class 2_history of devices

7/23/2019 Class 2_History of Devices

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Introduction to

Semiconductor Devices and Circuits

Prof. Roy Paily

EEE Department, IIT GuwahatiAcademic Complex, Core II, G Block,

EEE Dept., Room 103, Phone 2512

[email protected]


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Inside a cell phone


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Different Areas of Electronics


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Some Electronics History


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1833 - First Semiconductor Effect is Recorded

Michael Faraday describes the "extraordinary case" of his discovery

of electrical conduction increasing with temperature in silver sulfidecrystals. This is the opposite to that observed in copper and other

metals.

Michael Faraday is renowned for hisdiscovery of the principles of electro-

magnetic induction and electro-

magnetic rotation, the interaction

between electricity and magnetism

that led to the development of theelectric motor and generator. The unit

of measurement of electrical

capacitance the farad (F) - is named

in his honor


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1937 - Telegraphy


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1966 - Transatlantic Cable


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Bell


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1874 - Semiconductor Point-Contact

Rectifier Effect

In the first written description of a semiconductor

diode, Ferdinand Braun notes that current flows

freely in only one direction at the contact between a

metal point and a galena (lead sulfide) crystal.

German physicist Ferdinand Braun, a 24-year old graduate of the Universityof Berlin had discovered the rectification effect at the point of contact

between metals and certain crystal materials.

It was used as the signal detector in a "crystal radio" set. The common

descriptive name "cats-whisker" detector is derived from the fine metallic

probe used to make electrical contact with the crystal surface.

Braun is better known for his development of the cathode ray tube (CRT)

oscilloscope in 1897, known as the "Braun tube in German. He shared the

1909 Nobel Prize with Guglielmo Marconi for his "contributions to the

development of wireless telegraphy," mainly the development of tunable

circuits for radio receivers.


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Fleming valve (Diode) - the first practical electronic device

Working in Thomas Edison's laboratory in 1883 William J. Hammer

noted rectifier effect when he added another electrode to a heatedfilament light bulb.

In 1904, John Fleming patented a one-way "oscillation valve" based

on the, so called, "Edison effect" that converted alternating radio

signal currents into direct currents in the earphones or speaker.

Known today as a diode, the Fleming valve was the first practical

electronic device.

Between 1902 and 1906, American Telephone and Telegraph

electrical engineer Greenleaf W. Pickard tested thousands of mineral

samples to assess their rectification properties. Silicon crystals fromWestinghouse yielded some of the best results.

In 1922-23 Russian engineer Oleg Losev of the Nizhegorod Radio

Laboratory, Leningrad used carborundum and zincite crystal rectifiers

in amplifiers and oscillators operating at frequencies up to 5 MHz

1901 S i d R ifi d "C '


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1901 - Semiconductor Rectifiers patented as "Cat's

Whisker" Detectors

Radio pioneer Jagadis Chandra Bose patents the use of a

semiconductor crystal rectifier for detecting radio waves

Jagadis Chandra Bose, a professor of physics

at Presidency College in Calcutta, India,

demonstrated the use of galena (lead sulfide)

crystals contacted by a metal point to detect

millimeter electromagnetic waves. In 1901

he filed a U.S patent for a point-contact

semiconductor rectifier for detecting radio

signals.

A Krows-Electric

Company

commercial

crystal detector

926 i ld ff S i d i


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1926 - Field Effect Semiconductor Device ConceptsPatented

Julius Lilienfeld files a patent describing a three-electrode amplifying

device based on the semiconducting properties of copper sulfide.Attempts to build such a device continue through the 1930s

Polish-American physicist and inventor

Julius E. Lilienfeld filed a patent in

1926, "Method and Apparatus for

Controlling Electric Currents," in which

he proposed a three-electrode

structure using copper-sulfidesemiconductor material.

Today this device would be called a

field-effect transistor.

1939 A lifi i i d t th th


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1939 - Amplifier using semiconductors rather thanvacuum is possible

Stimulated by research into copper-oxide rectifiers at Bell

Telephone Laboratories and by explanations of semiconductor

rectification by Mott and Schottky, William Shockley wrote in

December 1939 that "It has today occurred to me that an

amplifier using semiconductors rather than vacuum is in principle

possible." Under his direction, Walter Brattain and others performed

experiments on such three-electrode devices but did not achieve

amplification.

On his return to Bell Labs after the war in 1945 Shockley resumed

his work on semiconductor devices.

Again he failed to achieve his predicted results.

In 1946 physicist John Bardeen calculated that surface effects

could account for the failure of these attempts to build working

devices


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1940 - Discovery of the p-n Junction

Russell Ohl discovers the p-n junction and

photovoltaic effects in silicon that lead to

the development of junction transistors

and solar cells.

In the mid-1930s Russell Ohl, at Bell Telephone Labs in Holmdel, NJ,

began investigating the use of silicon rectifiers as radar detectors. He

found that increasing the silicon purity helped improve their

detection ability.

Russell Ohl (bow tie) with Jack Scaff (dark hair)


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Strange, surprising results on a silicon slab

On 23 February 1940, Ohl found that one of his purest

crystals nevertheless worked well, and interestingly, it had a

clearly visible crack near the middle.

However as he moved about the room trying to test it, thedetector would mysteriously work, and then stop again.

After some study he found that the behaviour was

controlled by the light in the roommore light caused more

conductance in the crystal.

When exposed to bright light, the current flowing through

the slab jumped appreciably.


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Concept of electrons and holes

opposite electrical effects

Ohl and colleague Jack Scaff found that a seam in the slab marked

the separation of the silicon into regions containing distinct kinds of

impurities. One impurity, the element phosphorus, yielded a slight

excess of electrons in the sample while the other, boron, led to a

slight deficiency (later recognized as "holes").

