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WHAT IS ECONOMICS? 1CHAPTER

Objectives

After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Define economics and distinguish between

microeconomics and macroeconomics

Explain the big questions of economics

Explain the key ideas that define the economic way of thinking

Explain how economists go about their work as social scientists

Understanding Our Changing World

You are studying economics at a time of enormoud change.

Some of the change is for the better—the information age and all the benefits that it brings.

Some of the change is for the worse—terrorism and recession send shockwaves through our lives.

Your economics course will help you to understand the powerful forces that are shaping and changing our world.

Definition of Economics

All economic questions arise because we want more than we can get.

Our inability to satisfy all our wants is called scarcity.

Because we face scarcity, we must make choices.

The choices we make depend on the incentives we face.

An incentive is a reward that encourages or a penalty that discourages an action.


Economics is the social science that studies the choices that individuals, businesses, governments, and societies make as they cope with scarcity and the incentives that influence and reconcile those choices.


Microeconomics

Microeconomics is the study of choices made by individuals and businesses, and the influence of government on those choices.

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics is the study of the effects on the national and global economy of the choices that individuals, businesses, and governments make.

Two Big Economic Questions

Two big questions summarize the scope of economics:

How do choices end up determining what, how, and for whom goods and services get produced?

When do choices made in the pursuit of self-interest also promote the social interest?


What, How, and For Whom?

Goods and services are the objects that people value and produce to satisfy wants.

What?

What we produce changes over time.

Sixty years ago, almost 25 percent of Americans worked on farms: Today that number is 3 percent.

Today, almost 80 percent of Americans provide services.


Figure 1.1 shows the trends in what the U.S. economy has produced over the past 60 years.

It shows the decline of agriculture, mining, construction, and manufacturing, and the expansion of services.


The facts about what we produce raise the deeper question: What determines the quantities of realtor services, new homes, DVD players, and corn that we produce?

Economics provides some answers to these questions.


How?

Goods and services are produced by using productive resources that economists call factors of production.

Factors of production are grouped into four categories:

Land

Labor

Capital

Entrepreneurship


The “gifts of nature” that we use to produce goods and services are land.

The work time and effort that people devote to producing goods and services is labor.

The quality of labor depends on human capital, which is the knowledge and skill that people obtain from education, on-the-job training, and work experience.


The tools, instruments, machines, buildings, and other constructions that are used to produce goods and services are capital.

The human resource that organizes land, labor, and capital is entrepreneurship.


Figure 1.2 shows a measure of the growth of human capital in the United States over the last century—the percentage of the population that has completed different levels of education.


The facts about how we produce raise the deeper question: What determines the quantities of capital, labor, and other resources that get used to produce goods and services?

Economics provides some answers to this question.


For Whom?

Who gets the goods and services depends on the incomes that people earn.

Land earns rent.

Labor earns wages.

Capital earns interest.

Entrepreneurship earns profit.


When is the Pursuit of Self-Interest in the Social Interest?

Every day, 6.3 billion people make economic choices that result in “What,” “How,” and “For Whom” goods and services get produced.

Do we produce the right things in the right quantities?

Do we use our factors of production in the best way?

Do the goods and services go the those who benefit most from them?


You make choices that are in your self-interest—choices that you think are best for you.

Choices that are best for society as a whole are said to be in the social interest.

Is it possible that when each one of us makes choices that are in our self-interest, it also turns out that these choices are also in the social interest?


Ten issues in today’s world illustrate the importance of this question:

Does public ownership and central planning do a better job than private business and free markets?

Is globalization a benefit or a problem?

Do the technological advances in the “new economy” bring benefits to all?

How did 9/11 change our economic lives?


Don’t corporate scandals show that big business works against the social interest?

Should drug companies be forced to make HIV/AIDS drugs available to poor people at a low cost?

Are we destroying our tropical rain forests?

Are the world’s water resources being managed properly?

Are there enough jobs?

Are we all (individuals, businesses, and governments) borrowing too much and creating too much debt?

The Economic Way of Thinking

Choices and Tradeoffs

The economic way of thinking places scarcity and its implication, choice, at center stage.

