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Global overview

Progress in protecting the marine and coastalenvironment over the past 30 years has generallybeen confined to relatively few, mostly developedcountries, and to relatively few environmental issues.Overall, coastal and marine environmental degradationnot only continues but has intensified. The majorthreats to the oceans that were recognized in 1972 —marine pollution, the overexploitation of living marineresources and coastal habitat loss — still exist, despitenational and international actions to address theseproblems.

There have, however, been significant changesin perspective, and new concerns have emerged.The exploitation of living marine resources and lossof habitats are now recognized as being at least asgreat a threat to ocean health as marine pollution.The perspectives of developing countries wereembodied in the Founex Report on Developmentand Environment that was produced in preparationfor the 1972 Stockholm Conference. Their responsein 1972 was that degradation was a developed-country problem; for them poverty, not pollution,

was the problem (Brenton 1994, Caldwell 1996). Marine and coastal degradation is caused by

increasing pressure on both terrestrial and marinenatural resources, and on the use of the oceans todeposit wastes. Population growth and increasingurbanization, industrialization and tourism in coastalareas are root causes of this increased pressure. In1994, an estimated 37 per cent of the global populationlived within 60 km of the coast — more people thaninhabited the planet in 1950 (Cohen and others 1997).The effects of population are multiplied by bothpoverty and human consumption patterns.

Marine pollutionPrior to 1972, the crash of some seabird populationscaused by DDT, outbreaks of Minamata disease inJapan from mercury-contaminated seafood, and theTorrey Canyon and other oil spills focused theattention of the Stockholm Conference on marinepollution. Policy responses included bans onproduction and use of some substances, regulations toreduce discharges, and the prohibition of oceandumping, as well as a significant scientific effort toimprove the status of knowledge about these

1 8 0 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002

Coastal and marine areas

UN

EP, Hideyuki Ihasi, Japan, Still Pictures

pollutants. These responses are enshrined in anumber of international agreements, including the1972 London Dumping Convention and its 1996Protocol, the 1989 Basel Convention on the Control ofTransboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal, and the 1995 Global Programme ofAction for the Protection of the Marine Environmentfrom Land-based Activities. Marine pollution is also animportant focus of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programmesthat have been established in many parts of the world.

Globally, sewage remains the largest source ofcontamination, by volume, of the marine and coastalenvironment (GESAMP 2001a), and coastal sewagedischarges have increased dramatically in the pastthree decades. In addition, because of the high demandfor water in urban neighbourhoods, water supply tendsto outstrip the provision of sewerage, increasing thevolume of wastewater.

Public health problems from the contamination ofcoastal waters with sewage-borne pathogens were wellknown in the 1970s, and in many developed countriesimproved sewage treatment and reduction of thedisposal of industrial and some domestic contaminantsinto municipal systems have significantly improvedwater quality. In the developing world, however, theprovision of basic sanitation, as well as urban sewersystems and sewage treatment, has not kept pace.High capital costs, the explosive pace of urbanization,and in many cases limited technical, administrative andfinancial capacities for urban planning and managementand ongoing operation of sewage treatment systemsare barriers to efficient sewage treatment (GESAMP2001a). Removal of these barriers, as well asalternative approaches, is urgently needed.

Recent evidence suggests that bathing in waterswell within current microbiological standards stillposes significant risk of gastrointestinal disease, andthat sewage contamination of marine waters is ahealth problem of global proportions (see box,GESAMP 2001a, WHO 1998).

A primary concern at the Stockholm Conferencewas the introduction of nutrients to coastal and marinewaters. Human activities now account for more thanhalf of global nitrogen fixation (Vitousek and others1997a), and the supply of fixed nitrogen to the oceanshas greatly increased. Sewage discharges are often thedominant local source near urban areas but globalinputs are dominated by agricultural run-off andatmospheric deposition. The highest rates of riverine

transport of dissolved inorganic nitrogen to estuariesfrom all sources occur in Europe and in South andEast Asia (Seitzinger and Kroeze 1998). Nitrogenlevels are exacerbated by widespread loss of naturalinterceptors such as coastal wetlands, coral reefs andmangrove forests.

At the time of Stockholm, agricultural nutrientrun-off was ‘not yet a major global problem’. Mostfertilizer use was in developed countries but the rapidincrease of fertilizer use in developing countries wasalready foreseen (SCEP 1970). Fertilizer use hasstabilized in developed countries but is increasing indeveloping ones (Socolow 1999), a trend expected tocontinue. Fertilizer use has undoubtedly beenenhanced by widespread subsidies, which reflect thehigh political priority of increasing food production andreducing food costs.

Atmospheric inputs, derived primarily from vehicleand industrial emissions and in some areasevaporation from animal manure and fertilizer,dominate anthropogenic nitrogen inputs to somecoastal areas. They are expected to rise withincreasing industrialization and vehicle use, especiallyin developing regions (GESAMP in prep.).Atmospheric nitrogen inputs to the nitrogen-limited

COASTAL AND MARINE AREAS 1 8 1

disease DALYs/year economic impact (millions) (US$billion)

malaria 31.0 124.0diabetes 11.0 44.0trachea, brachia and lung cancer 8.8 35.0stomach cancer 7.7 31.0intestinal nematodes 5.0 20.0upper respiratory tract infections 1.3 5.2trachoma 1.0 4.0dengue fever 0.75 3.0Japanese encephalitis 0.74 3.0diptheria 0.36 1.4

diseases related to marine contaminationrelated to bathing and swimming 0.4 1.6seafood consumption (hepatitis) 1.8 7.2seafood consumption (algal toxins) 1.0 4.0

sub-total 3.2 12.8

Note: one DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Year) equals one person-year of productive life lost through death ordisability

Source: GESAMP 2001a

Disease burden of selected common and marine-related diseases

open oceans will also increase, with potentialsignificant impacts on primary production and thecarbon cycle.

Marine and coastal eutrophication from elevatednitrogen inputs has emerged as a worrying trend notforeseen three decades ago. There is increasingevidence that blooms of toxic or otherwise undesirablephytoplankton are increasing in frequency, intensity andgeographic distribution (Richardson 1997). Severeeutrophication has occurred in several enclosed orsemi-enclosed seas, including the Black Sea (Zaitsevand Mamaev 1997, Balkas and others 1990). Elsewhere,

elevated growth and subsequent decay of phytoplanktonhas caused widespread areas of seasonally oxygen-depleted water (see map). Phytoplankton blooms canhave major economic impacts on fisheries, aquacultureand tourism (see table below left).

At the time of the Stockholm Conference concernsfor ocean health centred on pollution by POPs(particularly DDT and PCBs), heavy metals and oil(Goldberg 1976, Matthews and others 1971, UN1972a, SCEP 1970). Some response measures havebeen effective, for example, introduction of unleadedgasoline helped to reduce lead levels in Bermuda (Wuand Boyle 1997, Huang, Arimoto and Rahn 1996);national regulations and international agreements suchas the Convention on the Prevention of Pollution fromShips (MARPOL) resulted in the reduction ofoperational oil discharges from ships; and NorthAmerican seabird populations affected by DDTrecovered after this chemical was banned in theregion.

In other cases, improved information has clarifiedsome concerns. High levels of mercury in tuna andswordfish, for example, have been shown to havenatural sources; the most dramatic effects of oil spillshave proved to be localized and relatively transient;and heavy metal contamination, except for lead andmercury, has been found to be highly localized and hasrelatively minor impacts except at highconcentrations.There are, however, other continuingconcerns about these pollutants. The chemicalresidues of oil spills may have subtle long-term effects(Heintz, Short and Rice 1999), and chronic, smallreleases cause seabird mortality and otherenvironmental effects (GESAMP in prep.). The effectsof heavy metal contamination can be severe and are asignificant concern in the Arctic (AMAP 1998).

The most serious concerns globally relate toPOPs, many of which are transported globally via theatmosphere and are ubiquitous in the oceans. There isgrowing evidence that long-term, low-level exposuresto some POPs cause reproductive, immunological,neurological and other problems in marine organisms,and possibly in humans, but the evidence forwidespread ecological or human health impacts atcurrent levels of contamination remains equivocal.

Another threat to the oceans, and in particular toliving organisms, is non-biodegradable litter whichenters the sea. Each year, large numbers of seabirds,sea turtles and marine mammals are killed by


date location species loss(US$million)

1972 Japan yellowtail ~471977 Japan yellowtail ~201978 Japan yellowtail ~221978 Republic of Korea oyster 4.61979 Maine, United States many 2.81980 New England, United States many 71981 Republic of Korea oyster >601985 Long Island, United States scallops 21986 Chile red salmon 211987 Japan yellowtail 151988 Norway and Sweden salmon 51989 Norway salmon, rainbow trout 4.51989–90 Puget Sound, United States salmon 4-51991 Washington State, United States oyster 15-201991–92 Republic of Korea farmed fish 1331996 Texas, United States oyster 241998 Hong Kong farmed fish 32

Source: Worldwatch Institute 1999

Economic losses from red tides in fisheries and aquaculture

Red dots on themap indicateseasonal zones ofoxygen-depletedwaters resultingfrom humanactivities

Source: Malakoff1998 after Diaz andRosenberg 1995

Seasonal zones of oxygen-depleted waters

entanglement in or ingestion of non-biodegradable litter. Human-induced changes in the natural flow of

sediment have emerged since the StockholmConference as a major threat to coastal habitats. Urbanand industrial development drives the construction ofresidential and industrial infrastructure which,depending on its nature, can alter sediment flow. Inaddition, agriculture, deforestation and constructiontypically mobilize sediments. Deltas, mangroveforests, beaches and other coastal habitats aresustained by the supply of sediment, while otherhabitats, such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, may besmothered or deprived of light. Sedimentation is oneof the major global threats to reefs, particularly in theCaribbean, Indian Ocean, and South and SoutheastAsia (Bryant and others 1998, Wilkinson 2000).

FisheriesThe Stockholm Conference projected that annualharvests could approximately double from 1970 levelsto ‘rather more than 100 million tonnes’ (UN 1972b),although the depletion of some fisheries byoverexploitation was also recognized. In the same yearthe world’s largest fishery, the Peruvian anchovy,crashed spectacularly, a result of years ofunsustainable harvests precipitated by a strong ElNiño event. Harvests from marine capture fisheriesdid rise but failed to reach 100 million tonnes,fluctuating around 80-90 million tonnes from the mid-1980s (see graph). Contrary to indications that theglobal fisheries catch is stable, a recent study revealsthat catches have actually been declining for morethan a decade (Watson and Pauly 2001). The studyshows that vast overreporting of catches by somecountries combined with the large and wildlyfluctuating catch of the Peruvian anchovy, have painteda false picture of the health of the oceans. Aquacultureproduction, by contrast, has risen sharply but isentirely dominated by Asia and the Pacific (see graph).

The Stockholm Conference recommended twobasic approaches to fisheries management: improvingmanagement information through research,assessment and monitoring, and internationalcooperation. Despite great improvement in the qualityand scope of fisheries information, better fisheriesmanagement has generally not been achieved. Therehas been an almost inexorable global trend towardsincreasingly intense exploitation and depletion offisheries stocks (see figure), three-quarters of which


40

60

80

100

0

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1994

20

1992

1996

1998

West Asia

North America

Latin America and the Caribbean

Europe

Asia and the Pacific

Africa

Annual fish, mollusc and crustacean catch (milllion tonnes) by region

30

40

50

60

0

20

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1994

10

1992

1996

1998

Africa


Europe Latin America and the Caribbean

North AmericaWest Asia

Annual fish, mollusc and crustacean catch per capita (kg) by region

20

25

40

45

0

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1994

10

1992

1996

1998

35

30

15

5

West Asia

North America

Latin America and the Caribbean

Europe


Africa

Annual aquaculture production (million tonnes) by region

Global fish, mollusc and crustacean catch seems to have stabilized at around 90 million tonnes but percapita values have declined in Europe and North America; note Latin American variations due tofluctuations in the Peruvian anchovy fishery. Aquaculture production has risen steeply for more than adecade, and is dominated by Asia and the Pacific

Source: compiled from Fishstat 2001 and United Nations Population Division 2001

are maximally exploited (FAO 2001), and many havecollapsed. Global agreements aimed at sustainablefisheries exploitation include the adoption in 1995 ofan Agreement on the Conservation and Managementof Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, andthe Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheriesdeveloped by the FAO.

Thirty years ago fisheries issues were consideredalmost entirely in economic and political terms. Todayfisheries activities are increasingly recognized asenvironmental problems in the broader sense. Theglobal expansion in yields has been delivered byfishing on progressively smaller species at lowerlevels in the marine food web (the knock-on effects ofwhich are not fully understood) as the top predatorshave been depleted (Pauly and others 1998). Theglobal by-catch of many million tonnes (Alverson andothers 1994) includes not only charismatic animalssuch as dolphins and turtles but many other species.Effects on marine and coastal ecosystems are poorlyknown but are probably substantial (Jennings andKaiser 1998, McManus, Reyes and Nañola 1997).Negative ecosystem impacts also result from sometypes of fishing gear (such as that used for bottomtrawling) and destructive practices (such as blastfishing) which cause physical damage to the habitat.Recognition of the complex inter-relationshipsbetween fisheries and marine ecosystems, and the

need for ecosystem considerations in the managementof capture fisheries, is reflected in the FAO ReykjavikDeclaration (2001) on Responsible Fisheries in theMarine Ecosystem.

