, Living Experiences includes topics such as family and friends, animals, transport andcommunity services, while Social Studies covers history and geography. At secondary level,Social Studies is divided into history, geography and civics. For older students, civics isfurther subdivided into modern society, politics, economics and ethics. However, there arealso activities in the informal curriculum at both primary and secondary level. Theseinclude special activities, with an emphasis on volunteering and environmental activities inschool and in the local community, student councils and whole-school events.

Teaching is determined by ministry-approved textbooks, which traditionally emphasiseteacher-led instruction and the acquisition of knowledge by pupils.

However, there are currently reforms under way to modernise schools and the curriculum.These place less emphasis on knowledge acquisition and more on creativity, reflection andindividualism. The subjects associated with citizenship education are at the heart of thedrive for more flexibility. This drive involves the encouragement of a broader range ofteaching and learning approaches. There is to be less reliance on textbooks and more use ofdiscussion, debate, themes and activities inside and outside school. A new compulsorysubject of General Studies is to be introduced in primary and secondary schools from 2002.The subject is based on a draft list of non-compulsory themes, which include internationalunderstanding, social welfare, environment and information systems. There are no plans foreither approved textbooks and/or for guidance on teaching and learning approaches.

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12be underestimated in attempts to review andrenew citizenship education.

◆ Gap – the continuing gap between the rhetoricof policy and the reality of practice in manycontexts, from the national level down toindividual school and classroom level. Insome countries the gap can appear wherenational policy is attempting to bring asignificant shift in teacher attitude andclassroom practice in a relatively short spaceof time, while in other countries the gap is anaccepted part of the system. For example, inItaly there is a marked contrast for pupilsbetween the open, participative climate withinthe hidden curriculum and the non-participative climate within the formalcurriculum in classrooms. There is still a longway to go to ensure that effective practice incitizenship education is developed andsustained within and across countries.

Teacher training and use of resources

◆ Centrality – agreement on the centrality ofthe teacher in citizenship education and on theneed for better targeted training for teachersand the development of a broader range ofteacher-friendly resources.

◆ Inadequacy – a number of countriescommented on the inadequacy of thepreparation of teachers to handle citizenshipeducation in the school curriculum. Thisrelates not only to a lack of teachers’ contentknowledge, but also to an inability to employa range of teaching and learning approachesappropriate to citizenship education. Thereis a need through training to enable teachersto reflect on their own practice in order toimprove it.

AUSTRALIA

In Australia, citizenship and civics in schools are located in the area of the curriculum,‘Human society and its environment’. The federal government has launched a large-scaleproject, Discovering Democracy: School Materials Project, to support citizenship education inschools. The aim of the Project is to help schools ensure that all young Australians areequipped to play their part as citizens. This requires knowledge and the development ofskills and attitudes that enable effective participation.

The Project contains an overarching curriculum framework for citizenship education. This ismade up of four organising themes and linked curriculum units. Pupils encounter andrevisit these themes through different curriculum units across their time in schools. Thefour organising themes are:– Who rules? – This looks at sovereignty, power and the principles behind Australian

democracy. It also examines the rights and responsibilities of citizens.– Law and rights – This examines the rule of law, the legal system and the roles of

constitutions, parliaments and courts.– The Australian nation – This deals with Australia’s democratic institutions, changes in

civic identity and role as a nation.– Citizens and public life – This deals with the way people contribute in Australian

society to public and community life.

The curriculum units include, for example, for the theme Citizens and public life , ‘Joiningin’ and ‘People power’ (primary school), and ‘Men and women in political life’ and ‘Gettingthings done (secondary school). Each unit contains teacher notes and a series of learningactivities.

These are part of the classroom materials and professional development activities, whichhave been produced for teachers. They include CD-ROMs, a website, teacher magazine,videos, classroom books, posters and cards. Learning materials and activities have beendesigned with a strong emphasis on stimulating pupil interest and active engagement.There are opportunities for research, analysis, interpretation, participation and discussionthrough a wide range of approaches. These include presentations, projects, inquiries andactive citizenship both at school and in the wider community.