You can think about every choice as a tradeoff—an exchange—giving up one thing to get something else.

The classic tradeoff is “guns versus butter.”

“Guns” and “butter” stand for any two objects of value.


What, How, and For Whom Tradeoffs

The questions what, how, and for whom become sharper when we think in terms of tradeoffs.

What?” Tradeoffs arise when people choose how to spend their incomes, when governments choose how to spend their tax revenues, and when businesses choose what to produce.


How?” Tradeoffs arise when businesses choose among alternative production technologies.

For Whom?” Tradeoffs arise when choices change the distribution of buying power across individuals. Government redistribution of income from the rich to the poor creates the big tradeoff—the tradeoff between equality and efficiency.


Choices Bring Change

What, how, and for whom goods and services get produced changes over time and the quality of our economic lives improve.

But the quality of our economic lives and the rate at which they improve depends on choices that involve tradeoffs.

We face three tradeoffs between enjoying current consumption and leisure time and increasing future production, consumption, and leisure time.


If we save more, we can buy more capital and increase our production.

If we take less leisure time, we can educate and train ourselves to become more productive.

If businesses produce less and devote resources to research and developing new technologies, they can produce more in the future.

The choices we make in the face of these tradeoffs determine the pace at which our economic condition improves.


Opportunity Cost

Thinking about a choice as a tradeoff emphasizes cost as an opportunity forgone.

The highest-valued alternative that we give up to get something is the opportunity cost of the activity chosen.


Choosing at the Margin

People make choices at the margin, which means that they evaluate the consequences of making incremental changes in the use of their resources.

The benefit from pursuing an incremental increase in an activity is its marginal benefit.

The opportunity cost of pursuing an incremental increase in an activity is its marginal cost.


Responding to Incentives

Our choices respond to incentives.

For any activity, if marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost, people have an incentive to do more of that activity

If marginal cost exceeds marginal benefit, people have an incentive to do less of that activity.

Incentives are also the key to reconciling self-interest and the social interest.


Human Nature, Incentives, and InstitutionsEconomists take human nature as given and view people as acting in their self-interest.

Self-interested actions are not necessarily selfish actions.

But if human nature is given and people pursue self-interest, how can the social interest be served?

Economist answer this question by emphasizing the role of institutions in creating incentives to behave in the social interest.

Paramount: the rule of law that protects private property and facilitates voluntary exchange in markets.

Economics: A Social Science

Social science

Economics is a social science.

Economists distinguish between two types of statement:

What is—positive statementsWhat ought to be—normative statements

A positive statement can be tested by checking it against facts

A normative statement cannot be tested.


Social science

The task of economic science is to discover positive statements that are consistent with what we observe in the world and that enable us to understand how the economic world works.

This task is large and breaks into three steps:

Observation and measurementModel buildingTesting models


Observation and Measurement

Economists observe and measure economic activity, keeping track of such things as:

Quantities of resources Wages and work hours Prices and quantities of goods and services produced Taxes and government spending Quantities of goods and services bought from and sold to other countries.


Model Building

An economic model is a description of some aspect of the economic world that includes only those features of the world that are needed for the purpose at hand.


Testing Models

An economic theory is a generalization that summarizes what we think we understand about the economic choices that people make and the performance of industries and entire economies.

A theory is a bridge between a model and reality. It is a proposition about which model works.


Obstacles and Pitfalls in Economics

Economists cannot easily do experiments and most economic behavior has many simultaneous causes.

To isolate the effect of interest, economists use the logical device called ceteris Paribus or “other things being equal.

Economists try to isolate cause-and-effect relationship by changing only one variable at a time, holding all other relevant factors unchanged.


Obstacles and Pitfalls in Economics

Two common fallacies that economists try to avoid are:

The fallacy of composition, which is the false statement that what is true for the parts is true for the whole or what is true for the whole is true for the parts.

The post hoc fallacy from the Latin term “Post hoc, ergo propter hoc”—means “after this, therefore because of this,” which is the error of reasoning that a first event causes a second event because the first occurs before the second.


Agreement and Disagreement

Economists are often accused of contradicting each other.