While seafood is the primary source of protein formany coastal people, especially the poor, the global

demise of fisheries has not been driven only bynutritional needs. Much of the catch is for luxuryfoods, or is processed into livestock feed. The ‘tragedyof the commons’ — the absence of a rational reason torestrain harvests that are freely available to all — isone root cause of overfishing while at the other end ofthe spectrum is so-called ‘Malthusian overfishing’(Pauly 1990), when the desperately poor have nochoice but to glean the last of the resource. Manyattempts to manage fisheries sustainably havedegenerated into a ‘division of the spoils’ (Caldwell1996). Political imperatives to maintain employment,international competitiveness or sovereign rights ofaccess have led to fisheries subsidies estimated at upto US$20 billion annually (Milazzo 1998), althoughthese are probably now declining.

Physical alterationThe Stockholm Conference and contemporary reportsrecognized the importance of estuaries and othercoastal habitats but the primary concern was theeffects of pollution on them. Direct physical alterationand destruction of habitats is now viewed as arguablythe most important single threat to the coastalenvironment (GESAMP 2001a). The driving force forphysical alteration is ill-planned, and accelerating,social and economic development in coastal areas,which itself results from such increasing pressures aspopulation, urbanization and industrialization,maritime transport and tourism.

Habitat alteration results from activities such asport dredging, landfill, coastal solid waste dumps,coastal construction and road building, the cutting ofcoastal forests, beach and reef mining, and trampling,anchor and diver damage from tourism and recreation,to name some prominent examples. Failure toconsider the economic value of these habitatsexacerbates the problem. Mangrove forests, forexample, are generally regarded as wastelands ripe for‘reclamation’, despite an economic value estimated ataround US$10 000/ha/year (Costanza and others 1998).Globally, about one-half of the wetlands and more thanone-half of mangrove forests have been lost over thepast century (OECD and IUCN 1996), largely becauseof physical alteration. An estimated 58 per cent of theworld’s coral reefs are threatened, with direct physicaldestruction among the most important causes (Bryantand others 1998).


30

40

50

60

0

20

1970

1975

1980

1985

1995

10

2000

2005

1990

fully exploited

under- or moderately exploited

depleted, overexploited or recovering

Global trends in world fisheries stocks (%)

Percentage ofworld fish stocksthat are under- oreven moderatelyexploited isfalling; depleted,overexploited andrecovering stocksare becomingmore common

Source: FAO2001

Global climate and atmospheric changeThe rapid global warming caused by human-inducedchanges in the atmosphere that is projected by theIPCC would have dramatic effects on the ocean(IPCC 2001), threatening valuable coastalecosystems and the economic sectors that dependupon them. Other potential impacts are complex andpoorly understood. Polar warming, and melting of theice caps, could slow down the globalatmosphere/ocean ‘heat engine’, potentially alteringthe flow of major ocean currents (Broecker 1997).The warming of the ocean’s surface layers, and anincreased input of fresh water, could reduce theupwelling of nutrients that supports much of theocean’s productivity. On the other hand, the highlyproductive upwelling on the eastern side of someoceans could intensify if, as some projections predict,relatively greater warming occurs there (Bakun1996). The IPCC predicts that storms and otherextreme weather events will increase in frequencyand intensity (IPCC 2001), increasing naturaldisturbances to coastal ecosystems and perhapsreducing their ability to recover.

There is particular concern about the possibleeffects of global warming on coral reefs. During theintense El Niño of 1997-98, extensive coral bleachingoccurred on coral reefs worldwide (Wilkinson 1998,Wilkinson and others 1999). While some reefs quicklyrecovered, others, particularly in the Indian Ocean,Southeast Asia and the far western Pacific, sufferedsignificant mortality, in some cases more than 90 percent (Wilkinson 1998, 2000).

Some models predict a long-term shift to anincreased frequency and intensity of El Niño events orsimilar conditions. If this occurs, bleaching could alsobecome more frequent and intense, with irreversibledamage to reefs. There is evidence that a long-termdecline of reefs in the remote Chagos archipelago inthe Indian Ocean is related both to El Niño events andto a long-term rise in surface temperature (Sheppard1999). Mass bleaching of reefs in various parts of theworld was also observed in 2000, a possible sign thatbleaching is becoming more frequent. Reefs may alsobe threatened by a higher concentration of CO2 inseawater which impairs the deposition of theirlimestone skeletons.


Part of thefishing industry’sinadvertent by-catch — a sealensnared inbroken fishingnet

Source: UNEP, L. K. Nakasawa,Topham Picturepoint

Proposed protection measures to address a sea-level rise caused by climate change have shifted awayfrom solid constructions such as seawalls in favour of amix of soft protection measures (such as beachnourishment and wetland creation), adaptive planning(such as new building codes), and managed retreat,including cessation of new coastal construction (IPCC2001). Some proposals to address global climate changeare themselves a cause for concern, particularly thoseto short-circuit the natural transfer of CO2 from theatmosphere to the ocean by fertilizing large areas of theocean surface with nitrogen or iron to enhancephytoplankton growth, or to inject CO2 directly intodeep waters. The effects of these large-scale measurescannot be predicted but are potentially enormous.

Small island developing states (SIDS) and low-lying coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to the

effects of rising sea levels and more extreme weather.Furthermore, they are essentially entirely coastal andtherefore more dependent upon coastal and marineresources. Recognition of this special vulnerability inAgenda 21 of the UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) led to the adoption in 1994 ofthe Barbados Programme of Action on the SustainableDevelopment of Small Island States.

The introduction of exotic speciesAnother serious problem is the introduction of marinespecies to distant habitats where they can multiplyuncontrollably, sometimes with devastating effects onthe economy and marine biodiversity. Such invasionsare occurring around the world with increasingfrequency. The most common medium for speciesintroductions is in ships’ ballast water, with about 3 000species of animals and plants transported every day(GESAMP 2001a). Efforts to control speciesintroductions in ships’ ballast include the developmentof new regulations by the International MaritimeOrganization for ballast water management which isexpected to be adopted by 2003.

ConclusionThe Stockholm Conference marked a sea change inour approach to environmental issues by linkingenvironment and development issues. This steptowards a holistic approach has been particularlyimportant with regard to the coastal and marineenvironment which is inevitably affected by differentsectors of human activity. The need for a cross-sectoral, holistic approach to managing marine andcoastal environments, and their watersheds, is nowwidely recognized and has been formalized as thediscipline of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM).

The Global International Waters Assessment(GIWA) implemented by UNEP is focusing ontransboundary water bodies, including marine andcoastal areas. This systematic assessment of theenvironmental conditions and problems, and theirsocial causes, in international waters, includes thedevelopment of scenarios of the future condition of theworld’s water resources and analysis of policy options.Recognition of the increasing degradation of thecoastal and marine environment is also reflected by arequest of the UNEP Governing Council in 2001 forthe conduct of a feasibility study for the establishmentof a regular process for global marine assessment.


The effect of a jellyfish invasion on the Black Sea is one ofthe best documented examples of the far reaching economicand ecological consequences that can follow the introductionof an alien species into an environment favouring its almostunlimited expansion.

Mnemiopsis leidyi, a comb jellyfish, originates on theeastern seaboards of both North and South America. Itabounds in ports and harbours, and is pumped in ballastwater into cargo ships. These jellyfish can live for 3–4weeks without food, by reducing the size of their bodies, sothey can easily survive the 20-day voyage to the Black Sea.They were first found in the Black Sea, off the south-eastCrimea, in 1982.

Damaging human activities — including overfishing,pollution, water extraction and barrages on rivers runninginto the sea — had set the stage for its entrance.Overfishing and eutrophication seem to have combined toremove top predators such as turbot, bluefish and monkseals and to cut the numbers of plankton-eating fishseverely, opening up a niche for the jellyfish. Meanwhileplankton proliferated.

Hermaphroditic and self-fertilizing, the numbers ofjellyfish exploded from 1988 onwards. The populations ofplankton crashed as the invaders ate them. Fish stockscollapsed, partly because the jellyfish deprived them of theirfood and ate their eggs and larvae. The catch of the formerstates of the Soviet Union plummeted from 250 000 to30 000 tonnes a year, and it was much the same story inTurkey. At least US$300 million was lost in falling fisheryrevenues between the mid-1980s and the early 1990s, withgrave economic and social consequences. Fishing vesselswere put up for sale, and fishermen abandoned the sea.

Source: GESAMP 2001b

Jellyfish in the Black Sea


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References: Chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, global overview

Coastal and marine areas: Africa

Africa’s 40 000 km of coastline are characterized by adiversity of ecosystems and an abundance of naturalresources. The ecosystems include mangroveswamps, estuaries, rocky shores, coastal wetlands andcoral reefs; they moderate storm impacts and protectcoastal features, recycle nutrients, absorb and breakdown wastes, provide human and wildlife habitat andmaintain biodiversity, and present opportunities forrecreation, tourism, transport, trade, andemployment.

Coastal and marine resources include fish andshellfish, seaweed, wood and fibre, and oil and gas.Mangrove forests extend from Mauritania to Angolaon the west coast and from Somalia to South Africa onthe east coast, supporting a diversity of species, manyextensively used by local communities. Commercialfisheries contribute significantly to GDP andemployment (particularly in small islands). Oil and gasreserves, and other mineral deposits, are alsoimportant resources for coastal countries. Thegrowing population and its demands on these

resources, however, is causing widespread degradationand pollution of marine and coastal habitats andresources. An additional cause for concern is thethreat of sea level rise.

Resource degradation Coastal and marine habitats are being physicallyeroded and biologically degraded throughunsustainable rates of resource extraction (includingintensive commercial fishing, mining of sand dunesand clearing of mangrove forests). The harvestingmethods are also damaging, as in coral extraction andthe use of dynamite in fishing. Activities furtherinland, such as damming of rivers, increased use offertilizers and clearing of natural vegetation, alsoaffect the coastal zone. Population growth andmigration to the coast, together with rapidlyexpanding tourism and industrial activities, encouragehigh rates of infrastructure development, modifyingthe physical and ecological environment of the coastalzone. Lack of formal protection, sustainabledevelopment policies and inadequate resources toimplement coastal and marine management havecontributed to the pressures, although the situation inmany countries is now changing.

Coastal drift (erosion and deposition of dunes,beaches and shoreline) is a natural phenomenon buthuman action can alter natural patterns. Clearing offorests and natural vegetation inland leads toincreased soil erosion and increased sediment load inrivers. Sediment is eventually deposited on theseabed, smothering benthic communities and coralreefs. In contrast, when rivers are dammed upstream,sediment settles before reaching the river mouth, thusdepriving coastal zones of sediment. In WesternAfrica, damming of the Upper Niger, Benue and Voltarivers has altered the flow reaching the Niger Delta,and local subsidence is proceeding at 25 mm per year(World Bank 1996). In Ghana, construction of theAkosombo dam in 1965 accelerated coastal erosionwest of Accra to 6 metres per year, and in Togo andBenin coastal retreat has exceeded 150 metres overthe past 20 years (UNEP 1999).

In Northern Africa, 40-50 per cent of thepopulation in the Mediterranean countries lives incoastal areas (UNEP 1996), with population densitiesreaching 500-1 000 inhabitants/km2 along the NileDelta (Blue Plan 1996). In Western Africa, about one-third of the total population is concentrated on a


Africa’s coralreefs — animportant sourceof tourist revenue— are underthreat from bothcoastaldevelopment andfrom potentialglobal warming

Source: UNEP,David Fleetham,Still Pictures

coastal band 60-km wide between Senegal andCameroon, and large-scale urban growth has occurredfrom Accra to the Niger Delta, an environmentallysensitive portion of the African coastline.

The coastal zone is also receiving increasingnumbers of tourists — in South Africa, for example,the industry grew at 7 per cent a year during the late1990s (SADC 2000). According to FAO (1998), 38 percent of Africa’s coastal ecosystems are under highlevels of threat from development-related activities.The exceptional demand for infrastructuredevelopment often results in uncoordinated and poorlyplanned or sited construction which can in turn causehabitat loss, destabilization or mining of dunes forconstruction materials, and draining of coastalwetlands. Economic costs are further inflated asgovernments and investors have to spend largebudgets on mitigation and rehabilitation.

The demand for fisheries resources is alsoincreasing. The marine fisheries of Africa havedeveloped significantly over the past 30 years, andmost demersal stocks are now thought to be fullyexploited (FAO 1996, FAO 1997). The fishery sectorcontributes more than 5 per cent to GDP in Ghana,Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia,Senegal and Seychelles, and the shrimp fishery on theSofala Bank in Mozambique contributes 40 per cent ofthe country’s foreign exchange (FAO 1997). From 1973to 1990, fisheries supplied some 20 per cent of theanimal protein intake of the population of sub-SaharanAfrica. However, per capita fish catch (see figure) hasbeen fairly static since 1972, except in Southern Africawhere it has fallen sharply (FAO 1996, FAO 1997). TheCape rock lobster and abalone catches have declinedsteadily since the 1950s, causing concern over thesustainability of these populations and leading to thesetting of annual catch limits (FAO 1997).

