citizenship education in fiji

Koya, C.F (2010). Chapter 11. Civics Education in Fiji: Contradiction or ‘Pedagogy of Hope’? In Citizenship Pedagogies in Asia and the Pacific, CERC Studies in Comparative Education 28. Eds. Kennedy, K.J; Lee, W. O and Grossman, D.L. Hong Kong: Springer and Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong. PP245 – 268

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Citizenship Education in Fiji: Exploring Teacher and Teacher-Educator Philosophies on the

teaching of Civics Education.

Cresantia F. Koya,

School of Education, University of the South Pacific,

Fiji Islands.

Abstract In an attempt to create greater awareness about civic responsibilities, funding in the amount of FJ$2.53 million was secured in 2006 through NZAid for the development of a Civic Education curriculum in Fiji. This paper reviews the progress of the curriculum development project at the Ministry of Education and presents the results of a small scale study on perceptions regarding teachers’ views of the importance of Civic Education at both primary and secondary school and attempts to uncover predominant pedagogies of these teachers in their current approaches to related themes such as civic pride and responsibilities; national identity; social and cultural diversity; and, civic participation. Data collection was conducted by means of a questionnaire, interviews and focus-group discussions. The results indicate that while most teachers and teacher-educators are convinced of the social benefits of Civic or Citizenship Education, many are unsure of the overall benefits of the proposed curriculum within the existing educational framework of an examination driven system.

INTRODUCTION: EDUCATION IN FIJI Institutionalized learning in the form of schooling is a relatively new phenomenon in Fiji as in the rest of the Pacific, with a history of only about 130 years. Formal education began with the establishment of the first formal mission schools by the Wesleyan missionaries Revs. William Cross and David Cargill in 1835 (Kenneth 1981, in Koya-Vaka’uta 2002, p18). Schooling commenced after cession to Great Britain in 1874 with the first Education Ordinance (Ord. 10) endorsing the establishment of schools for the education of European children. By the end of that decade some schools had begun streaming separate classes for indigenous Fijian children. It was not until 1917 that some Indian schools began to emerge as a result of the efforts of the Indian communities themselves.1 Prior to formalized education, traditional learning took place in cultural contexts emphasizing cultural continuity and survival. Formal education saw a shift in priority towards ‘western’ models of thought focusing on economic, social and intellectual agendas of schooling (Thaman 2002, 24). The devaluing of local notions of education and ways of knowing, being and doing has resulted in a fragmentation of the learning process; separate and distinct from social realities. The current state of affairs in Fiji, and the rest of Pacific, is one of deep reflection about the purpose and quality of education to meet the demands of local, regional and global responsibilities. Pacific educators are beginning to ask ‘Education for what?’ 2 This chapter begins with an overview of the Fiji context of education, followed by a brief discussion of the Civics Education (CE) initiative in Fiji. A review of the study is provided with


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a presentation of results, an analysis and discussion of findings. The chapter concludes that while CE is relevant and necessary, there is a strong possibility that its true value may be lost in an already ‘full’ content-driven system that prioritizes measurable outcomes in the form of examination results. TOWARDS CITIZENSHIP: TROUBLED WATERS Fiji is a country of many contradictions. One of the most developed Pacific island countries; it suffers from high rates in school drop-outs/push-outs, unemployment, cost of living and crime. It boasts itself as a tourist destination promoting a multicultural society that is friendly yet it has remained fraught with internal turmoil and racial tension for the last two decades. Political Situation: The small island state of some 300 plus islands gained independence from Great Britain on October 10 19703. For the first seventeen years, it enjoyed a relatively stable political climate. Since then however there have been a series of political upheavals including two Military coup-de-tats of 1987; a Civilian take over in 2000 and more recently, the Military coup of 2006. This continued political instability has led to strained international relations and an angst-ridden climate of uncertainty. The third political crisis in December 2006 saw the Military taking over the affairs of state. At the time this chapter was written, the military regime was still in control with the commander in office as Prime Minister. Despite political independence, Fiji remains economically dependent on foreign aid; the politics of which many Pacific educators identify as a serious constraint in addressing local educational realities and needs (Taufe’ulungaki 2002; Thaman 2002; Teaero 2002). Nevertheless, educational aid enables development of curricula, sourcing school texts and resource materials, training Ministry officials, teacher training and education.

Figure 1: Map of Fiji4


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The 2007 National Census population count amounted to 827, 900; comprising Indigenous Fijians at fifty-seven percent; Indo-Fijians (Indians) at thirty-eight percent; and, five percent of mixed ethnic denominations including expatriates, Pacific islanders, local Asians and immigrant communities (Fiji Bureau of Statistics 2008). Although pluralism and multiracialism was advocated since independence, there has been little emphasis in education on nation-building, citizenship education and multiculturalism. The discussion surrounding these issues are relatively new, with much priority of post-independent Fiji covering issues of access, resources, finance, bridging the gap between indigenous students and Indians, up-skilling teachers, localizing curriculum materials and examinations and the like.5 Curriculum development in Fiji continues to be administered and managed using a centralized approach with curriculum development taking place nationally at the Ministry of Education’s Curriculum Development Unit. These are disseminated to the periphery (schools) for implementation. With a centralized system that emphasizes examinations as its major form of assessment, it is no wonder that the Education Commissions of 1969 and 2000 called into question the purpose of education in Fiji. Extensive rote-learning coupled with five major national examinations6 was seen as a major concern, but the Commission found that most parents disagreed with the idea of reducing exams, as they saw them as the best measure of a student’s performance and achievement. The panel found this troubling as it indicated a ‘certification’ mentality that was deeply entrenched in the Fiji society (Sharma and Sadler 2000, p344-5). The Education Commission 2000, which to date provides the most comprehensive review of the Fiji Education system, is the first document to scrutinize the needs and challenges of society in depth. It presents an important shift in thinking about the role that education plays in social and political development. In it Bacchus (2000) postulates:

To a large extent, the future economic and social development of Fiji depends on its success in creating a truly multi-cultural society. Such a society could help to ensure the maintenance of a democratic political and social order, which respects the human rights of all its citizens (p 35).