In contrast to the popular image, economists find much common ground on a wide range of issues.

Page 14 of the textbook lists twelve economic propositions that at least 70 percent of all economists polled agreed on.

GRAPHS IN ECONOMICS 1APPENDIX

Objectives

After studying this appendix, you will be able to: Make and interpret a time-series graph, a cross-section

graph, and a scatter diagram

Distinguish between linear and nonlinear relationships and between relationships that have a maximum and a minimum

Define and calculate the slope of a line

Graph relationships between more than two variables

Graphing Data

A graph reveals a relationship.

A graph represents “quantity” as a distance.

A two-variable graph uses two perpendicular scale lines.

The vertical line is the y-axis.

The horizontal line is the x-axis.

The zero point in common to both axes is the origin.

Graphing Data

Economists use three types of graph to reveal relationships between variables. They are:

Time-series graphs

Cross-section graphs

Scatter diagrams

Graphing Data

Time-Series Graphs

A time-series graph measures time (for example, months or years) along the x-axis and the variable or variables in which we are interested along the y-axis.

The time-series graph on the next slide shows the price of coffee between 1970 and 2000.

The graph shows the level of the price, how it has changed over time, when change was rapid or slow, and whether there was any trend.

Graphing Data

Graphing Data

Cross-Section Graphs

A cross-section graph shows the values of a variable for different groups in a population at a point in time.

The cross-section graph on the next slide enables you to compare the number of people who live in 10 metropolitan areas in the United States.

Graphing Data

Graphing Data

Scatter Diagrams

A scatter diagram plots the value of one variable on the x-axis and the value of another variable on the y-axis.

A scatter diagram can make clear the relationship between two variables.

The three scatter diagrams on the next slide show examples of variables that move in the same direction, in opposite directions, and in no particular relationship to each other.

Graphing Data

Graphs Used in Economic Models

Graphs are used in economic models to show the relationship between variables.

The patterns to look for in graphs are the four cases in which:

Variables move in the same direction

Variables move in opposite directions

Variables have a maximum or a minimum

Variables are unrelated


Variables That Move in the Same Direction

A relationship between two variables that move in the same direction is called a positive relationship or a direct relationship.

A line that slopes upward shows a positive relationship.

A relationship shown by a straight line is called a linear relationship.

The three graphs on the next slide show positive relationships.


Variables That Move in Opposite Directions

A relationship between two variables that move in opposite directions is called a negative relationship or an inverse relationship.

A line that slopes downward shows a negative relationship.

The three graphs on the next slide show negative relationships.


Variables That Have a Maximum or a Minimum

The two graphs on the next slide show relationships that have a maximum and a minimum.

These relationships are positive over part of their range and negative over the other part.


Variables That are Unrelated

Sometimes, we want to emphasize that two variables are unrelated.

The two graphs on the next slide show examples of variables that are unrelated.

The Slope of a Relationship

The slope of a relationship is the change in the value of the variable measured on the y-axis divided by the change in the value of the variable measured on the x-axis.

We use the Greek letter (capital delta) to represent “change in.”

So y means the change in the value of the variable measured on the y-axis and x means the change in the value of the variable measured on the x-axis.

The slope of the relationship is y/x.


The Slope of a Straight Line

The slope of a straight line is constant.

Graphically, the slope is calculated as the “rise” over the “run.”

The slope is positive if the line is upward sloping.


The slope is negative if the line is downward sloping.


The Slope of a Curved Line

The slope of a curved line at a point varies depending on where along the curve it is calculated.

We can calculate the slope of a curved line either at a point or across an arc.


Slope at a Point

The slope of a curved line at a point is equal to the slope of a straight line that is the tangent to that point.

Here, we calculate the slope of the curve at point A.


Slope Across an Arc

The average slope of a curved line across an arc is equal to the slope of a straight line that joins the endpoints of the arc.

Here, we calculate the average slope of the curve along the arc BC.

Graphing Relationships Among More Than Two Variables

When a relationship involves more than two variables, we can plot the relationship between two of the variables by holding other variables constant—by using ceteris paribus.

Here we plot the relationships among three variables.

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