In Southern Africa, declining catches, togetherwith a decrease in the mean sizes of fish caught, haveled to calls for the protection of line fish stocks. Todayfisheries management measures include minimum sizelimits, bag limits, use of appropriate fishing gear,closed seasons, control agreements with foreign fleetsand establishment of marine reserves. In WesternAfrica, a Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Programmeaims to develop social and human capital in fisheries-dependent communities, whilst enhancing naturalhabitats in those communities.

Coastal and marine pollutionThe waters of the Western Indian Ocean are major searoutes for an estimated 470 million tonnes of oil everyyear (Salm 1996). More than 100 million tonnes of oilare transported annually through the Red Sea alone(World Bank 1996). This level of shipping incurs a highrisk of disastrous oil spills. Furthermore, oil tankersfrequently empty ballast and wash engines on the highseas, causing residues of degraded oil to end up on theshore. Port petroleum and oil handling activities alsopose threats to the marine and coastal environment.Accidental leakage from ships, refineries and transportsystems are common, especially in Mombasa.

Clean-up and disposal of oily wastes is difficult andexpensive. Several oil spills off the South African coasthave affected African penguins and other marine life. Inresponse, national and regional oil spill contingencyplans have been established in several African regions.


The Convention for the Protection, Management, and Development of the Marineand Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention) of1985 is a UNEP Regional Seas Programme initiative, under which the erosion-associated impacts on ecosystems and species are dealt with proactively. Althoughall affected countries are party to the convention, it is not legally binding, and hasreceived insufficient funding for application of many of the activities.

National efforts to regulate coastal development include the introduction ofintegrated coastal management policies, requirements for environmental impactassessments to be conducted, and establishment of marine national parks. TheIndian Ocean Commission has facilitated the development of a Regional SustainableDevelopment Policy and a coral reef monitoring and action programme. In Centraland Southern Africa, most countries have, or are preparing, Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement Plans. Africa is the top regional recipient of GEF biodiversity funds,about one-third of which are directed towards projects in coastal, marine andfreshwater ecosystems.

Addressing coastal and marine degradation

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regionCentral Africa

Annual fish catch per capita (kg): Africa

In Africa andmost of its sub-regions, the percapita fish catchhas stagnated forsome 30 years— but inSouthern Africa ithas fallen sharply

Note: fish catchincludes marine andfreshwater catchesbut excludescrustaceans andmolluscs

Source: compiledfrom Fishstat 2001and United NationsPopulation Division2001

Effluent from fish processing plants, abattoirs, andchemical and manufacturing industries is frequentlydischarged into the sea. In Mozambique, for example,more than 100 factories in and around Maputo do nothave waste treatment plants and drain toxic wastes,poisons, non-degradable substances and organicmatter into coastal waters (Chenje and Johnson 1996).Most of Tanzania’s textile mills release dyes,bleaching agents, alkalis and starch directly intoMsimbazi Creek in Dar es Salaam (Chenje andJohnson 1996). Residues of fertilizers and pesticideswashed down in rivers are prevalent in WesternAfrica, around cities such as Lagos, Abidjan, Conakryand Dakar. Contaminated shellfish can severely reduceeconomic returns on the catch and may also exposepeople to gastric and other infections as a result ofswimming in contaminated waters or eating thecontaminated food. Domestic solid and liquid waste isalso a source of marine and coastal pollution, asmunicipalities frequently do not have the capacity todeal with the large volumes of waste produced. Solidwaste is often dumped on beaches from where it canbe blown or washed out to sea.

National responses to marine and coastal pollutionhave included public health legislation and municipalcleaning of coastal areas. International initiativesinclude the Convention for the Prevention of Pollutionfrom Ships (MARPOL) and the Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of theMarine and Coastal Environment of the West andCentral African Region (Abidjan Convention).

However, difficulties have been experienced inmonitoring and enforcement, mainly because of thesize of the territories requiring policing and a lack ofefficient surveillance systems.

Other responses have had more success. InNorthern Africa, regional emergency plans forcontainment and clean-up of oil spills have been put inplace for the Mediterranean region and the Red Sea.The GEF’s US$6 million Industrial Water PollutionControl in the Gulf of Guinea project, which aims toimprove the health of the coastal waters betweenGuinea-Bissau and Gabon, has been instrumental inthe adoption of the Accra Declaration, a regional policyfor long-term sustainable development in the region.

Climate change and sea level riseCurrent predictions for sea level rise over the next100 years indicate that human settlements in the Gulfof Guinea, Senegal, Gambia, Egypt and along the EastAfrican coast, including the Western Indian Oceanislands, would be at high risk of flooding and landrecession (IPCC 2001a). The Nile delta, for example,would suffer enormous economic losses due to salt-water contamination and inundation. The deltaaccounts for 45 per cent of national agriculturalproduction and 60 per cent of national fish production.Sea temperature is also predicted to increase due toglobal climate change, which would damage coral reefecosystems and the economic activities that theysupport (IPCC 2001a).


Blue Plan (1996). A Blue Plan for theMediterranean People: From Thought to Action.Cairo, The Blue Plan Regional Activity Centre

Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds.) (1996). Waterin Southern Africa. Harare and Maseru, SADC,IUCN and SARDC

FAO (1996). Fisheries and Aquaculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: Situation and Outlook in 1996.Fisheries Circular No. 922 FIPP/C922. Rome, Foodand Agriculture Organization

FAO (1997). Review of The State of WorldFisheries Resources: Marine Fisheries. FisheriesCircular No. 920 FIRM/C920. Rome, Food andAgriculture Organization

FAO (1998). Coastal Environments Under Threat.FAO Factfile. Food and Agriculture Organizationhttp://www.fao.org/NEWS/FACTFILE/FF9804-E.HTM [Geo-2-239]

Fishstat (2001). FISHSTAT Plus, Universalsoftware for fishery statistical time series. FAO

Fisheries, Software version 2.3http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/fisoft/fishplus.asp [Geo-2-237]

IPCC (2001a). Climate Change 2001: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Third Assessment Reportof the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York, UnitedStates, Cambridge University Press

PRE/COI (1998). Rapport Régional sur les Récifs.Quatre Bornes, Mauritius, Programme RégionalEnvironment, Commission de l’Océan Indien

SADC (2000). Tourism. Mbabane, Southern AfricanDevelopment Community

Salm, R.V. (1996). The Status of Coral Reefs in theWestern Indian Ocean with Notes on the RelatedEcosystems. In UNEP (ed.), The InternationalCoral Reef Initiative (ICRI) Western Indian Ocean.An Eastern African Regional Workshop Report, 29March- 2 April 1996, Mahé, Seychelles. Nairobi,United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP (1996). The State of the Marine andCoastal Environment in the Mediterranean Region.MAP Technical Report Series No. 100. Athens,United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP (1999). Overview of Land-base Sources andActivities Affecting the Marine, Coastal, andAssociated Freshwater Environments in the Westand Central Africa Region. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No. 171. Nairobi, UnitedNations Environment Programme


World Bank (1996). Development in Practice:Toward Environmentally Sustainable Developmentin Sub-Saharan Africa, A World Bank Agenda

References: Chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, Africa

Coastal and marine areas:Asia and the Pacific

In the past 30 years, depletion of coastal resourcessuch as fisheries, mangroves and coral reefs hasemerged as a critical issue in Asia and the Pacific.Increasing urbanization, industrialization and tourism,coupled with a growing coastal population, havedegraded coastal areas, reduced water quality andincreased pressures on marine resources. Thesepressures are exacerbated by poverty. For example, inViet Nam poor people have become increasinglydependent on marine resources for their livelihoods(MoSTE Viet Nam 1999), and significant beachpollution occurs in the vicinity of Sihanoukville andKep, both important tourist destinations (ADB 2000).Similar trends have been observed in almost allcountries of the region.

Fisheries and aquaculture Fish production and aquaculture are practisedextensively in the region. Overexploitation of fishstocks and poor aquaculture practices are of concernin Bangladesh (DoE, SACEP and UNEP 2001), India(ESCAP and ADB 2000), Pakistan (ESCAP 1996), SriLanka, many Pacific Island countries (PICs) and someother countries. Overexploitation of shrimp resourcesin coastal waters has reduced exports from capturefisheries and encouraged the growth of aquaculture inalmost all countries of the region.

Mangrove clearance for shrimp culture hasemerged as a major issue in recent years. It isestimated that more than 60 per cent of Asia’smangroves have already been converted toaquaculture farms (ESCAP and ADB 2000). Besidesencroaching on mangroves, aquaculture has led to therelease of nutrients, pathogens and potentiallyhazardous chemicals into marine waters. In India,prawn farms have been constructed in low-lyingcoastal areas, depriving impoverished farmers ofagricultural land, causing salinization of groundwaterin coastal villages and polluting waterways withexcess nutrients (Subramaniam 1994 in ESCAP andADB 2000).

A number of countries including Australia, India,Maldives, New Zealand, Philippines and Sri Lankahave developed legislation to address problemsassociated with pollution and overexploitation of fishstocks. Governments have also initiated steps for

fisheries management by reducing fishing subsidiesand regulating fishing access rights. The South Pacifictuna fishery offers a model of internationalcooperation for open sea fishing that may prove to bethe first sustainable, multinational ocean fishery in theworld. Despite these positive initiatives, the pelagicand near-shore fisheries continue to be overexploitedby multinational corporations as well as localfishermen, and negotiations are required to ensurethat the benefits of sustainable exploitation remainwith Pacific communities.

Coral reefs and coastal resourcesCoral reefs are under stress in many areas, especiallythose near shallow shelves and dense populations.More than half of the world’s coral reefs are located inthe PICs, and large areas are already degraded. Thecauses range from global, large-scale changes in the


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region

While regionalfish catch haschanged littleover 30 years,aquacultureproduction hasincreasedmarkedly

Note: fish catchincludes marine andfreshwater catchesbut excludescrustaceans andmolluscs

Source: compiledfrom Fishstat 2001and United NationsPopulation Division2001

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Annual aquaculture production per capita (kg): Asia and the Pacific

Annual fish catch per capita (kg): Asia and the Pacific

ocean environment and global warming to tourism andrecreation, high population density and economicdevelopment in coastal areas since the late 1980s.

Most coral reefs in South Asia were adverselyaffected by coral bleaching in mid-1998. Extensivedamage to reefs has been reported from the AndamanIslands, the Gulf of Mannar in India, Lakshadweep,Maldives, Sri Lanka and the PICs. Increasing watertemperatures and increased levels of dissolved carbondioxide in seawater have resulted in the widespreaddeath of stony corals throughout the tropics(Wilkinson 2000). An important development in coralreef conservation and management was theestablishment of the Global Coral Reef MonitoringNetwork (GCRMN) for South Asia in July 1997 by theInternational Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) to facilitatemonitoring, training, networking and management ofcoral reefs.

Marine and coastal pollutionPollution has considerably degraded the coastal andmarine environment, including estuaries, of the regionover the past 30 years. Increased wastes from land-based urban, industrial and agricultural activities aswell as from offshore oil and gas exploitation aredischarged untreated in the coastal region (MoSTEViet Nam 1999).

The most significant sources of pollution include oilfrom ships, sewage and other domestic wastes, andindustrial effluents. The main route of marine transportof oil from the Gulf is across the Arabian Sea, andaccidental oil spills have been frequently reportedalong oil transport routes, at points of discharge andloading of oil carriers. The shipping of oil coupled withincreasing emphasis on offshore oil exploration makesthe northern Indian Ocean extremely vulnerable to oilpollution. Oil spills also cause severe pollution in portsin Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia and Pakistan (DoEMalaysia 1996, 1998). In addition, the cleaning of oiltanks in and around ports has led to the frequentformation of tar-balls on the southwestern beaches ofSri Lanka. In the PICs, marine pollution from ships is athreat that is likely to increase as trade and economiesdevelop further.

The enhanced use of agrochemicals on land anddischarge of chemicals into seawater is a commonproblem. An estimated 1 800 tonnes of pesticidesenter the Bay of Bengal every year (Holmgrem 1994).In the Sea of Japan, a survey has revealed high

concentrations of mercury, the source of which couldhave been wastewater from chemical plants (MSA1997), while the Russian Federation admitted in 1993that the former Soviet Union had dumped nuclearwastes there ‘for decades’ (Hayes and Zarsky 1993).In spite of international regulations, marine pollutionin the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea has continuedto worsen.

Tourism and other recreational activities also posea threat to coastal ecosystems in many countries. Theconstruction of tourism infrastructure has both adirect and indirect adverse impact on coastalenvironments through infilling, dredging and re-suspension of contaminated silts, discharge of

untreated or partially treated sewage, operationalleaks, and discharge of hydrocarbons and wastedumping. Sand dunes, an important component ofcoastal ecosystems in the region, have also beeneroded as a result of tourism activities.