This paradigm shift, marks an important point in educational history as prior to this review, it can be argued that the main agenda schooling appeared to serve was economic; accentuating examinations and results.7 Many Pacific educators recognize the need for an education that acknowledges the importance of socio-cultural learning and holistic development of the child; but the question of whose agenda in the curriculum remains. For example, Taufe’ulungaki (2002); Thaman (2002); and Nabobo-Baba (2002) worry that the influence of the Western world and its philosophies and goals of education continue to underpin Pacific education systems. They argue a re-rethinking of education; that is culturally-inclusive and tailored to suit the


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needs of the island nation it serves. Thaman says the cultural-gap which often exists in the schooling experience is exacerbated when the very foundation of education is non-Pacific (Thaman, 1999). Taufe’ulungaki (2002) agrees but adds to this arguing that educational development and curriculum change in the region has been predominantly influenced by International movements in education. She comments,

Because human societies, including Pacific nations, believe in the transforming capacity of education, they have accepted its elevation to a human right and need. It is the institution through which individuals develop the basic knowledge, attitudes, values and skills that they must have to become fully functional members of their societies …these roles [of education] usually relate to the furtherance of economic and intellectual development. The other main roles of education assigned by societies, which are cultural and moral development, are often ignored or neglected within the formal education system but are critical to the achievement of social cohesiveness and political stability, the pre-requisites for development including economic and intellectual development (p13).

Fiji’s ethnic and religious diversity and its political history of conflict and instability raises essential questions: What should Civic education in Fiji look like? And what are its intended outcomes? More significantly, in a system that is obdurate in its examination focus, how does one ensure authentic learning? And, if Civic Education is to be incorporated into existing examinable subjects, how can internalization and the learning of values be measured? CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION FOR WHAT? According to UNESCO (2008) the increasing global interest in CE and Citizenship education emerged in the 1990’s as a result of what it calls “…the third wave of democracy” with an increase from 76 to 117 formal democracies in the world today.8

Civic education programmes have become an increasingly important means for countries to educate citizens about their rights and responsibilities. Increasing pluralism within states has encouraged the development of civic education programmes that go beyond simple ‘patriotic’ models of citizenship requiring uncritical loyalty to the nation state. By defining ‘citizenship’ in terms of human rights and civic responsibilities, civic education programmes attempt to avoid concepts of ‘citizenship’ that define nationality in terms of ethnic, religious or cultural identity.

The train of thought offering civics education which marries citizenship values, moral education and life skills in Fiji, is in line with the global conversation on citizenship/civics education. For the most part, citizenship education is premised on education as social transformation (Dewey 1916/1966) and conscientization of the masses (Freire 1972) expected to “stabilize a personal, social and political habitat” (Feinberg 1998); and develop a sense of national community in the face of social diversity (Steutel and Spiecker 2000). The beginnings of CE is said to have evolved in both Western Europe and the UK as a response to a sense of urgency or ‘crisis’ (Davis, Gregory and Riley 1999, p26). This urgency


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appears to have translated directly into the development of CE to address an understanding of and participatory roles in the politically democratic state, as well as to combat the general decline in moral standards and an increase in crime, violence, social change and ethnic intolerance (Davis, Gregory and Riley 1999; Edwards and Fogelman 2000; Rowe 2000).

In terms of teaching, many writers advocate a combination of strategies including engaging students in debate and discussion (Edwards and Fogelman (2000, p100); nurturing school environments that promote democratic processes (Guttman 1999, in Edwards and Fogelman 2000) and service learning (community service) (Chiarelott 2006; Boyte and Skelton 1997, in Henderson and Hawthorne 2000, p14). Teacher education and training, it is generally agreed, is central. Davis, Gregory and Riley (1999), for example, are adamant that, “citizenship education simply will not happen in any valid form if there is not sustained and serious attention given to teacher-education…if citizenship is to mean anything…teacher-education is a fundamental part of the reform process” (p115). Along this vein, Henderson and Hawthorne (2000) advocate a model of transformative leadership where teachers see themselves as curriculum practitioners and are constantly engaged in critical reflection (p23, 29). Upon closer examination, the transformative education they promote is synonymous with CE in its aims to nurture

…a society where citizens are open to a continuous dialogue of their core beliefs. They chose not to be comfortable, non-questioning true believers…their education has been broadly focused or directed toward continuous physical, social, emotional, intellectual and spiritual development. Because of their expansive sense of self and others, they accept complexities of cultural life…They seek to understand and uphold human values that provide a sense of caring and progressive connectedness. They embrace the idea of ‘unity-within-diversity’ and celebrate democratic, multicultural principles, activities and institutions. (Henderson and Hawthorne 1995, in Henderson and Hawthorne 2000, p29).