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12◆ Textbooks – these still underpin the teaching

of citizenship education in most countries.They play an important role in determiningthe approach in classrooms and therefore inshaping pupil experiences. There is a dangerwhen there is an over-reliance on textbookswhich emphasise acquisition of knowledgeabove more active, participatory experiences,for this can sometimes disaffect both teachersand pupils.

◆ Innovation – there is a move in somecountries to expand the range of resources thatsupport citizenship education. This involvesthe growing use of information andcommunications technologies (ICT). Forexample, in both Korea and New Zealand, theMinistries of Education run on-linetelecommunications networks linked toschools, which produce a wide range ofcurriculum materials in a range of formats.The challenge in all countries is to adaptmaterials in a form which suits the needs ofbusy teachers.

Assessment arrangements

◆ Mixture – most countries have a mixture ofsummative and formative assessmentarrangements in citizenship education.Continuous pupil assessment is theresponsibility of the individual class teacher,with formative assessment introduced at anumber of natural end-points across the schoolyear. These sometimes coincide with pointsof transition and exit in the school system,where formative assessment may be part ofmore formal national procedures.

◆ Clarity of purpose – the most important issuewhen deciding on assessment arrangementsis clarity of purpose: the need to be clear aboutwhat is being assessed, how, for what purposeand with what impact on teaching and learningapproaches. There is a growing debate insome countries about the desirability ofterminal, written exams for citizenshipeducation, as part of compulsory, nationalassessment systems, and their balance withother types of assessment.

CONCLUSION

The thematic study helped to alleviate concernsthat the lack of a strong tradition in citizenshipeducation in schools in England is a majordisadvantage in efforts to develop effectivepractice in schools. What the study highlighted,above all, is the commonality of interest,challenge and approach to citizenship educationacross countries. Once you get beyond thedifferences in context and in curriculum andassessment frameworks, countries have muchmore in common concerning citizenshipeducation than they think. In particular, the studyunderlined:

● The topical nature of citizenshipeducation and the breadth andcomplexity of the issues it addresses.The area is under review in most ofthe 16 countries, not just in England,as part of an overall review of theschool curriculum.

● The broad agreement amongcountries on the common challengesfacing citizenship education, even ifnational responses to those challengesvary.

● The need for urgent coordination anddissemination of approaches,programmes and initiatives incitizenship education which aredeveloping effective practice. This isbest achieved through theestablishment of a citizenshipeducation database within and acrosscountries.

While England can undoubtedly learn from whatis happening in other countries, there is alsotremendous interest, in those countries, in whatis happening in England at the moment. If thevision of the Citizenship Advisory Group, toeffect active and participatory citizenshipeducation for all pupils, is to be met, then we needto encourage more dialogue and exchange ofideas between all those with an interest incitizenship education – researchers, teachers,policy-makers, curriculum designers, governmentofficials, parents and pupils. The thematic studyproved the benefits of such dialogue. This spiritof partnership is surely the best way to respondto the current challenges in citizenship education.

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12Further reading

1 CRICK REPORT. GREAT BRITAIN.DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION ANDEMPLOYMENT. ADVISORY GROUP ONEDUCATION FOR CITIZENSHIP ANDTHE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY INSCHOOLS (1998). Education forCitizenship and the Teaching of Democracyin Schools: The Final Report of the AdvisoryGroup on Citizenship. London: QCA.

2 KERR, D. (1999a). Citizenship Education:An International Comparison. London:QCA/NFER.

3 KERR, D. (1999b). Re-examining CitizenshipEducation: The Case of England. Slough:NFER.

Address for correspondence

David Kerr, Senior Research Officer, NFER, TheMere, Upton Park, Slough, Berkshire SL1 2DQ.Tel: (01753) 574123; Fax: (01753) 691632; E-mail: d.kerr@nfer.ac.uk

Copying Permitted

The NFER grants to educational institutions and interested bodies permission to reproduce this item inthe interests of wider dissemination.