Sediment load in the coastal zones of South Asia ishigh, mainly as a result of soil erosion caused by poorland-use practices and construction activities.Annually, about 1.6 billion tonnes of sediment reachthe Indian Ocean from rivers flowing from the Indian


The annual discharge of ballast water in Australian coastalwaters is about 150 million tonnes from internationalvessels and 34 million tonnes from coastal vessels. A majorincursion of black-striped mussels in Darwin Harbour inearly 1999 prompted the establishment of a National TaskForce on the Prevention and Management of Marine PestIncursions. A major recommendation of the task force wasthe establishment of a single national management regimefor vessels. Its recommendations are implemented throughthe National Introduced Marine Pests Coordination Groupwhich was established under the Ministerial councils forenvironment, fisheries and aquaculture, and transport. TheConsultative Committee on Introduced Marine PestEmergencies, a mechanism for emergency responses tointroduced marine pests, was introduced in 2000.

Since 1990 the Australian Quarantine and InspectionService (AQIS) has adopted voluntary guidelines andmeasures to manage ballast water. In July 2001, Australiaintroduced mandatory ballast water management forinternational vessels entering its waters. Vessels areassessed by AQIS: high risk vessels are required to fullyexchange ballast water at sea, while low risk vessels areallowed to exchange within coastal waters.

Source: Environment Australia 2001

Managing ballast water discharges in Australia

sub-continent. The total sediment load of the riversystem of Bangladesh alone amounts to about 2.5billion tonnes, of which the Brahmaputra carries 1.7billion tonnes and the Ganges 0.8 billion tonnes(UNEP 1987). Coastal erosion is severe in many areasincluding the Andaman coast, the Gulf of Thailand,Japan and the PICs.

Policy responsesThe gradual move towards integrated planning anddevelopment of coastal and marine areas, throughnational, regional and global initiatives, is anencouraging trend. Many countries have adopted thetwo major international agreements on marinepollution: the London Convention of 1972 and theInternational Convention for the Prevention of MarinePollution from Ships (MARPOL) of 1973, with its 1978Protocol.

ESCAP has instituted studies relating to a CoastalEnvironmental Management Plan for a number ofcountries in South Asia, including Bangladesh,Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The Plan requires intensivemultidisciplinary studies encompassing socio-

economic dynamics, industry, agriculture, fishery,forestry, water resources, energy, ecology and health,as well as close collaboration between the scientificcommunity and governments, other institutions andexperts. Mechanisms for implementing coastalenvironmental management continue to be developed,and Sri Lanka appears to have made more progressthan other countries.

Another major multilateral effort that aims atmarine and coastal environmental protection at theregional level is UNEP’s Regional Seas Programmeinitiated in 1974. At the sub-regional level the SouthAsian Seas Action Plan was adopted in 1995 andincludes Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and SriLanka. In 1995, 108 governments across the worldadopted the Global Programme of Action for theProtection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. Many countries have also introducednational legislation and projects to address marinepollution.


ADB (2000). Environments in Transition:Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Vietnam. Manila,Asian Development Bank

DoE Malaysia (1996). Malaysia EnvironmentalQuality Report 1996. Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaDepartment of Environment

DoE Malaysia (1998). Malaysia EnvironmentalQuality Report 1998. Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaDepartment of Environment

DoE, SACEP and UNEP (2001). Bangladesh Stateof the Environment Report. Dhaka, Department ofEnvironment Bangladesh

Environment Australia (2001). The NationalTaskforce on the Prevention and Management ofMarine Pest Incursions.http://www.ea.gov.au/coasts/imps/taskforce.html[Geo-2-267]

ESCAP (1996). Coastal EnvironmentalManagement Plan for Pakistan. Bangkok, UnitedNations Economic and Social Commissions for Asiaand the Pacific

ESCAP and ADB (2000). State of the Environmentin Asia and Pacific 2000. Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific and AsianDevelopment Bank. New York, United Nationshttp://www.unescap.org/enrd/environ/soe.htm [Geo-2-266]


Hayes, P. and Zarsky, L. (1994). EnvironmentalIssues and Regimes in Northeast Asia.International Environmental Affairs Vol. 6, No. 4,Fall 1994 http://www.nautilus.org/papers/enviro/neaenv.html[Geo-2-240]

Holmgren, S. (1994). An EnvironmentalAssessment of the Bay of Bengal Region.BOPG/REP/67. Madras, Bay of Bengal Programme,

MSA (1997). Report of Marine Pollution. Tokyo,Maritime Safety Agency

MoSTE Viet Nam (1999). State of theEnvironment of Viet Nam: 1999 Report. Hanoi,Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment

UNEP (1987). Environmental Problems of theSouth Asian Seas Region: An Overview. UNEPRegional Seas Reports and Studies No 82. Nairobi,United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP (1999). GEO-2000. United NationsEnvironment Programme. London and New York,Earthscan


Wilkinson, C.R. (ed., 2000). Status of Coral Reefsof the World: 2000. Townsville, Australian Instituteof Marine Science

References: Chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, Asia and the Pacific

Coastal and marine areas: Europe

Europe is almost surrounded by semi-closed and closedseas, such as the Adriatic, Mediterranean, Black, Azov,Caspian, Baltic and White seas. Coastal landscapefeatures range from dunes, cliffs, lagoons and riverdeltas to very diverse islands, with numerous importantmarine and bird areas, including 449 Ramsar sites inWestern Europe. The Danube has the largest delta inEurope, encompassing about 580 000 ha (113 000 ha ofwhich are permanently covered by water). The limitedwater exchange of the semi-closed and closed seas withthe open ocean makes these seas very sensitive topollution, which increased dramatically between the1970s and 1990s, although this trend has been haltedand even reversed in a few places in the past ten years.The open coasts of the Atlantic show impacts fromland-based pollution, offshore oil and gas, and shippingoperations and accidental oil spills.

Infrastructure developmentSome 85 per cent of European coasts are at high ormoderate risk from development-related pressures(Bryant and others 1995). The rapid development oftourism, increasing transport, intensive agriculturaland industrial activities, and continuing urbanizationhave all put pressures on coastal areas. As a result ofinfrastructure development and other constructionactivities, as well as natural causes, coastal erosion isa major issue in some areas, with 25 per cent of theEuropean coast subject to erosion (CORINE 1998).The challenges for coastal areas are to cope withfurther economic development and hence growingenvironmental pressures.

Tourism is important for the coastal areas ofEurope, considering that they host two-thirds of theregion’s tourism (Europe attracts 60 per cent of all

international tourism). The Mediterranean is theworld’s leading destination, accounting for 30 per centof international tourist arrivals and for one-third of thereceipts from international tourism. The number oftourists on the Mediterranean coast is expected to risefrom 135 million in 1990 to 235-353 million in 2025(EEA 1999a). Tourism is growing at a rate of 3.7 percent a year (EUCC 1997) and its demands consumeincreasing amounts of land. Similar developments canbe observed in other important tourist areas along theBaltic, North Sea and northeast Atlantic coasts.Tourism accounts for 7 per cent of pollution and makesa huge contribution to water scarcity, waterconsumption by this sector being three to seven timeshigher than for local populations (EEA 2001).

PollutionAlthough shipping is considered to be anenvironmentally friendly mode of transport, it canhave major negative environmental impacts ifstandards are not observed or enforced. Maritimetransport increased in the EU by 35 per cent between1975 and 1985 but has since levelled off (EUCC 1997).This has had an impact on SO2 emissions: maritimetransport now accounts for 10-15 per cent of total SO2emissions (EEA 1999b). It is estimated that 30 percent of all merchant shipping and 20 per cent of globaloil shipping (see map) crosses the Mediterraneanevery year (MAP and REMPEC 1996b).

Pollution from land-based sources is still serious inmany areas. Many of the 200 nuclear power plantsoperating throughout Europe (EEA 1999b) are located incoastal regions or along major rivers, because of thelarge volume of cooling water needed. Since the 1960s,radioactive discharges from the nuclear fleets of theformer Soviet navy have affected remote areas of theArctic and Pacific Oceans (Yablokov 1993). About 150


incidents that did not cause an oil spillincidents that caused oil pollution

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Although thenumber ofincidents relatedto oiltransportationhas risen overthe past twodecades, theproportion thatactually results inoil spills isdecreasing

Source: MAP andREMPEC 1996a

Marine oil transport incidents (number) in Europe

decommissioned nuclear submarines are rusting inharbours on the Kola Peninsula, Kamchatka and theRussian Far East, representing a potentialenvironmental threat. Although the HelsinkiCommission (HELCOM) reports that there is noenvironmental threat from chemical munitions orradioactive substances in the Baltic marineenvironment, citizens groups are still concerned(HELCOM 2001). Discharges from nuclear reprocessingplants originating from the United Kingdom and Franceare also a matter of concern in the maritime area of theNorth Sea and the Atlantic (OSPAR 2001).

Pollution by heavy metals and persistent organicpollutants, and contamination by microbes and othersubstances, occur in all European seas. However,there have been some significant improvements:

● Inputs of hazardous heavy metals and organicsubstances into the northeast Atlantic fellsignificantly between 1990 and 1998 afterincreasing for several decades. Atmospheric inputsof heavy metals into the North Sea also fell,showing the effect of air pollution abatementpolicies in the surrounding countries (EEA 2001).

● Between 1985 and 1998, nitrate concentrationsdecreased by 25 per cent (against a 50 per centtarget) in the coastal areas covered by theConvention for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPARConvention) and the Baltic Marine EnvironmentProtection Commission (EEA 2000).

● The reduced phosphate content of detergents andother measures such as wastewater treatment incatchment areas have resulted in an averagedecrease of phosphate concentrations in someregions, including the Skagerrak, Kattegat, theGerman Bight and the Dutch coastal zone (EEA2000).

Wastewater treatment still needs to be improved,however. High population concentrations also result inhigh levels of wastewater, which is often notsufficiently treated — for example, in theMediterranean, Adriatic and Black seas. Until the endof the 1980s, large cities on the shores of the BalticSea such as St Petersburg (4 million inhabitants) andRiga (800 000 inhabitants) had no wastewatertreatment plants (Mnatsakanian 1992).

Solid waste is also a problem in some Europeanseas. A recent study showed that the main sources ofsolid waste on the coast, sea surface and sea bed inthe Mediterranean region are direct disposal fromhouseholds, tourist facilities and run-off from coastallandfill sites.

Policy measuresGlobal, regional and national measures are being takento reduce the input of polluting substances into marinewaters. International agreements such as OSPAR,HELCOM and the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP)provide a binding legal framework. In the OSPAR andBaltic Sea areas, for example, targets have been set to


Oil tanker routes in the Mediterranean

Some 30 percent of allmerchantshipping and 20per cent of globaloil shippingcrosses theMediterraneanevery year

Source: MAP andREMPEC 1996brefinery

unloading port for crude oil

loading port for crude oil

reduce emissions, losses and discharges of hazardouswastes with the ultimate aim of achievingconcentrations near background values for naturallyoccurring substances and close to zero for syntheticsubstances by 2020 (HELCOM 1998).

Some states have difficulties in implementing theirobligations under these agreements, and this reducesthe effectiveness of regional MEAs such as MAP andthe Black Sea Convention. Assistance programmesfrom wealthier states may play an important role inimproving implementation and compliance in relationto regional and sub-regional MEAs.

Enforcement has improved significantly in some

CEE countries, and the introduction of economicinstruments has had an impact. For example, theEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development(EBRD) has made funding available for infrastructureimprovements in the transition countries incooperation with HELCOM. However, the slowtransformation of large, polluting, state-ownedenterprises continues to present obstacles.

The recently adopted European Water FrameworkDirective provides a strong instrument for the controlof pollutants and monitoring in the catchment andcoastal areas and improvement of water quality for allEU States and incoming accession States.

A recent example of a non-binding agreement atthe global level is the Global Programme of Action forthe Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA). Its implementation will requirenew forms of collaboration between governments,organizations and institutions concerned with marineand coastal areas at all levels — national, regional andglobal. Although still in its early stages, the interestand commitment shown by governments in Europeare encouraging.

The main challenge in coastal areas is theimplementation of Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement which aims at harmonizing the various,sometimes conflicting, uses of the coastal zone. Inregions such as the Baltic Sea, bordered by severalindependent nations, transboundary and internationalcooperation is a basic requirement.