On the topic of learning citizenship values, Rowe (2000) articulates citizenship learning models in three general categories that relate to the domains of social and moral development: cognitive, affective and experiential (p194-5). Within this framework, Rowe discusses a number of models which are summarized in a tabular form below.


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Figure 2 Citizenship Learning Models

Citizenship Learning Models Cognitive Models Prioritizes learning about and thinking about, reflection on, understanding what it means to be a citizen in context

Affective Models Prioritizes thinking and feeling about, linking back to understanding citizenship and what it means for both the individual and the nation

Experiential Models Holistic approach that combines the cognitive with the affective – citizenships skills are practiced

1. Constitutional Model -descriptive approach to learning about social systems including the constitution, local and national government 2. Patriotic Model Advocated for its promotion of the development of a national identity, it emphases national pride and a sense of nationhood/building 3. Parental Model Emphasizes the role of the school in engaging families in the discussion about social participation and reconciling those values which are in contrast to those advocated by the state 4. Religious Model Teaching of civics or sense of national good through religious education 5. Value Conflict/Pluralist Model Prioritizes the development of critical thinking and integrity to enable the individual to apply a sense of general ‘good’ to situations where personal values may conflict with those widely held by others i.e value pluralism.

These take the cognitive (knowledge about and thinking about) to the emotive ‘feeling’ about. It emphasizes the development of empathy. It finds support in subject areas such as the arts and literature.

1. School Ethos Model Emphasizes the significance of the organization, administration and ethos of the school community as a whole based on the foundations of democracy. 2. Community Action Model In this approach, the learning experience extends into community projects that expect students to ‘give back’ by participating in community engagement as either part of the school programme or on a voluntary basis.

Adapted from Rowe (2000, p195-201).

While the dialogue elsewhere has been a longstanding one, in the Pacific, the CE debate is at its infancy, with dialogue only commencing in 2001 at the Forum Secretariat’s Forum Education Ministers Meeting (FEdMM). During FEdMM’s initial discussion on the Forum Basic Education Action Plan (FBEAP), the need to prioritize Civics education was recognized. FBEAP emphasizes the ‘Teaching of Governance and Civics’ calling for an inclusion in Pacific Islands National Development Plans; integration into the school curricular; and, non-formal community education (Forum Secretariat 2001, p9). The Forum which is also the founder of the Pacific Plan (PP) identifies ‘Good Governance’ as one of the four main pillars of regionalism in the Pacific9. The PP identifies eight priority areas; civil society, cultural identity, regional inclusiveness, sub-regional representation, human rights, women and gender, and youth. Pacific Island member countries are expected to actively engage in translating the PP.


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In an ADB/Commonwealth Secretariat joint report it commissioned showed “World Bank Institute data… for the 6-year data span, governance in the Pacific is slightly worse, on average, than the global median for developing countries” (2005, p10-11). In this light, the sudden recognition of the need for CE and good governance is also “driven by a sense of crisis” as articulated by Davis, Gregory and Riley (1999). In Fiji, the urgency is imminent. A bilateral agreement between the Government of Fiji, through the Ministry of Education; New Zealand and UNDP in February 2006 saw the promise of NZ$2.53 million towards the development of “…a school-based civic education programme” and a further NZ$2.2 million for “…long-term community civics education” (Fiji Government 2006, p1-2). The press release statement issued by the Fiji Government states the school component is

…designed to show through lessons in class and practical work, how politics could be conducted in a peaceful, lawful, participatory and equitable manner. It is designed also to support the teaching of human rights and civic education topics in the curriculum of both primary and secondary schools (Ibid, p2).

The Ministry of Education in support of the commitment to the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) 2005 – 2014 aims for “a world where everyone has an opportunity to benefit from an education and learn the values, behavior and lifestyles required for a sustainable future and for positive social transformation” (Ministry of Education Fiji 2005, p4). It also, stresses the urgency for human rights education within the proposed holistic approach to education geared towards responding to “…the current social and political challenges” (Ibid, p16). The new vision for education in Fiji also emphasizes the promotion of Multicultural studies to address issues of diversity and values (p21). The vision for CE in Fiji mirrors the goal of citizenship education defined by Feinberg (1998) “…to stabilize a personal, social and political habitat …conducive to the maintenance and reproduction of a variety of group and cultural formations and … supportive of many different conceptions of the good life” (p47). This vision is further reflected in the Education reform document ‘Building a Strategic Direction for Education in Fiji 2006 – 2015’,

The challenges of the 21st

century demands for students who have a democratic mind, have self-initiative, are hard working and are able to use their education to be worthwhile members of society… The ideal learner should be a holistic person who is not only able to fulfill his or her life goals, but is able to contribute effectively to Fiji’s society (p31).

The document concludes, “[t]he responsible citizen of Fiji should be just, have a strong sense of patriotism and should be wise decision makers. They should be economically, socially and politically enterprising” (Ibid). This directive has given rise to a Policy in Enterprise Education drafted in 2007. It proposes an integrated subject/cross-curriculum approach incorporated from class three (Year 3) to form seven (Year 13).


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The main aim of enterprise education is to provide learning opportunities where students identify real life projects and activities through which they develop and demonstrate transferable enterprising skills and attributes. The projects can be related to social, personal, civics, community, business and work issues (Ministry of Education Fiji 2008, p1).