They called the regions n-type (for negative) and p-type (positive);the surface or "barrier" where these regions met became known as

a "p-n junction."

Light striking this junction stimulated electrons to flow from the n-

side to the p-side, resulting in an electric current.

William Shockleys conception of the junction transistor in 1948

derived from Ohls serendipitous (= happy accident) 1940 discovery.

The p-n junction became the most common form of rectifier used in

the electronics industry and has since become a fundamental

building block in the design of semiconductor devices.


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John Bardeen & Walter Brattain achieve transistor action in a Gepoint-

contact device in December 1947.

Bardeen and Brattain applied two closely-spaced gold

contacts held in place by a plastic wedge to the

surface of a small slab of high-purity germanium. The

voltage on one contact modulated the current flowing

through the other, amplifying the input signal up to100 times.

On December 23 they demonstrated their device to

lab officials - in what Shockley deemed a magnificent

Christmas present

Named the "transistor" by electrical engineer JohnPierce, Bell Labs publicly announced the revolutionary

solid-state device at a press conference in New York

on June 30, 1948. A spokesman claimed that "it may

have far-reaching significance in electronics and

electrical communication."

Bardeen, Brattain, and

Shockley (seated) on the

cover of Electronics

magazine September 1948

"Crystal Triode" issue

1947 - Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor


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They replaced the silicon with germanium,

which resulted in amplification 330 times

larger than before. But it only functionedfor low frequency currents, whereas phone

lines, for example, would need to handle

the many complicated frequencies of the

human voice

First point-contact transistor


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The First Transistor

While the device was constructed a

week earlier, Brattain's notes describethe first demonstration to higher-ups

at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23

December 1947, often given as the

birthdate of the transistor.

The "PNP point-contact germaniumtransistor" operated as a speech

amplifier with a power gain of 18 in

that trial.

Known generally as a point-contact transistor today, John

Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford

Shockley were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their

work in 1956.


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On January 23, 1948, William Shockley conceives an improved transistor

structure based on a theoretical understanding of the p-n junction effect

Partly spurred by professional jealousy, as he

resented not being involved with the point-

contact discovery, Shockley also recognized that

its delicate mechanical configuration would be

difficult to manufacture in high volume withsufficient reliability.

Shockley also disagreed with Bardeens explanation of how their transistor

worked. He claimed that positively charged holes could also penetratethrough the bulk germanium material - not only trickle along a surface layer.

Called "minority carrier injection," this phenomenon was crucial to operation

of his junction transistor, a three-layer sandwich of n-type and p-type

semiconductors separated by p-n junctions. This is how all "bipolar" junction

transistors work today.

1948 - Conception of the Junction Transistor


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Wireless /Radio


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Titanic Boost in Radio


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First Audio Transmissions


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AM/FM Wireless Radio


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Digital Communications


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Devices


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Devices


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Semiconductor materials By far, silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices.

Its combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a

useful temperature range make it currently the best compromise among thevarious competing materials. Silicon is currently fabricated in diameter to

allow the production of 300 mm (12 in.) wafers.

Germanium (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its

thermal sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is

often alloyed with silicon for use in very-high-speed SiGe devices. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but difficult

to form large-diameter thus making mass production of GaAs devices

significantly more expensive than silicon.

Silicon carbide (SiC) is used for blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) which could

withstand very high operating temperatures and environments with thepresence of significant levels of ionizing radiation. IMPATT diodes have also

been fabricated from SiC.

Indium compounds (indium arsenide, indium antimonide, and indium

phosphide) are also being used in LEDs and solid state laser diodes. Selenium

sulfide is being studied in the manufacture of photovoltaic solar cells.


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Two-terminal devices

Avalanche diode (avalanche breakdown diode)

DIAC (diode for alternating current no gate, bi-directional) Diode (rectifier diode)

Gunn diode (TED only n-type)

IMPATT diode

Laser diode

Light-emitting diode (LED)

Photocell

PIN diode

Schottky diode

Solar cell

Tunnel diode

VCSEL (vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser)

VECSEL (vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser)

Zener diode

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Three-terminal devices

Bipolar transistor

Darlington transistor

Field effect transistor

GTO (Gate Turn-Off)

IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

SGCT (Switched Gate Commuted Thyristor)

Thyristor

TRIAC

Unijunction transistor

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Multi-terminal devices

Four-terminal devices:

Hall effect sensor (magnetic field sensor)

Multi-terminal devices:

Charge-coupled device (CCD)

Microprocessor

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read-only memory (ROM)

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Applications of Semiconductor devices


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How does a transistor work?


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Basic Structure: MOS Capacitor


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CMOS


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Symbols


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The Gates


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The Amplifiers


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Voltage Amplification


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The Integrated Circuit


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Noyces IC Invention

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Why ICs were revolutionary


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2nd Generation

Semiconductor Devices, Diode and

single Transistor1st Generation

Valves


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3rd Generation

Small Scale Integrated Circuits (SSI): Less than 100 Transistors per Integrated Circuit or chip

Medium Scale Integrated Circuits (MSI): 100 to 1000 Transistors per Integrated Circuit or chip


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4th Generation

Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI):

1000 to 10000 Transistors per

Integrated Circuit or chip

Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits

(VLSI): 10000 to 1 million Transistors

per Integrated Circuit or chi


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5th Generation

Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)

Over 1 million Transistors per Integrated Circuit or Chip


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6th Generation ?


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Acknowledgements

Various articles from internet

History of Radio, Wikipedia

Ali Niknejad, Professor, Electrical Engineering

and Computer Sciences, EECS at UC Berkeley


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Thank You

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