Bryant, D., Rodenburg, E., Cox, T. and Nielsen, D.(1995). Coastlines at Risk: An Index of PotentialDevelopment-Related Threats to CoastalEcosystems. WRI Indicator Brief. Washington DC,World Resources Institute

CORINE (1998). CORINE Coastal Erosion Atlas.Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities

EEA (1999a). State and Pressures of the Marineand Coastal Mediterranean Environment.Environmental Assessment Series No. 5.Copenhagen, European Environment Agency

EEA (1999b). Environment in the European Unionat the Turn of the Century. EnvironmentalAssessment Report No 2. Copenhagen, EuropeanEnvironment Agency

EEA (2000). Environmental Signals 2000.Environmental Assessment Report No 6.Copenhagen, European Environment Agency

EEA (2001). Environmental Signals 2001.Environmental Assessment Report No 8.Copenhagen, European Environment Agency

EUCC (1997). The European Coastal Code –EUCC, Draft 2. A contribution to Action Theme 5of the Pan-European Biological and LandscapeDiversity Strategy. Leiden, European Union forCoastal Conservation

HELCOM (1998). Recommendations 19/5HELCOM Objective with Regard to HazardousSubstances. Helsinki, Helsinki Commission

HELCOM (2001). Environment of the Baltic Seaarea 1994 -1998. Baltic Sea EnvironmentalProceedings No. 82A. Helsinki, HelsinkiCommission

MAP and REMPEC (1996a). List of alerts andaccidents in the Mediterranean. Athens, UNEPMediterranean Action Plan

MAP and REMPEC (1996b). An Overview ofMaritime Transport in the Mediterranean. Athens,United Nations Environment Programme

Mnatsakanian, R. (1992). Environmental Legacy ofthe Former Soviet Republics. Edinburgh, Centre forHuman Ecology, University of Edinburgh

OSPAR (2001). Liquid Discharges from NuclearInstallations in 1999http://www.ospar.org/eng/html/welcome.html [Geo-2-241]

REMPEC (2001). Alerts and Accidents. RegionalMarine Pollution Emergency Response Centre forthe Mediterranean Seahttp://www.rempec.org/accidents.html

Yablokov, A.V. (1993). Facts and Problems Relatedto Radioactive Waste Disposal in Seas Adjacent tothe Territory of the Russian Federation. Materialsfor a report by the Government Commission onMarrwe Related to Radioactive Waste Disposal atSea, Created by Decree No. 613 of the RussianFederation President October 24, 1992. Moscow,Office of the President of the Russian Federation

References: Chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, Europe

The main principles for international cooperation in preparedness for and responseto marine pollution incidents are defined by the Emergency Protocol to theBarcelona Convention. In order to assist coastal states in its implementation, theRegional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean Sea(REMPEC) was established in Malta in 1976. Since 1977, REMPEC hassystematically collected reports on incidents causing or likely to cause pollution ofthe sea by oil. Some 311 incidents were recorded between August 1977 andDecember 2000, 156 of which actually resulted in the spillage of oil. Spill responseoperations in the Mediterranean between 1981 and 2000 were regularly conductedeither by national or local authorities or by the spill clean-up contractors under theirsupervision. To date, nearly 2 000 people have participated in a trainingprogramme developed by REMPEC to assist coastal states in developing their owncapabilities for effective responses to pollution incidents. The only case thatnecessitated mutual assistance between neighbouring countries (France and Italy)was the spill from the tanker Haven near Genoa in Italy, with the loss of 144 000tonnes of oil in 1991.

Source: REMPEC 2000

Hazards and contingency planning for oil spills

Coastal and marine areas:Latin America and the Caribbean

The key environmental problems facing the coastaland marine areas of the Latin American and CaribbeanRegion are related to habitat conversion anddestruction, pollution produced by human activitiesand overexploitation of fisheries resources. Theunderlying causes of these problems are linked to thedevelopment of coastal areas for tourism,infrastructure and urbanization, and to the conversionof coastal habitats for uses such as agriculture andaquaculture. In addition to diminished naturalproductivity of coastal areas, most coastal and offshorefisheries are severely overexploited. These problemsare expected to be significantly exacerbated by climatechange and sea-level rise (UNEP 2000), particularly inthe Caribbean. The state of coastal areas throughoutthe region is illustrated in the table on the right.Coastal areas that are heavily populated and exploitedrequire intensive management and infrastructure tosustain coastal ecological systems. However,complicating coastal zone management are multiplephysical and political jurisdictions dividing ecologicalboundaries and scales.

Exploitation of coastal and marine resourcesThe region’s coastal zones are the foundation of itseconomy and sustainability — 60 of the 77 largesttowns are on the coasts, and 60 per cent of thepopulation lives within 100 km of the coast (Cohenand others 1997). Development of residential areasand tourism infrastructure has greatly changed thefeatures of coastal areas in the region. Physicalalterations of coastlines due to urban growth and theconstruction of ports and industrial infrastructure areamong the major factors that impact the region’scoastal and marine ecosystems.

Tourism represents around 12 per cent of the GDPof the region, much of which is concentrated along thecoasts. Some 100 million tourists visit the Caribbeaneach year and contribute 43 per cent of GDP and one-third of export revenue (WTTC 1993). The direct andindirect effects of tourism on coastal and marine areascan be seen in the increasing conversion of coastalhabitats and subsequent impacts. For example,overextraction of ground water by expanding tourisminfrastructure results in the intrusion of brackish or

salt water into coastal aquifers, eventuallycontaminating the groundwater system and coastalsoil.

PollutionPollution is mainly caused by discharge of municipaland industrial solid waste and wastewater, run-off fromagricultural fields, and maritime transport (especiallyof hazardous substances), as well as oil and gasextraction, refining and transport. Regional capacityfor wastewater treatment is low; some 98 per cent ofdomestic wastewater is discharged into the northeastPacific and 90 per cent into the wider Caribbeanwithout treatment (UNEP 2001).

The effects of pollutants from land-based activitiesare exacerbated in large watersheds, and in turn mayaffect distant states. The transboundary effects of fivemajor watersheds are especially notable: theMississippi, the Amazon, the Plata, the Orinoco andthe Santa Marta. Satellite images have shown largesediment discharges from coastal rivers and somelarge islands travelling across thousands of kilometres


Management status of principal coastal and marine areas

Conditions of use

Intensively usedand heavilypopulated coastalareasIntensive fishingpressure from bothcoastal populationsand offshorefisheriesHigh density orconcentration of oilterminals, portsand shipping lanes

Moderately usedcoastal resources

Lightly usedcoastal resources

Management andinfrastructure support

Intensively managed –high infrastructuresupport – regulatory,conservation andeducation efforts

Moderate management –regulatory efforts withlimited enforcement,limited conservation andeducation efforts

Little to no region-widemanagement

Intensively managed

Moderate management

Light management

Intensive management

Moderate managementto little to nomanagement

Biogeographical zones

Some areas of the tropical northwesternAtlantic, including Cancun, Mexico. Southeast Atlantic: Brazil

Most areas of the tropical northwesternAtlantic, such as Puerto Rico, parts of USVirgin Islands, Barbados and most islands ofthe Lesser AntillesWarm temperate northeastern Pacific,including Mexico Galapagos Islands

Most areas of the tropical eastern Pacific,warm temperate southwestern Atlantic,including Argentina, Brazil, UruguaySome areas of tropical eastern Pacific

Areas of the warm temperate southeasternPacific, including Peru and Chile — especiallythose related to coastal shelf fisheries

Cold temperate South America, includingChile and Argentina

Tropical southwestern Atlantic: Brazil

Only a few examples of lightly used, intensivemanagement in high profile remote marineprotected areas

Very few areas under this category — evenlarge, remote areas such as the Orinoco Riverdelta are affected by land use alterations inthe delta and upland watershed areas, eventhough use of the estuarine resources may belowAlso Juan Fernandez and DesventuradasIslands

of ocean. During a fish kill episode in the WindwardIslands in February 2000, pathological bacteria weredetected that previously had been reported only incontinental freshwater systems (Caribbean Compass1999). It was suggested that the pathogens had beentransported in sediments originating in floods in theOrinoco basin.

Maritime transport is a significant source ofcoastal and marine pollution in the region especiallythe release of oil through dumping of bilge water and

tank rinsing. Other threats from maritime transportinclude discharge of sewage, garbage and hazardouschemicals, and introduction of exotic or invasivespecies to new areas through loading and off-loading ofballast water.

The ports in the region are the second mostimportant destination for containerized goods from theUnited States, and the Panama Canal is a principal linkfor global maritime trade. Between 1980 and 1990,maritime transport in the region increased from 3.2 to3.9 per cent of global trade, and significant increasesare expected to continue as a result of tradeliberalization and privatization of regional ports(UNCTAD 1995). Without counter measures,environmental problems related to maritime transportare expected to worsen in the future.

The marine and coastal areas of Latin America andthe Caribbean are among the most productivepetroleum-producing areas in the world. The mostimportant pressure on the marine and coastalenvironment in specific localities is the risk of oilspills from oil and gas exploration, production and

distribution systems. The world’s largest recorded oilspill was the Ixtoc submarine oil blow-out in the Bayof Campeche, Mexico, on 3 June 1979 with a totalestimated outflow of oil greater than the volume fromthe Exxon Valdez spill. In 1999 and 2001, significantcoastal spills and pipeline ruptures in Brazil andColombia caused both active public concern and newrestrictions to control future spills. All oil and gasexploration operations have the potential to causesevere damage to the coastal and marine environmentas a result of large and small spills, and chronic leaks.

FisheriesOverexploitation of fisheries resources and theproblems of by-catch and discards have becomefeatures of the regional fisheries regime. The catchfrom the region’s seas has generally increased overthe past 30 years (see figure). Total fish catch(including inland fisheries but excluding molluscs,crustaceans and aquaculture) reached a regional peakof more than 23 million tonnes in 1994 (nearly 30 percent of the global total). From 1985 to 1995, manySouth American countries doubled or tripled theircatch, and Colombia’s catch increased five-fold.However, in 1998 the regional catch droppedconsiderably to 11.3 million tonnes (15.9 per cent ofthe global total), due to adverse climatic factorscaused by the El Niño.

A recent study that established geographicpriorities for marine conservation in the CentralCaribbean ecoregion indicated that excessiveexploitation was a threat in 34 of the 51 localproduction systems (Sullivan and Bustamante 1999).The region also faces the problem of large quantitiesof by-catch and discards that include turtles, marinemammals, marine birds and other smaller butecologically important species. At present, the regionhas no system to record indicators on the health ofresources and ecosystems that would gear actions tothe recovery of overexploited species and theirenvironment (UNEP 2001).

Measures to halt overexploitation of fisheries havebeen implemented in some countries. In January 2000,the Government of the Bahamas and local NGOsagreed to the establishment of five ‘No Take’ marinereserves near the offshore islands of Bimini, Berry,South Eleuthera, Exuma and northern Abaco. Theobjective is to establish, with full communityparticipation, a complete system of such reserves, to


10

0

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1984

1986

1988

1992

1994

1996

1998

25

1982

1990

5

15

20

South AmericaMeso-AmericaCaribbean

Fish catch (million tonnes): Latin America and the Caribbean

Regional fishcatch peaked in1994 butcollapsed later asa result of astrong El Niñoevent

Note: includesinland fisheries butexcludes molluscs,crustaceans andaquaculture

Source: compiledfrom Fishstat 2001

aid in the prevention of overfishing and loss of marinebiodiversity. This would result in the protection of 20per cent of the coastal and marine environment(NOAA 2001).

Policy responsesInternational policy responses to the problemsdescribed above have been many and varied. Most ofthem are based on fisheries conventions, internationalshipping conventions, or the large number ofagreements tied to the United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea. At the same time, institutional andorganizational weaknesses in the countries of theregion, and the myriad authorities responsible formarine and coastal management, make theimplementation of policies a difficult task.

The following are among the most importantmultilateral agreements and action plans:

● The Convention on the Protection andDevelopment of the Marine Environment of theWider Caribbean (‘The Cartagena Convention’)(1983) and its protocols (on oil spills and protectedareas and land-based pollution).

● UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme, and theinternational project for the elimination of barriersto implement ballast water controls andmanagement measures for developing countries,proposed for the period 2000-2002 by theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO).

● The International Coral Reefs Action Network(ICRAN), an important effort to halt thedegradation of coral reefs, which is supported bythe United Nations Foundation (UNF).

● The Caribbean Planning for the Adaptation ofGlobal Climate Change (CPACC) project which

assists the 12 Caribbean CARICOM countries toprepare for the negative impacts of possible globalclimate change, especially with respect to the risein sea level, by measuring their vulnerability andplanning for the adaptation and development oftheir capacity to deal with the problem.

Few of the conventions mentioned, however, havebeen in force long enough, and with adequateestablished infrastructure, to assess their strengthsand weaknesses. It is clear, however, that regionalenvironmental monitoring processes need to begeared to assessing environmental conditions as wellas monitoring implementation activities designed torestore sustainability of coastal and marine areas andtheir resources.