In curriculum development, stakeholder input is vital and often missing in the Pacific. A case in point, Thaman notes its absence in the development of CE in Fiji:

A few weeks ago, when I inquired about citizenship education in Fiji for example, I was told that UNDP recently commissioned a feasibility study for a Fiji Citizenship Education Project whose aim it is to ensure that every school child acquires key knowledge, attitudes and values in both human rights and civics. Upon closer examination of the expatriate consultant’s report, it was obvious that the study failed to problematise the notions of human rights and citizenship education from the perspectives of the so-called beneficiaries of the Project; Fijian school students, teachers, parents and the wider community. This is typical of the fact that local educators and curriculum planners, although critical of international aid agencies’ policies towards the way educational aid is delivered, continue to be ignorant of, or be silent on, the conflicts between the way citizenship education is normally interpreted by school authorities and that of their local, and indigenous communities (2004, p 4-5).

CIVICS EDUCATION IN FIJI: PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT Even though the basis for Civics education is found in the 1997 Constitution Amendment Act’s preamble affirming the foundations of shared values, social diversity, common citizenship, human rights, the rule of law and religious beliefs (Constitution of the Republic of the Fiji Islands 1998, in Koya-Vaka’uta 2002, p28); it is the recommendation of the Education Commission report 2000 that is recognized as the main catalyst for the development of CE. The Fiji Islands National Curriculum Framework (NCF) The Ministry of Education under the Fiji Education Sector Reform Agreement (FESP)10 has put together a National Curriculum Framework which is grounded on the philosophy and framework of the Outcomes Based Education (OBE) model used in Western Australia.11 The NCF identifies its foundations as the Delor’s Report 1997; the Fiji Education Commission Report 2000; the 2003 – 2005 Ministry of Education’s Strategic Plan12 and, the Suva Declaration.13 Its vision of“Educating the child holistically for a peaceful and prosperous Fiji” (Ministry of Education 2006, piv), is rationalized:


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Education in schools in Fiji will support the development of students with positive attitudes and will empower them with a firm foundation of knowledge, skills and values to maximize their potential to meet the challenges of living in a dynamic Fiji and the global society. Education in schools will contribute to the spiritual, intellectual, social, emotional aesthetic and physical development of students who will have reverence for God. They will grow into healthy, happy, caring citizens committed to cultural, multi-cultural, religious understanding and tolerance; harmonious living; global co-existence; and environmental sustainability. Students will be informed, creative, responsible and productive citizens contributing to a peaceful, prosperous and just society (Ministry of Education 2006, p7).

The NCF advocates democratic principles at its core and identifies a number of values and virtues on which curriculum development and reform are based. These include civic pride, compassion, creativity, cultural understanding, empathy and tolerance, environmental sustainability, faith, honesty, fairness and respect of truth and justice, human rights, human dignity and responsibility, integrity, life-long learning, peace and prosperity, safety and security for all citizens (especially the child) and a sense of family and community (Ministry of Education 2006, p13). Citizenship Education is identified in the NCF as a curriculum perspective “…best integrated across the curriculum” (Ibid, p21). Other curriculum perspectives include Career Education, Environmental Education for Sustainability, Literacy and Numeracy Education, Religious and Spiritual Understanding and Values, Attitudes and Behaviors. Citizenship Education, it reiterates, links with political democracy and incorporates good governance.

Formal instruction in Citizenship Education will provide a basic and realistic understanding of civic responsibilities, politics and government. It should familiarize students with the constitution of Fiji and enable citizens to understand the workings of their social and political systems [and] the inclusion of Citizenship topics and responsibilities of citizens in a democracy and a framework for competent and responsible participation (Ibid, p 24).

The dialogue on CE remains focused on its importance (why) and incorporating it into the existing curriculum frame (how). Pedagogical issues on the delivery of CE remains untouched. That is, how best to teach CE? In light of this missing link, it would be prudent to important to consider possible models of delivery for CE such as those articulated by Rowe (2000).

In summary, it can be said that the goals of CE in Fiji appear to be noble – the quest for relevant holistic development of the child and while the decision to teach CE is not contentious, it is contradictory because the current regime is not democratically elected. The question of how much and how comfortable schools and teachers will be in engaging students in such debate remains. In a country where the government is self-instituted, backed by military fire-power; and social commentary suppressed to the point of deporting lead players in the media, will CE realize its full potential? How can children be taught to speak up, advocating freedom of speech, when the system punishes those who do? As Davis, Gregory and Riley (1999) comment “…unless teachers and pupils are given the


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freedom to pursue issues wherever they may go, citizenship education will be undermined from the start.” FORMALIZING THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: Contradiction or ‘Pedagogy of hope’? THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to examine existing beliefs and practices about Civics Education in Fiji. Given the fact that the Civic Education curriculum proper is currently being developed, the research examines current progress of the initiative and the perceptions and practices of current teachers, teacher-educators and teacher-trainees regarding CE. Research Questions:

1. Why teach Civic/Citizenship Education in Fiji? (rationale) 2. How should CE be taught? (pedagogy) 3. What should CE look like? (epistemology/content)

Sample This small-scale study reviewed the beliefs and attitudes of a sample of Fiji Nationals including forty teacher-trainees, teachers and teacher-educators. Using purposeful and convenience sampling (Wiersma 2000); a sample including ten primary and secondary teachers from the two main city areas of Suva (capital) and Lautoka, and from the University of the South Pacific’s main campus in Suva, ten teacher-trainees and ten teacher-educators. It is important to note that the teacher-trainees are students enrolled in the pre-service Bachelors programme towards Secondary Teacher Qualifications. The current Bachelor in Primary Education is offered completely in distance-mode and is offered to in-service teachers with an existing teacher certificate or diploma in education. Students enrolled in this programme are experienced teachers and fall into the primary teacher category. Methodology A mixed-methods approach (Creswell 2003; Tashakkori and Teddie 2003) was used enabling an in-depth qualitative discussion on emerging issues as well as quantification of particularly significant ratings and coding of results. Triangulation was provided by use of a variety of methods of data collection; interviews, questionnaires, focus-groups and document analysis. (1) Semi-structured interviews A series of interviews was conducted with Ministry officials, including the senior education officer charged with CE and curriculum developers currently working on the Civic Education curriculum. (2) Questionnaires A questionnaire was disseminated to twenty primary teachers and twenty secondary teachers. The anticipated rate of return was estimated at fifty percent, which accounts for the additional distributed questionnaires. Questionnaires were also disseminated to twenty


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current pre-service secondary trainee-teachers and to ten teacher-educators based at the University of the South Pacific. (3) Focus-Group Focus-group discussions were held to engage in informal dialogue, including teacher-trainees (5); secondary teachers (5) primary teachers (5) and, teacher-educators (5). Limitations The small sample does not allow for wide generalizations but it does provide a snapshot of current thought amongst pre-service and in-service teachers, and teacher-educators in Fiji. Time-constraints did not allow for engagement with school students nor was there any classroom observation undertaken as the CE curriculum has not been implemented. Findings and Discussions In this section, a narrative overview of the data collected is presented under the following thematic categories: 1) Citizenship; 2) Citizenship/Civics education; 3) Pedagogical issues; 4) Teacher-education and training; and 5) Attitudes and ideas about CE. In the interest of brevity, the following abbreviations are used. P=Primary teachers; S=Secondary teachers; TE= Teacher-educators and TT=Teacher-trainees. Core issues raised in each section are highlighted to identify emerging themes and basic ideas. A summary of result tables are included in the appendices. 1. CITIZENSHIP: The good citizen: The results indicate that the teachers sampled have strong ideas about Fiji citizens: that while Fiji nationals are proud of their nation and their nationality, it does not naturally translate into national pride. The ideal citizen was described as someone who was well versed with local issues and international relations and who are aware of their individual responsibility to the wider community. Teachers and TTs felt that ethnic tension and polarization of the two major races contribute to fragmented development of national pride. TEs strongly disagreed with this view. Participatory citizenship: There was consensus that civic participation means keeping up-to-date with local and international news and that civic responsibility includes exercising political rights through voting. Contrastingly, only two TEs believed this to be true. In addition, the majority believe participatory citizenship involves engagement in community activities and that it begins with clear ideas about the country’s laws and constitutional rights of all citizens. 2. CITIZENSHIP/CIVICS EDUCATION IN FIJI: Relevance: The general view is that CE and learning about citizenship is important and relevant to the Pacific. Respondents agree that civic responsibilities can be learnt at school and that CE has a place in the school curriculum. Feedback indicates that teachers believe


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CE should be prioritized as a major topic at school. “CE is very important since we live in a multicultural society where we need to understand the importance of our nation and being a part of it” (P female). A TE clarifies “We need CE but it needs deeper nurturing and local consultative workshops to map things out. We need to think about not examining this as a subject or students will only focus on rote learning for exams which will defeat its purpose” (TE female). Curriculum: It was widely held that CE must be taught across the curriculum. They agreed that Citizenship Education should include Human Rights; Health Issues, be culturally-inclusive including traditional structures and forms of leadership; and constitutional studies. Additionally, a group of teachers felt that CE must include a variety of topics - environmental education, moral/values education, religious education, cultural and multicultural studies, civic pride, and patriotism. This conceptualization of CE is in line with the NCF plan. Primary teachers identified specific issues under three main categories; Environment; Diversity; and Nationhood. Environmental issues include environment conservation and wise use of resources/sustainability (P 20%); littering (P 10%), and anti-pollution (P 20%). Diversity issues include patriotism (P 20%); unity in diversity (P10%); tolerance and reconciliation (P 10%); and culture and diversity (P 20%). Nationhood includes personal integrity (authentic self) (P10%); constitutional studies (P 10%); national/civic pride (P 30%); moral values education (P 20%); and, religious studies (P 10%).

The secondary teachers list included cultural and cross-cultural studies inclusive of vernacular, moral values (S 50%) cultural identity (S 10%), and personal responsibility (S10%). They also said that CE could be incorporated into secondary school science subjects (S 20%). TEs said that components of CE are already present in the current syllabus but need to be emphasized (TE 30%). They felt that CE must be seen as important and purposeful by all, that this required stakeholder consultation (TE 100%) and that students need to learn how to live by these values (TE 100%). They also said that spirituality must be a core component of CE (TE 80%) with a smaller group stating that education for diversity was also important (TE 20%). TTs also expressed the need for moral and cultural education (TT 60%); and, spirituality (TT 40%). The group believes that CE requires a cultural component (P 80%; S 60%; TE 100%; TT 100%); that this means beginning with the history of Fiji (P 50%; S 80%; TE 100%; TT 100%) including a study of all ethnic communities and their histories (P 60%; S70%; TE 100%; TT 100%). This supports the idea expressed by Kymlicka (1989) who argues for a sense of nation as a cultural community with “…a shared heritage, common language, history, collective experiences and narrative” (in Steutel and Spiecker 2000, p243).