Caribbean Compass (1999). Fish Kill TheoriesAbound, but Still No Answers. CaribbeanCompass, November 1999http://www.caribbeancompass.com/fish.htm [Geo-2-264]

Cohen, J.E., Small, C., Mellinger, A., Gallup, J. andSachs, J. (1997). Estimates of coastal populations.Science 278, 1211–12


NOAA (2001). Wetland Areas in the Bahamas. USDepartment of Commerce, National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration.http://www.oar.noaa.gov/spotlite/archive/spot_cmrc.html [Goe-2-242]

Sullivan, K. and Bustamante, G. (1999). SettingGeographic Priorities for Marine Conservation inLatin American and the Caribbean. Arlington,United States, The Nature Conservancy

UNCTAD (1995). Review of Maritime Transport1994. Geneva, United Nations Conference onTrade and Development

UNEP (2000). GEO Latin America and theCaribbean Environment Outlook Mexico City,United Nations Environment Programme, RegionalOffice for Latin America and the Caribbean

UNEP (2001). Municipal Waste Water as a Land-Based Source of Pollution in Coastal and MarineAreas of Latin America and the Caribbean. MexicoCity, United Nations Environment Programme,Regional Office for Latin America and theCaribbean

WTTC (1993). Travel and Tourism: A NewEconomic Perspective. London, World Travel andTourism Council

References: Chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, Latin America and the Caribbean

Capacity forwastewatertreatment is low;98 per cent ofdomesticwastewater isdischarged intothe northeastPacific and 90per cent into thewider Caribbeanwithouttreatment

Source: UNEP,David Tapia Munoz,Topham Picturepoint


Coastal and marine areas: North America

Almost 25 per cent of Canada’s and about 55 per cent ofthe United States’ populations live in coastal areas (CEQ1997, EC 1999). The US coastal population is growing atfour times the national average, with some of thehighest levels of urban growth taking place in smallcoastal cities (CEC 2000a). This is of concern becausecoastal ecosystems are among the richest storehousesof marine biodiversity and provide important ecosystemgoods and services. Conversion of these fragile systemsto urban uses can lead to physical degradation,exploitation of marine resources and pollution.

Issues of particular concern for the region are theexcessive input of nitrogen from land-based activitiesand the precipitous decline in fisheries (see graph): 21of the 43 ground-fish stocks in Canada’s North Atlanticare in decline and nearly one-third of US federallymanaged fisheries are overfished (CEC 2000a).

Pacific Northwest salmon fisheryThe Pacific Northwest supports rich fishery resources,of which salmon is of primary importance. Historicallyabundant in many Pacific coastal and interior waters,salmon runs and species diversity have been shrinkingsince the late 19th century, due to dam construction(particularly in the United States), rockslides, poormanagement and overfishing (DFO 1999a). By the late1980s, both countries had imposed severe restrictionson harvests of some salmon species but, despite theseand other measures, by the early 1990s salmon catchand value showed significant declines; by 1999, 24 sub-

species of west coast salmon had been listed under theUS Endangered Species Act and Canada had closed orcurtailed salmon harvests for some species in a numberof its major rivers (Carlisle 1999, TU and TUC 1999).

Complicating the issue have been the twointernational borders that separate British Columbia’swaters from Alaska’s and those of the northwest UnitedStates (DFO 1999a, TU and TUC 1999). During theirlife cycle, salmon of US origin travel through Canada’swaters and vice versa, resulting in a history ofintercepting fishery practices that has encouragedunsustainable harvests (DFO 1999a). The1985 PacificSalmon Treaty attempted to resolve this issue butbroke down in 1992 because of disagreements. A 1999amendment to the treaty based on sustaining wildstocks, sharing costs and benefits, and a common basisto assess stocks, monitor fish and evaluate performanceis more promising (DFO 1999b, NOAA 1999).

The combined effects of fishing, climate change(see box below) and habitat conditions have prompteda number of status reviews, renewed fishingagreements and new management approaches. Forexample, in 1998 Canada initiated the Pacific FisheriesAdjustment and Rebuilding Program to conserve andrebuild Pacific salmon stocks and to revitalize Pacificsalmon fisheries. It has also implemented aprecautionary approach to salmon management,resulting in significant harvest reductions to protectstocks at risk (DFO 1999c). In December 2000, theUnited States released a comprehensive, long-term

2

0

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1984

1986

1988

1992

1994

1996

1998

6

1982

1990

1

3

4

5

United StatesCanada

North Americanfisheries havebeen in severedecline since thelate 1980s, withat least one-thirdof all speciesoverfished

Note: fish catchincludes marine andfreshwater catchesbut excludescrustaceans andmolluscs, andaquacultureproduction


Both Canada and the United States are concerned about thepotential effects of climate change on salmon populationsand other wild fish stocks in North America’s coastal andoceanic waters. Studies by Canadian government scientiststhat simulated expected changes from a doubling of CO2 inthe atmosphere indicate that the resulting change in climatecould virtually eliminate salmon habitat from the PacificOcean (NRC 1998). A 1994 Environment Canada study ofthe impact of climate change on Fraser River salmonreported that altered flow regimes, aquatic temperatures,river hydrology and seasonal run-off will intensifycompetition among water users in the watershed (Glavin1996). A recent US report on climate change impacts notesthat a projected narrowing in the annual water temperaturerange in many estuaries may cause species’ ranges to shiftand increase the vulnerability of some estuaries tointroduced species (US GCRP 2000).

Impacts of climate change on Pacific salmon and other wild fish stock

Annual fish catch (million tonnes): North America


federal strategy to help restore the 14 salmon sub-species in the Columbia River Basin listed on theEndangered Species Act.

As those dependent on salmon for income struggleto survive (see graph), both countries are takingadditional measures to help restore these and otherwild fish stocks to the region’s coastal and marinewaters and to enhance and maintain global biologicaldiversity. Recent restrictions have indeed improvedthe ocean survival of some important stocks but itremains to be seen if all Pacific salmon speciesrebound (DFO 2000a, 2001).

Nutrient loadingNutrient inputs to marine and coastal ecosystemshave increased dramatically over the past threedecades due to large increases in population density,fossil fuel use, sewage inputs, livestock productionand fertilizer use (EC 2000). These activities releasenitrogen and phosphorus, which can enhance plantgrowth in aquatic systems and lead to oxygendepletion and multiple effects on the ecosystemincluding destroyed fish habitat, coastal pollution andharmful algal blooms (EC 1999, 2000).

In many parts of North America, nutrients fromnon-point sources come mainly from fertilizer andmanure run-off. Over the past 30 years, fertilizer usehas increased by almost 30 per cent while a trendtowards rearing livestock in intensive feedlots has ledto the release of large amounts of manure to surfaceand coastal waters (Mathews and Hammond 1999).Atmospheric inputs of nitrogen derived from manure,as well as from vehicles and electric utility powerplants, are also significant (NOAA 1998a).

Since the early 1970s, anti-pollution legislation hasgreatly reduced point sources of nitrogen andphosphorus, principally from the discharge ofmunicipal sewage and industrial wastes and thecontrol of phosphates in laundry detergents (NOAA1998a, EC 2000). However, most municipalwastewater discharged into Canada’s coastal waters isstill either untreated or only partially treated (EC2000). Canadian estuaries in the North Atlantic areless severely affected by nutrient loading than moresoutherly ones due in part to a cooler climate andsignificant flushing of coastal waters (NOAA 1998b).Along the north Atlantic coast, non-point sources ofnitrogen are some ninefold greater than inputs fromwastewater treatment plants (EC 2000).

In 1998, more than 60 per cent of US coastal riversand bays were moderately to severely degraded bynutrient contamination, and nitrogen was found to bethe single greatest environmental threat in some‘trouble’ spots on the Atlantic coast (NOAA 1998b,Howarth and others 2000). The US Clean Water Actand the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act directedstates to develop management plans for non-pointcontamination sources and provided funding andincentives to implement them (NRC 2000). The 1987US National Estuary Program aims to minimizeregional nutrient contamination (see box).

Nutrient enrichment is probably a contributingfactor in the recent dramatic increase in the intensity,frequency and spatial extent of algal blooms or red

The 1987 Chesapeake Bay Program was set up under the US National EstuaryProgram. It is a federal-state-local partnership to reduce nitrogen and phosphorusloading to the Bay by 40 per cent. This region has a population of more than 15million people, and important commercial fish and shellfish harvests, and is amajor stopover for migratory birds. By the late 1990s, only the phosphorusreduction goal had been met. Progress in reducing nutrients is being hampered bypopulation growth and development.

Chesapeake Bay

0

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1984

1986

1988

1992

1994

1996

1998

1 400

1982

1990

1 200

1 000

800

600

400

200

United StatesCanada

Pacific Northwest salmon catch value(US$million/year)

Value of North American salmon catch has plummeted since 1988 as a resultof declining stocks and attempts to protect stocks

Source: DFO 2000b, NMFS 2000


tides, causing increased economic losses and healthimpacts. The number of coastal and estuarinelocations in the United States with major recurringincidents of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) doubledbetween 1972 and 1995 (US Senate 1997).

The impacts of HABs can include human illnessand death from eating contaminated fish or shellfish,mass mortalities of wild and farmed fish, and changesin marine food webs. In response to incidents ofhuman illness from contaminated shellfish, bothCanada and the United States have developed testingand water quality programmes to identifyphytoplankton toxins and to provide information aboutthem to the public.

Ocean acts in both countries (1997 in Canada and2000 in the United States) establish frameworks for

improving the stewardship of North America’s coastaland ocean waters (EC 1999). Since 1996, the NorthAmerican Commission for Environmental Cooperationhas been facilitating regional implementation of theGlobal Programme of Action for the Protection of theMarine Environment from Land-based Activities inNorth America (CEC 2000b).

As yet, there is no regional strategy to addressnutrient loading in North America’s coastal waters,and coordination among the various agenciesresponsible for their management is inadequate (NRC2000). Evidence suggests that the situation can bereversed, but the need remains for increased politicalaction and changes in the activities in the watershedsand airsheds that feed coastal streams and rivers.

Carlisle, J. (1999). Nature, Not Man, isResponsible for West Coast Salmon Decline.National Center for Public Policy Researchhttp://www.nationalcenter.org/NPA254.html [Geo-2-243]

CEC (2000a). Booming Economies, SilencingEnvironments, and the Paths to Our Future.Montreal, Commission for EnvironmentalCooperation

CEC (2000b). North American Agenda for Action1999-2001: a Three-Year Program Plan for theCommission for Environmental Cooperation.Montreal, Commission for EnvironmentalCooperation

CEQ (1997). Environmental Quality: the 25thAnniversary Report of the Council onEnvironmental Quality. Washington DC, USGovernment Printing Office

DFO (1999a). 1999 Agreement Between Canadaand the U.S. Under the Pacific Salmon Treaty.Fisheries and Oceans Canadahttp://www.ncr.dfo.ca/pst-tsp/agree/toc_e.htm [Geo-2-244]

DFO (1999b). Canada and US Reach aComprehensive Agreement under the PacificSalmon Treaty: News Release, 3 June 1999,Fisheries and Oceans Canadahttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/COMMUNIC/NEWSREL/1999/hq29_e.htm [Geo-2-245]

DFO (1999c). Pacific Fisheries Adjustment andRestructuring Program. Backgrounder, Fisheriesand Oceans Canadahttp://www.ncr.dfo.ca/COMMUNIC/BACKGROU/1999/hq29%28115%29_e.htm [Geo-2-246]

DFO (2000a). Fisheries and Oceans AnnouncesRebuilding Efforts Result in Astounding Recoveryof Upper Adams and Nadina Sockeye Runs. NewsRelease, 14 December 2000, Fisheries andOceans Canadahttp://www-comm.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/english/release/p-releas/2000/nr00138e.htm [Geo-2-247]

DFO (2000b). Annual Summary CommercialStatistics, Salmon Landings in BC (1951-95).Fisheries and Oceans Canadahttp://www-sci.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sa/Commercial/SummaryPDF/comsal.htm [Geo-2-249]

DFO (2001). Remarkable Rebuilding of UpperAdams Sockeye Run Continues. News Release, 28May 2001, Fisheries and Oceans Canadahttp://www-comm.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/english/release/p-releas/2001/nr054e.htm [Geo-2-248]

EC (1999). Canada’s Oceans: Experience andPractices Canadian Contribution to the Oceansand Seas Dialogue. Paper read at Seventh Sessionof the United Nations Commission on SustainableDevelopment (UN CSD), 19-30 April, New York

EC (2000). Nutrient Additions and Their Impactson the Canadian Environment. Ottawa,Environment Canada.