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In terms of constitutional studies, they believe that students need to learn about voting practices and procedures (P 60%; S 60%; TE 100%; TT 80%) and that social diversity is an important component of CE (P 60%; S 100%; TE 100%; TT 100%).

Assessment: When teachers were asked about measurement of the outcomes of CE, some feel that because CE cannot be measured, it will not be emphasized (P 30%; S30%; TT 60%). This resonates with Thaman (2002) who argues that for the most part, education in the Pacific has emphasized content-knowledge through examinations rather than prioritizing what students “…are supposed to know, be and do when they leave school” (p27). TEs on the other hand disagreed with this view (TE70%). TT and TE focus-groups expressed the need for less theory and more practical community projects (TT 80%; TE 100%). The TT focus-group summarizes “CE can be tested through student research and role plays so that students can demonstrate what has been learnt” (TT focus-group USP).

On assessment, only the primary sample implied that CE should be examinable in major national examinations (P 80%) with a minority of the others supporting this method of assessment (S 30%; TE 40%; TT 40%). The majority of respondents however supported an assessment that incorporates alternative community based projects which are organized by the school and/or the Ministry of Education (MOE) (P 70%; S 80%; TE 70%; TT 80%). One TE suggests how this might be incorporated. “Community hours could be incorporated into assessment, for example 5 hours per term at primary level, 10 hours at secondary level or something to that effect” (TE female). 3. PEDAGOGICAL VIEWS Delivery: When asked how CE should be taught, the Integrated Approach was the preferred method inline with the NCF which advocates CE as a topic that is best taught across the curriculum. Contrastingly, a handful of each sample felt that it could also be taught as a separate distinct subject (P 50%; S 20%; TE 30%; TT 40%). Best practice: Opinions on how best to teach CE were varied. Primary teachers indicated motivational lessons every morning (P 10%); practical community projects (P 20%); and thematic approach (P 20%). Secondary teachers said teachers must lead by example (S 30%); students could be informally assessed daily on behavior (S 30%); case studies could be used to teach CE (S 30%); and that teachers must be well-versed in CE and believe in its values and principles (S 20%). TEs advocate use of community projects (TE 30%); to teach practical skills; and for assessment purposes, that CE should not solely be theoretical, must include an element of practice (TE 100%); and that cross/multi-cultural education is necessary (TE 30%) TTs support a two-way approach to teaching CE beginning with dialogue between students and teachers to meet students preferred learning-styles (TT 30%); that practical community projects (TT 30%) were essential and that students need relevant examples from daily life in


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their context (TT 30%). They agree that students learn best with the use of real life case studies (TT 30%) and a balance between theory and practice (TT 30%). Content: When questioned further about the subjects into which CE could be incorporated using the integrated approach, all subjects suggested were endorsed: Geography, History, Civics/Citizenship Education, Politics, Environmental Education, Values/Moral Education, and Religious Education. Primary teachers felt that in addition to these subjects that CE could be incorporated into Health and Social Studies at primary school level (P 20%). Upon reflection, it appears a mixed-model or flexible modular approach is advocated with ideas mapping links between cognitive, affective and experiential models (Rowe 2000). Such an approach would prioritize knowledge and content, thinking and feeling as well as practice through community engagement. Level: When asked at what Level CE should be taught, some felt that CE can be taught from kindergarten to seventh form (ECE to year 13) (TE 10%; TT 20%). Another group felt that it should be taught from class one to form seven (year s 1 to 13) (P 40%; TE 90%; TT 80%), with others saying that it should be taught from classes seven to form seven (years 7 to 13) (S 20%). A sizable group from the primary and secondary sample said that secondary school was the most appropriate level at which to teach CE either from forms three to seven (years 9 to 13) (P 30%; S 30%) or forms five to seven (years 10 to 13) (P 30%; S 50%). One TE is adamant that “TE must start from ECE through relevant games and stories, interactive care for the environment, empathy etc” (TE female). Current Coverage: When asked if they covered CE issues in the existing curriculum, primary teachers said they did in Health Education (P 60%); Environment (P 60%); Social Science (P 50%); simple aspects of civic responsibility, pride, consumer education, citizenship, religion, morals values (P 30%); as well as vandalism and littering (P 20%). One teacher was unable to link CE to any subject that she taught, saying that she did not touch on CE at all (P 10%). Secondary teachers also said they taught CE in a number of existing subject areas. These include English literature and writing (S 10%); Social Science and History (S 40%) covering such questions as ‘who is a citizen? Roles/ responsibilities of a citizen? Constitutional studies including the electoral processes, national symbols and pride’ (S 40%). Some felt they discussed elements of CE during Religious Education and Pastoral Care (S 20%), Geography (S 10%), Commerce – consumer education/ rights and responsibilities (S 20%) and Music – appreciation of traditional and cultural music (S 10%). With the exception of one TE, the majority said that they did not teach CE in any of the courses or programmes that they covered at USP (TE 90%). The TE, who did, said she covered it during discussions on curriculum and contemporary issues in Pacific education. TTs were unable to respond to this line of questioning as they have yet to begin their teaching.


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4. TEACHER-EDUCATION AND TRAINING Teacher Training: Majority of the teachers sampled had not received any formal training in the teaching and delivery of CE. Contrastingly, a primary teacher said he learnt about CE during Hindu religious learning at the local Sai Baba Center14. Three primary teachers said that they had covered related issues in a Values Education Course offered as part of the Bachelors in Primary Education (P 30%). Half of the primary teacher sample said they were not confident to teach CE (P 50%). Similarly, the secondary teachers had not received any training and expressed the desire for workshops (S 40%); professional development (S 20%); and basic training (S 60%). Despite this, most said they were confident enough to teach CE (S 60%). Some were very clear about why CE is essential to teacher -training. One teacher states “…as a teacher, I need this training in order to facilitate my students and the community as a whole” (P male). Other comments include: “…teachers haven’t been invited to attend any training sessions on CE. We need this training to lead students on the right path” (S female) and “…teachers need to be made aware about what civics education is all about” (S female). Majority of respondents agree teachers need to be trained to teach CE and that it must be prioritized in teacher-education programmes. Some primary and secondary teachers agree that teachers should be well-versed and believe in CE values (P 30%; S 20%). Overall, they said that teachers and TEs in Fiji need to learn about civic responsibility themselves. The TE focus-group agrees that CE should ideally be a part of teacher-education programmes but identify institutional constraints such as mode of delivery. “It is necessary but difficult in the Bachelor in Primary Education because it is delivered in distance [print] mode. We would be unable to meet or measure the needs of teacher skill development in terms of citizenship and CE” (TE focus-group). This group also feels that community-based assessment and learning is an essential part of teacher-education. “Civic projects in TE courses should incorporate community projects such as working with squatter settlements, old people’s homes, poorer and rural schools” (TE focus-group).

There was consensus that teacher-training should include the civic responsibilities of teachers in the wider community and though teacher-education at USP does not currently prioritize CE (P 80%; S 60%; TE 100%; TT 100%) that the teacher-education and training it provides, gives teachers the basic teaching skills which can be applied to any subject area (P 100%; S 100%; TE 50%; TT 100%). Respondents also agree that education for social diversity is significant (P 80%; S 100%; TE 100%; TT 100%). Role of the Ministry of Education: Interestingly, majority emphasized that although teacher-education and training is important, the Ministry of Education is responsible for training teachers to teach CE (P 100%; S 100%; TE 90%; TT 100%).


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The role of Teacher-educators: The TE group is adamant that some work needs to be done at the institutional-level with teacher-educators. “teacher-educators also need to learn about CE and how to incorporate and value it in the curriculum and subject areas before they are expected to pass these values on to trainee teachers” (TE female). This finds support in Edwards and Fogelman (2000) who stress the significance of investing in in-service teacher-training and professional development. 5. GENERAL ATTITUDES AND IDEAS ABOUT CE The final line of questioning required respondents to reflect on personal ideas and attitudes towards CE. The ideas expressed relate to the purpose of education, resourcing, the content-full, examination driven curriculum, and the need to clarify the purpose and expected outcomes of CE. One teacher expresses her concerns “There are just too many programs being adopted or introduced only because we have the fund from donors. Thereafter, no one bothers to evaluate or make adaptations where necessary to suit the needs of our people and time [coverage]” (S female). Primary teachers reiterate the need for CE as an essential component of holistic development (P 20%). The same number said that it is only through teacher-education that we can ensure that CE is promoted at the national level (P 20%). Secondary teachers had two major concerns; that CE needs to be well-resourced (S 50%) and the Ministry needs to consider reducing current content- loads (S 50%). TEs feel the school curriculum is already full (TE 100%) and that teaching CE must not focus on content but rather on processes (TE 50%). A further group expresses the need for clear objectives of CE before it can be incorporated into TE programmes and courses (TE 30%). One TE laments,” the problem is that every thing that goes to school in Fiji ends up in the exams” (TE male). The TE focus-group elaborates “we need to consider issues such as measurable and immeasurable outcomes and how this will translate into a heavily exam-oriented curriculum” (TE focus-group). Another TE raised the issue of loyalty and nation-building. She asks “what about the issue of dual citizenship? How do we teach CE in this case? To which country do we expect people to be loyal?” (TE female). TTs said CE should be assessed through practical projects instead of pen-and-paper tests (TT 30%) and that CE should teach students about their rights and basic understanding about what is happening in government, electoral process, etc (TT 30%). They also said CE should address the issue of school dropouts, and crime (TT 30%), and that students must develop a sense of community and nationhood (TT 30%). The TT focus-group emphasizes: “outcomes must include ideas about what makes a good citizen; to be proud of their country and ethnic/cultural group; aversion to corrupt practices and racism; and ideas about how to promote unity and harmony in society” (Focus-group, TT students USP).