Glavin, T. (1996). Dead Reckoning: Confrontingthe Crisis in Pacific Fisheries. Vancouver,Greystone Books

Howarth, R., Anderson, D., Cloern, J., Elfring, C.,Hopkinson, C., Lapointe, B., Malone, T., Marcus,N., McGlathery, K., Sharpley, A. and Walker, D.(2000). Nutrient Pollution of Coastal Rivers, Bays,and Seas. Issues in Ecology No. 7, EcologicalSociety of America http://esa.sdsc.edu/issues7.htm [Geo-2-263]

Mathews, E. and Hammond, A. (1999). CriticalConsumption Trends and Implications: DegradingEarth’s Ecosystems. Washington DC, WorldResources Institute

NMFS (2000). Fisheries Statistics & Economics,Commercial Fisheries, Annual Landings. NationalMarine Fisheries Servicehttp://www.st.nmfs.gov/: [Geo-2-254]

NOAA (1998a). 1998 Year of the Ocean.Perspectives on Marine Environmental QualityToday. US National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministrationhttp://www.yoto98.noaa.gov/yoto/meeting/mar_env_316.html [Geo-2-255]

NOAA (1998b). Oxygen Depletion in CoastalWaters: NOAA’s State of the Coast Report. USNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationhttp://state-of-coast.noaa.gov/bulletins/html/hyp_09/hyp.html [Geo-2-256]

NOAA (1999). United States AnnouncesAgreement With Canada On Pacific Salmon. USNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationhttp://www.nwr.noaa.gov/1press/060399_1.html[Geo-2-257]

NRC (1998). Sensitivities to Climate Change:Fisheries. Natural Resources Canadahttp://sts.gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/adaptation/sensitivities/map5.htm [Geo-2-258]

NRC (2000). Clean Coastal Waters:Understanding and Reducing the Effects ofNutrient Pollution. Washington DC, NationalAcademy Presshttp://books.nap.edu/books/0309069483/html/9.html#page_middle [Geo-2-259]

TU and TUC (1999). Resolving the Pacific SalmonTreaty Stalemate. Seattle, Trout Unlimited USA andTrout Unlimited Canada

US Senate (1997). Animal Waste Pollution inAmerica: An Emerging National Problem. USSenate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition andForestry http://www.senate.gov/~agriculture/Briefs/animalw.htm [Geo-2-260]

US GCRP (2000). Climate Change Impacts on theUnited States: the Potential Consequences ofClimate Variability and Change. SocioeconomicData and Applications Center, CIESIN, ColumbiaUniversityhttp://sedac.ciesin.org/NationalAssessment/ [Geo-2-261]

References: Chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, North America

Coastal and marine areas: West Asia

The coastal zones of West Asia are under variousdegrees of stress as a result of major demographicshifts from rural to coastal urban areas, intenseurbanization of coastal zones and dumping of untreatedwaste. Furthermore, regional wars and internalconflicts have introduced new dimensions to theregion’s environmental problems and have stressedboth financial and natural resources.

Actions at national and regional levels, the latterthrough the Regional Organization for theConservation of the Marine Environment of the RedSea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA countries) and thecountries of the Regional Organization for theProtection of the Marine Environment (ROPMEcountries, under the UNEP Regional SeasProgramme’s Kuwait Action Plan) focus on the keyenvironmental issues that have emerged in the region:physical alterations, overexploitation of marineresources and marine pollution (UNEP and PERSGA1997, UNEP 1999, UNEP MAP 1996).

Coastal development and physical alterationRapid urbanization has occurred in most of thecountries of the region over the past three decades,particularly in the smaller countries such as Bahrain,Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon. By the early 1990s, some ofthe GCC countries had developed more than 40 percent of their coastline (Price and Robinson 1993), andrecent estimates indicate coastal investments in theregion to be worth US$20–40 million/km of coastline(UNEP 1999).

In Lebanon, more than 60 per cent of thepopulation of about 3.5 million live and work along avery narrow coastal strip (Government of Lebanon1997, Grenon and Batisse 1989). Some 64 per cent ofthe population of all the Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC) countries except Saudi Arabia live along thewestern coasts of the Gulf and the Arabian Sea(ROPME 1999). More than 90 per cent of thepopulation of Bahrain and 37 per cent of Kuwaitis livealong the coast.

Coastal populations are expected to increase — forexample, the population of Aqaba is predicted to morethan double from 65 000 to 150 000 by 2020 (UNEPand PERSGA 1997). Increasing urbanization,

accompanied by ill-planned coastal tourism and/orindustrial projects, has resulted in the degradation ofcoastal and marine environmental quality. The Mashriqsub-region and the smaller states of the region arealso unable to deal with the large quantities ofdomestic litter generated along the coasts, due tospace limitations and inadequate waste disposalsystems.

Dredging and land reclamation are alsointensifying in most countries. Major landfilling hasoccurred along the western coasts of the Gulfcountries such as Bahrain, Saudi Arabia and theUnited Arab Emirates. These activities have led todestruction of marine habitats and ecologicallyproductive areas, coastal erosion, and loss of coastalstretches in many countries.

The need for environmental impact assessmentsand integrated coastal zone management has beenrecognized by most countries since the early 1990sand a number of coastal and marine action plans havebeen developed (see box above). A new methodologyfor integrated coastal zone management wasdeveloped by UNEP’s Mediterranean Action Plan(MAP), and a Coastal Area Management Project(CAMP) for the south of Lebanon was launched in2001 by MAP and the Lebanese Ministry ofEnvironment. Nevertheless, with the exception of aregional programme under MAP aimed at safeguarding100 historical sites notably in the Mashriq region, noconcerted effort has been undertaken to protect otherhistorical sites, including submarine structures, fromthe ravages of dredging and landfill activities.


Three major action plans in the region are aimed at preserving the coastal andmarine environment and promoting the sustainable development of the coastalzones:

● the Mediterranean Action Plan: Lebanon, Syria and the Mediterranean countriesof Europe and North Africa;● the Kuwait Action Plan: Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabiaand the United Arab Emirates; and● the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Action Plan: Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Action Plan was specifically formulated to protectthe region from the impacts of land-based activities. The Mediterranean Action Planwas updated in 1995 together with the Barcelona Convention and its protocols.

Coastal and marine action plans in West Asia

Fisheries and marine resourcesThe fisheries of West Asia are diverse and continue toprovide protein and revenue. However, per capita fishcatches have been falling (see graph), albeit slowly,because of adverse climatic and ecological conditions,and unsustainable fishing practices. The most visible

signs of deterioration are the overexploitation and lossof shrimp nursery grounds. Furthermore, fish killphenomena have often been observed along theshores of the Gulf Area and the Arabian Sea (ROPME2000). Fishery regulations are lacking or not enforced,particularly in the Mashriq, and regional cooperationfor improved fisheries management is weak. However,a range of policy measures, including the introductionof fishing licences, gear and area restrictions, closedseasons and the banning of certain fisheries, haverecently been implemented in the GCC countries.

Initial steps have been taken in several countriesto supplement fish protein by aquaculture and/orimportation. As aquaculture is expected to increase inboth the sub-regions, measures will need to be takento prevent the accidental introduction of alien speciesinto the wild, which could have adverse impacts oncoastal and marine ecosystems.

Marine pollution The Mashriq and GCC countries have different sets ofpollution-related pressures to contend with. Whereasin the GCC countries the challenges are from oil-related industries and desalinization plants, in theMashriq the challenge is primarily from major riversthat discharge domestic and municipal wastes,agricultural chemicals and hazardous industrialsubstances into the sea.

Due to heavy oil traffic in the Gulf, and the Gulf’sunique geographical location and sensitive biologicalnature, this sea could become the most polluted in theworld unless strict measures are implemented andenforced. The Gulf and the Red Sea are the oil tankerhighways of the world: more than 10 000 vessels ayear pass through the Straits of Hormuz, about 60 percent of which are oil tankers (ROPME 1999), andsome 34 offshore oil and gas terminals exist in theregion (UNEP 1999). About 1.2 million barrels of oilare spilled in the region every year from routinedischarge of ballast water (UNEP 1999). Since 1996,facilities for treating oil-contaminated ballast waterhave been established in the ROPME area, and a taskforce involving the GCC secretariat, the InternationalMaritime Organization, UNDP, UNEP and the EU wasset up through the Marine Emergency Mutual AidCentre. A regional steering committee wasestablished and a schedule for implementation of oilreception facilities is now under way (Al-Janahi 2001).

More than 360 million tonnes of oil are transportedannually in the Mediterranean Sea (EEA 1999) which,though constituting only 0.7 per cent of the global seasurface, receives 17 per cent of global marine oilpollution (ESCWA 1991). Around 2 000 vessels, ofwhich 250–300 are oil tankers, cruise theMediterranean daily. It is estimated that more than22 000 tonnes of oil entered the Mediterranean during1987–96 as a result of shipping incidents (EEA 1999).

Regional wars have also contributed to thedegradation of coastal and marine resources. TheIran/Iraq war (1980–88) contributed 2-4 million barrelsof spilled oil (Reynolds 1993) and 6-8 million barrelswere spilled into the Gulf and the Arabian Sea duringthe Second Gulf War (ROPME 2000).

The region has made some advances in combatingaccidental oil spills, particularly in the PERSGA andROPME countries but in the Mashriq countries andsome countries in the PERSGA region, there are nomechanisms to deal with major catastrophes (UNEPand PERSGA 1997). For example, there are noemergency contingency plans to deal with accidents tothe 30-odd oil pipelines in Lebanon (Government ofLebanon 1997).

Most countries in the region have recognizedpollution from land-based sources as a major threat tothe coastal and marine environment. Sewage disposalis a major issue. Most coastal cities in the Mashriqsub-region have outdated sewerage systems, and the


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Annual fish catch per capita (kg): West Asia

West Asianfisheries have notkept pace withpopulationgrowth, with theper capita catchfalling slowlyover 30 years

Note: fish catchincludes marine andfreshwater catchesbut excludescrustaceans andmolluscs, andaquacultureproduction


discharge of untreated sewage into coastal zones,mainly close to the major cities, continues to becommon practice in most of the Mashriq and someparts of the GCC countries. Elsewhere, as in Bahrain,Kuwait, United Arab Emirates and western SaudiArabia, all sewage is treated prior to discharge andsome is recycled. The risk of eutrophication in semi-closed and closed areas is constantly present sincemost of the seas in the region are oligotrophic (poor innutrients).

Discharges from desalinization plants of brine,chlorine and heat continue to pose another seriousthreat to the environment. Nearly 43 per cent of theworld’s desalinated water is produced in GCCcountries (UNEP and PERSGA 1997) and the trend isincreasing.

Soil erosion and sedimentation pose another threatto the coastal zone. With an annual estimated soil lossof about 33 and 60 tonnes/ha in Lebanon and Syriarespectively, the amount of eroded soil discharged intothe Mediterranean from both countries may reach 60million tonnes annually (EEA 1999). In the absence ofadequate river basin management programmes,riverine and estuarine water quality will continue to

deteriorate with harmful effects on public health. It isexpected that, following the completion of new damsin eastern Turkey, there will be a change in waterquantity and quality of the Euphrates River flowinginto Syria and Iraq, which in turn will have a majorimpact on the agricultural areas and estuaries of theShatt Al-Arab waterways.

Although there is great variation in levels of heavymetals in the region, screening tests show acceptablevalues in most areas (UNEP MAP 1996, ROPME1999). Some countries have begun setting standardsfor environmental quality through international andregional agreements. For example, Lebanon hasrecently started to develop environmental anddevelopmental indicators and standards within theframework of the Barcelona Convention. Pollutionfrom land-based activities has also been incorporatedinto protocols in both the Mediterranean and theKuwait Action Plans.


Al-Janahi, A.M. (2001). The preventative role ofMEMAC in oil pollution emergencies. Environment2001 Exhibition and Conference. Abu Dhabi, 3-7February 2001

EEA (1999). State and Pressures of the Marineand Coastal Mediterranean Environment.Environmental Assessment Series No. 5.Copenhagen, European Environment Agency

ESCWA (1991). Discussion paper on generalplanning, marine and coastal resources, andurbanization and human settlements. ArabMinisterial Conference on Environment andDevelopment, 10-12 September 1991, Cairo


Government of Lebanon (1997). Report on theRegional Environmental Assessment: Coastal Zoneof Lebanon. Beirut, ECODIT-IAURIF (Council forDevelopment and Reconstruction)

Grenon, M. and Batisse, M. (eds., 1989). Futuresfor the Mediterranean basin: the Blue Plan.Oxford, Oxford University Press

Price, A., and Robinson, J. (1993). The 1991 Gulfwar: coastal and marine environmentconsequences. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27, 380

Reynolds, R. (1993). Physical oceanography of theGulf, Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman:results from the Mt Mitchell expedition. MarinePollution Bulletin 27, 35-59

ROPME (1999). Regional Report of the State ofthe Marine Environment. Kuwait, RegionalOrganization for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment

ROPME (2000). Integrated Coastal Areasmanagement: guidelines for the ROPME region.ROPME/GC-10/001. Kuwait, Regional Organizationfor the Protection of the Marine Environment

UNEP (1999). Overview on Land-based Sourcesand Activities Affecting the Marine Environment inthe ROPME Sea Area. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No.168. The Hague andKuwait, UNEP GPA Coordination Office andRegional Organization for the Protection of theMarine Environment

UNEP MAP (1996). Etat du milieu marin etlittoral de la région méditerranéenne. No.101 dela Série des Rapports Techniques du PAM. Athens,UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan

UNEP and PERSGA (1997). Assessment of land-based sources and activities affecting the marineenvironment in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.166.The Hague, UNEP GPA Coordination Office

References: chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, West Asia

Coastal and marine areas: the Polar Regions

THE ARCTICThe Arctic marine environment covers approximately20 million km2 and includes the Arctic Ocean andseveral adjacent water bodies. Nearly half of the oceanfloor is continental shelf, the highest percentageamong all oceans. Movements of Arctic waters play asignificant role in the global ocean regime (AMAP1997), and in regulating the global climate (see figure).

The Arctic marine environment is rich in fishbiodiversity and abundance. The commercial fisheriesof the Barents and the Bering systems are among themost productive in the world (Kelleher, Bleakly andWells 1995), with the Bering Sea accounting for 2–5per cent of the world’s fisheries catches (CAFF 2001,Bernes 1996). Resident and migratory marinemammals include whales, seals and sea lions. Thepolar bear is also often classified as a marine mammalbecause it frequents sea ice in search of prey. Many ofthe indigenous communities of the Arctic havetraditionally depended on these marine resources fortheir livelihood. Other natural resources include vastoil and gas reserves along the continental shelves aswell as important mineral deposits. However, thereare growing concerns about the negative impacts ofdevelopment activities on the ecology of the Arcticespecially in ice-prone areas and critical habitats.