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In summation, it can be said that though CE is a relatively new initiative in Pacific education, this small sample indicates a general belief about the significance of the study of civics and citizenship. It is worth noting that opinions about the conceptualization of related subject areas in which CE may be taught are in line with the proposed NCF. School ethos which is strongly advocated by theorists as crucial to CE (Gutmann 1996, in Edwards and Fogelman 2000; Rowe 2000) is notably absent in this survey. Teachers’ responses focused on classroom practice; content, delivery and assessment. CONCLUSION: TOWARDS CITIZENSHIP, NATION-BUILDING AND SUSTAINABILITY Civic Education for participatory citizenship is a relatively new concern in the Pacific. Despite its basis in the 1997 Fiji Constitution Amendment Act, the impetus for the development of CE curriculum has come about through a sense of ‘crisis’ highlighted by the 2000 Education Commission panel and recognized by the Pacific Forum Education Ministers Meeting 2001. The final push came about through the bilateral agreement between the United Nations Development Programme; NZAid and the government of Fiji, with the support of the Fiji Sector Reform Project 2003 – 2008. The proposed CE programme currently being developed is expected to prioritize democratic politics, human rights and civic education from primary to secondary level. Results of this small research indicate pre-and in-service teachers and teacher-educators are of the view CE as very important in Fiji and have very clear ideas about what should be included in this programme. The general feeling was that the significance of CE may be lost if it is prioritized as part of examinable subject curricula and that teachers need both training and on-going professional support as well as resources for the effective delivery of CE at school. Support for the integrated approach advocated by the NCF was indicated. Respondents also stressed service or community-based learning as essential to ensure positive learning experiences that relate to community development. In the final analysis, there is a clear indication that more research is needed to explore educational stakeholders’ beliefs about CE curriculum content and outcomes. It is also imperative that authentic learning experiences are provided for students so that the core values and principles of CE are realized. It is equally important that teachers and teacher-educators recognize the value of CE and are adequately prepared and confident to teach CE. The challenge in creating authentic learning experiences of citizenship and civility is as Federico Mayor surmises, to identify within a universal reference point of democracy, …a set of values that each country can appropriate in accordance with its own personality and cultural identity” (in Meyer-Bisch1995, p129). As Rowe concludes:

… the potential pitfalls for such a project are many and ironically, the gap between national and international rhetoric and the quality of delivery in the classroom is no where greater than in this field. In many countries, citizenship education remains optional, fragmented, poorly resourced, lacking a sound theoretical base and taught by reluctant or untrained


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teachers. This is a situation that needs urgent and concerted attention at all possible levels (2000, p201).

In Fiji, CE is a step in the right direction towards a democratic nation in which the basic rights and responsibilities of participatory citizenship are learnt and valued. The true benefit of the learning experience of CE however remains to be seen.

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Endnotes

1 The Indenture period which saw around 60,000 Indians were brought in from India to work on Sugar Plantations. The influx of Indian laborers began in 1879 and ended in 1916. 2 One school of thought2 led by Pacific thinkers such as Taufeu’ugaki;Thaman; Sanga; Nabobo-Baba; Teaero; Afamasaga and others, articulates the need for a Pacific education that is responsive to local needs and contexts by ensuring that all educational initiatives be firmly grounded on a pacific philosophy of quality education. That is, an education system which is culturally democratic and inclusive (Taufeu’ugaki 2002; Thaman 2002; Sanga 2002; Nabobo-Baba 2002; Teaero 2002). At a recent meeting of the RPEIPP may 12 – 14, 2008. It was recognized that the ‘re-thinking pacific education initiative’ had taken roots and was now a movement – a school of thought which was named ‘Waka Pasifika’ (Pacific boat/ship) symbolizing the Pacific educational journey. 3 For more detailed country information, see ‘Fiji Today 2006-07’ available at http://www.fiji.gov.fj/ 4See http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/fiji_map.shtml 5 See various Education Commission Reports 1909, 1926, 1969, 2000. UNDP/UNESCO Curriculum Project 1975; BELS programme, BEMTUP, BEMTAP and the like. 6 These are Fiji Intermediate Examination (year 6); Fiji Eighth Year Examination (year 8); Fiji Junior Certificate Examination (year 10); Fiji School Leaving Certificate (year 11) and Fiji Seventh Form Examination (year 13). In addition to these, the Fiji Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (FILNA) was institutionalized in 2007 and are administered at year 4 and 6. 7 This is emphasized in the Fiji Islands Education Commission Reports of 1969 and 2000, as well as the UNDP/UNESCO Curriculum Project 1975. 8 See http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=4611&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html 9 Other pillars include Economic growth, Sustainable development, and Security. 10 FESP is an agreement between the Governments of Fiji and Australia 2003 – 2008. The objectives of this agreement are two-fold: (1) To identify areas for support which could assist in the achievement of education and training sector policies and objectives; and (2) To propose specific activities, including feasibility and design/scoping work, which should be undertaken to underpin an assistance program and prepare draft terms of reference where applicable (Dixon and Dixon, 2004). 11 At the time this chapter was written, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) document is currently being drafted. The NCF version referenced in this paper is the second draft dated July 17, 2006. 12 The 2003-2005 MOE Strategic Plan outlines the goal of CE as the development of “students who respect others, appreciate Fiji’s multi-cultural heritage and are responsible, informed and involved citizens of both Fiji and the world” (Ministry of Education 2006, 24). 13 The Suva Declaration is the end result of a year long consultative process with educational stakeholders on the re-prioritizing and mapping of educational development in Fiji conducted over the 2004 – 2005 period. The ensuing curriculum document was endorsed by the inaugural Education Summit held in September 2005. 14 It is worth noting that the Hindu teachings of Sai Baba are centered on the principles of civic responsibilities to ones fellow man and community responsibility with an emphasis on ‘right behavior and action’ as the basis of godly living.

http://www.fiji.gov.fj/

http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/fiji_map.shtml

http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=4611&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

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