Resource degradationOverexploitation of fisheries is a major concern in theArctic. Since the 1950s, there have been spectacular

crashes of populations of commercially importantspecies such as the cod and Atlantic salmon off thecoasts of Canada and Greenland, and herring in theNorwegian and Icelandic waters. Despite strictconservation measures including no-catch zones,recovery has been slow and uncertain. Other speciessuch as the haddock stocks between northern Norwayand Svalbard have declined more steadily (Bernes1993, 1996, CAFF 2001).

Between the 16th and 20th centuries, massiveoverexploitation of several whale species occurred.Although some species have recovered to sustainablelevels, others have not and are still subject to strictdomestic or international regulations (for example, thebowhead whale through International WhalingCommission quotas). Illegal exploitation, including ofendangered species, and overly generous quotas are aconstant threat (CAFF 2001).

PollutionContaminants are another source of pressure on theArctic marine environment. The annual spring influxof meltwater carries contaminants which accumulatein the estuaries and deltas and also enter the mixedlayer where they are transported to the NorthAmerican coast. Airborne contaminants from industrialand agricultural activities at lower latitudes are alsodeposited in the ocean where they can accumulate insea ice. These contaminants are bioaccumulated in seamammals and in turn are taken up by Arctic peoples(AMAP 1997, Crane and Galasso 1999).


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Southeast Alaska(eastern stock)

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Stocks of Arctic fisheries (thousands of adults)

The global ocean circulation

Stocks of commercially important species such as the cod, Atlantic salmonand herring have declined in many of the Arctic fisheries; despite strictconservation measures, recovery has been slow and uncertain

Source: CAFF 2001

When warm,salty NorthAtlantic waterreaches the coldArctic, itbecomes denseras it cools, andtherefore sinks todeeper layers ofthe ocean. Thisprocess offorming deepwater is slow buttakes place overa huge area.Every winter,several millioncubic kilometresof water sink todeeper layers,which movewater slowlysouth along thebottom of theAtlantic Ocean

Source: AMAP 1997

Radioactive contamination is a further threat,sources including former nuclear weapons testing, theChernobyl accident, and ocean dumping of radioactivesolid wastes which was common until the LondonDumping Convention came into effect.

Climate changeMost of the major changes observed in the Arcticmarine environment are believed to be attributable toglobal warming. For example, the Arctic pack ice isshowing noticeable thinning from an average thicknessof 3.12 m in the 1960s to 1.8 m in the 1990s (CAFF2001). There has been an observed 2.8 percent/decade negative trend in the ice seasonal coverover the period November 1978 to December 1996.Changes in seasonal patterns of sea ice will affectocean currents and weather patterns. It is predictedthat globally the largest temperature increase willoccur in the Arctic (IPCC 2001).

Policy responsesArctic countries are taking steps to protect the marineenvironment. Since the late 1980s they haveincreasingly engaged in circumpolar cooperation onthe marine environment through fora such as theInternational Arctic Science Committee and theintergovernmental Arctic Council. Cooperativeinitiatives have included:

● adoption of a Regional Programme of Action forProtection of the Arctic Marine Environmentagainst Land-based Activities in 1998;

● establishment of a trilateral Russian/UnitedStates/Norway Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Regimethat aims to develop a safety and environmentalregime for Russian offshore oil and gas operations;

● production of circumpolar guidelines for regulationsof offshore oil and gas activities (PAME 1997);

● development of a circumpolar protected areasnetwork to include a marine component (CAFF2001); and

● sponsorship of a circumpolar marine workshopwith IUCN which developed a set ofrecommendations to improve the protection andmanagement of the Arctic marine environment(CAFF, IUCN and PAME 2000).

Given the current warming trend and interest inresource exploitation in the Arctic, it is expected that

there will be further exploitation of the Arctic marineenvironment and increased competition for strategicadvantages (Morison, Aagaard and Steele 2000).However, if the UNCLOS rules for defining limits toresources on the sea bed (International SeabedAuthority 2001) are applied to the Arctic sea, the widecontinental shelves will transfer almost all the Arcticsea bed to national control under the Arctic States (by2001 only the Russian Federation and Norway hadratified UNCLOS).

THE ANTARCTICThe Southern Ocean represents approximately 10 percent of the world’s oceans. Vast areas of the SouthernOcean are subject to seasonal sea ice which expandsfrom around 4 million km2 in the austral summer to 19million km2 in the winter (Allison 1997).

The extent of Antarctic sea ice has been estimatedusing Southern Ocean whaling records dating back to1931 (de la Mare 1997). Research suggests a declinein sea ice cover of almost 25 per cent early in thisperiod. However, satellite observations suggest thatthere has been little change in Antarctic sea icedistribution during the 1970s and 1980s (Chapman andWalsh 1993, Bjørgo, Johannessen and Miles 1997); onthe contrary, it seems that the Antarctic sea ice extentincreased slightly during these decades (Cavalieri andothers. 1997). One climate model suggests an ultimatereduction in Antarctic sea ice of about 25 per centwith a doubling of CO2, with these changes relativelyevenly distributed around the entire continent (IPCC1998).

Resource degradationThere is little doubt that current fisheries activitiesconstitute the single greatest environmental problemin the Southern Ocean. Antarctic fisheries began inthe late 1960s with exploitation of the marbled rockcod, a species decimated in the first two years of thefishery. Krill and mackerel ice fish have also formedthe basis of substantial fisheries. Fin fish catchesdeclined in the 1980s but the development oflonglining for toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides and D.mawsoni) has caused a resurgence of exploitation(Constable and others 1999). Southern Ocean fisheriesare regulated and managed by the Commission on theConservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR).


PollutionHydrocarbon contamination of the Southern Ocean isvery low and difficult to resolve against naturalbackground levels (Cripps and Priddle 1991). A fewspill incidents have been reported in Antarctica duringthe past decade (COMNAP 2000), the largest of whichoccurred when the Bahia Paraiso ran aground in theAntarctic Peninsula in 1989, leaking 600 000 litres offuel.

Small diesel spills have been shown to have minor,localized and short-term impacts on the Antarcticmarine and coastal environment (Green and others1992, Cripps and Shears 1997). However, a largehydrocarbon spill in the proximity of breedinggrounds, rookeries or important species habitats couldhave significant impacts. This is an issue of growingconcern as the level of vessel operations, includingtourist vessels, in Antarctic waters is expected toincrease.

Policy responsesThe Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties have urgedthose countries which have not yet become Parties to

the Protocol on Environmental Protection to theAntarctic Treaty, particularly those with Antarctictourist activities organized in their territory, to adhereto the environmental provisions of the Protocol assoon as possible. In 1999, the Antarctic Treaty Partiesgave priority to the development of safety andenvironmental guidelines for Antarctic shipping,pending the finalization of the IMO Code of Practicefor ships operating in the Polar Regions.

Following the decision by Australia and France notto sign the Antarctic Minerals Convention (CRAMRA)in 1989, the Antarctic Treaty Parties negotiated andthen agreed to the Protocol on EnvironmentalProtection to the Antarctic Treaty — the MadridProtocol — in 1991. The Protocol includes provisionsthat establish environmental principles that governthe conduct of all activities carried out in Antarctica,prohibit mining, establish a Committee forEnvironmental Protection (CEP) and requiredevelopment of contingency plans to respond toenvironmental emergencies. Annex IV of the Protocolincludes specific measures relating to the preventionof marine pollution.


Allison, I. (1997). Physical processes determiningthe Antarctic sea ice environment. In AustralianJournal of Physics 50, 4, 759-771

AMAP (1997). Arctic Pollution Issues: A State ofthe Arctic Environment Report. Arctic CouncilArctic Monitoring and Assessment Programmehttp://www.amap.no/assess/soaer0.htm#executivesummary [Geo-2-262]

Bernes, C. (1993). The Nordic Environment –Present State, Trends and Threats. Copenhagen,Nordic Council of Ministers

Bernes, C. (1996). The Nordic Arctic Environment– Unspoilt, Exploited, Polluted? Copenhagen,Nordic Council of Ministers

Bjørgo, E., Johannessen, O.M. and Miles, M.W.(1997). Analysis of merged SMMR-SSMI timeseries of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice parameters1978-1995. Geophysical Research Letters, 24, 4,413-416

CAFF (2001). Arctic Flora and Fauna: Status andConservation. Helsinki, Arctic Council Programmefor the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna

CAFF, IUCN and PAME (2000). CircumpolarMarine Workshop: Report and Recommendations.Cambridge and Gland, IUCN

Cavalieri, D.J., Gloersen, P., Parkinson, C.L.,Comiso, J.C. and Zwally, H.J. (1997). Observedhemispheric asymmetry in global sea ice changes.Science 287, 5340, 1104–06

Chapman, W.L. and Walsh, J.E. (1993). Recentvariations of sea ice and air-temperature in high-latitudes. Bulletin of the American MeteorologicalSociety, 74, 1, 33-47

COMNAP (2000). Revised Working Paper on anAssessment of Environmental Emergencies Arisingfrom Activities in Antarctica. Working paper(SATCM XII/WP 5) submitted to the third meetingof the Committee on Environmental Protection, TheHague, September 2000

Constable, A.J., de la Mare, W.K., Agnew, D.J.,Everson, I. and Miller, D. (1999). ManagingFisheries to Conserve the Antarctic MarineEcosystem. Montpellier, ICES/SCOR

Crane, K. and Galasso, J.L. (1999). ArcticEnvironmental Atlas. Washington DC, Office ofNaval Research, Naval Research Laboratory

Cripps, G.C. and Priddle, J. (1991). Hydrocarbonsin the Antarctic marine environment. AntarcticScience, 3, 3, 233-250

Cripps, G.C. and Shears, J. (1997). The fate in themarine environment of a minor diesel fuel spillfrom an Antarctic research station. EnvironmentalMonitoring and Assessment, 46, 3, 221-232

de la Mare, W.K. (1997). Abrupt mid-twentiethcentury decline in Antarctic sea-ice extent fromwhaling records. Nature, 389, 6646, 57-60

Green, G., Skerratt, J.H., Leeming, R. and Nichols,P.D. (1992). Hydrocarbon and coprostanol levels inseawater, sea-ice algae and sediments near DavisStation in Eastern Antarctica. Marine PollutionBulletin, 25, 9-12, 293-302

IPCC (1998). The Regional Impacts of ClimateChange: An Assessment of Vulnerability.Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

IPCC (2001) IPCC Third Assessment Report —Climate Change 2001. Working Group I: TheScientific Basis. Summary for Policy Makers.Geneva, World Meteorological Organization andUnited Nations Environment Programme, Geneva.

Kelleher, G., Bleakly, C. and Wells, S. (1995). AGlobal Representative System of Marine ProtectedAreas. Gland, IUCN World Commission onProtected Areas

Morison, J., Aagaard, K. and Steele, M. (2000)Recent environmental changes in the Arctic: areview. Arctic Journal of the Arctic Institute ofNorth America, 53, 4, December 2000

PAME (1997) Regional Programme of Action forthe Protection of the Arctic Marine Environmentfrom Land-Based Activities. Akureyri, Iceland,Arctic Council Programme for the Protection of theArctic Marine Environment

References: chapter 2, coastal and marine areas, the Polar Regions


OUR CHANGING ENVIRONMENT: Pine Glacier, Antarctica

The images above show the break-offof a large iceberg from the PineIsland Glacier in West Antarctica.This event occurred sometimebetween 4 and 12 November 2001,and provides powerful evidence of

rapid changes under way in this area of Antarctica.The iceberg measures about 42 x 17 km.

Pine Island Glacier is the largest discharger ofice in Antarctica and the continent’s fastest movingglacier. It is located in an area of the West Antarcticice sheet that is believed to be the most susceptibleto collapse, making the evolution of this glacier ofgreat interest to the scientific community.

In mid-2000, a large crack formed across theglacier, and then began to grow rapidly. Dataindicated the crack was growing some 15 metres aday. The images show that the last 10-km segmentthat was still attached to the ice shelf snapped off ina matter of days.

The first image in this set was captured in late2000, early in the development of the crack. Thesecond and third views were acquired in November2001, just before and just after the formation of thenew iceberg.

The newly hatched iceberg represents nearlyseven years of ice outflow from Pine Island Glacierreleased to the ocean in a single event. The climaticsignificance of this calving event is not yet clear.However, when combined with previousmeasurements from this instrument and data fromother instruments cataloguing the retreat of theglacier’s grounding line, its accelerating ice flow, andthe steady decrease in the sea ice cover in front ofthe glacier, it provides scientists with additionalevidence of rapid change in the region.

Text and imagery: NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL, MISR Team

16 September 2000 4 November 2001 12 November 2001

coastal and marine areas - gri equity · improved sewage treatment and reduction of the disposal of...

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