coastal capital - jamaica (summary)

8/4/2019 Coastal Capital - Jamaica (Summary)

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Coral reefs provide a diverse array of goods and services to the people and economy of Jamaica. ey help to build and protect Jamaicas beautiful whitesand beaches, which attract tourists from around the world.Reefs provide critical habitat for Jamaicas artisanal and in-dustrial sheries, and they also protect Jamaicas coastlineincluding coastal communities and tourist hotelsfrom thedestructive force of tropical storms.

Unfortunately, these bene ts have been frequently over-looked or underappreciated in coastal investment andpolicy decisions. As a result, over shing, poorly plannedcoastal development, sedimentation, and pollution havecombined to threaten Jamaicas reefs. ese local threats arecompounded by the growing global threats from climatechange, including warming seas and ocean acidi cation.

is suite of threats, coupled with Jamaicas high reliance oncoral reefs, highlights the urgent need for improved coastaland sheries management to reduce local pressures on reefsand preserve the bene ts coral reefs provide to Jamaica.

Economic valuationa tool which assigns a monetary valueto the goods and services provided by ecosystemsgives pol-icy makers important information to help set priorities andimprove decision-making regarding natural resources. issummary rst quanti es the relationship between coral reef degradation, beach erosion, and potential losses of tourismrevenue in Jamaica. We then assess the economic contribu-tion of coral reef-associated sheries. Finally, we examine therole of coral reefs in reducing coastal ooding during storms.

Tourism, sheries, and shoreline protection are just threeof the many culturally and economically important servicesprovided by reef ecosystems in Jamaica. Even without acomplete economic valuation of other ecosystem services,the countrys coral reefs are clearly valuable. Investing inthe maintenance and enhancement of these reef-relatedbene tsand preventing future lossesis thus an impor-tant investment in the health and sustainability of Jamaicaseconomy. For the full technical reports, including the valua-tion methodology, please visit www.wri.org/coastal-capital .

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The travel and tourism sectorplays a critical role in the Ja-maican economy. Projectionssuggest that this sector will accountfor nearly 24 percent of Jamaicasgross domestic product in 2011. eindustry is also projected to directly support 82,000 jobs (7 percent of totalemployment), while the wider tour-ism economy (including supportingindustries such as food, infrastruc-ture, and communications) supports262,000 jobs (23 percent of totalemployment). In 2009, Jamaica drew1.8 million overnight visitors and anadditional 900,000 cruise tourists.

Jamaicas white coralline beachesrepresent a primary draw for inter-national tourists, and thus provide acritically important contribution toJamaicas economy. We estimate thatbetween 70 and 80 percent of tour-ists care strongly about the presenceof beaches in their visits to Jamaica,as the vast majority of tourist days are spent in one of the three major beach destinations in the countryNegril,Montego Bay, or Ocho Rios.

However, all three tourist destinations are a ected by beacherosion, which threatens to reduce visitation to Jamaica andthus critical tourism revenue. e degradation of Jamaicascoral reefs, which supply sand to beaches and also dissipatewave energy, is an important factor contributing to beacherosion. Jamaicas coral reefs have su ered signi cant mor-tality in recent decades as a result of many human pressures,including over shing, pollution, and coastal development(Map 1). ese threats are compounded by coral bleachingand disease, hurricanes, and a decline in Diadema sea ur-chin populations ( Diadema are herbivores that help main-tain the balance between coral and algae on reefs).

To assess the role of coral reefs in preventing beach ero-sion, we estimated how the further degradation of coralreefs would lead to increased wave heights and thus in-creased beach erosion. 1 Drawing on available data, we useda base (current) erosion rate of 0.3 m/yr at the three sites.We found that if further reef degradation occurs, erosionrates could increase signi cantly above the current rates at

1. The modeled scenario involved the loss of friction from live, stand-ing coral cover, followed by the slower erosion of coral substrate (6mm over 10 years).

all three sites, by more than 50 percent for Montego Bay,70 percent for Ocho Rios, and more than 100 percent forNegril over a 10-year period (Figure 1).

We then determined the loss in tourists enjoyment associ-ated with a decline in beach quality due to increased erosionat each site. We estimate that at the end of 10 years, currenterosion rates at the beaches in Negril, Montego Bay, andOcho Rios will cause an annual loss in value of US$19 mil-

Protecting Beaches and Tourism Dollars

Map 1 Jamaicas reefs are at risk from overshing, coastal development,watershed-based pollution, and marine-based pollution

Source: Burke, L., K. Reytar, M. Spalding, and A. Perry. 2011. Reefs at Risk Revisited. WRI.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0Negril Montego Bay Ocho Rios

Increased erosion due to reef degradationLoss using current rate of beach erosion

Figure 1 Comparison of predicted beach loss over a10-year period

m e t e r s


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lion.2 If reefs degrade further, we estimate that the addi-tional beach erosion will increase this annual loss to US$33million that year (Table 1). is represents an additionalUS$13.5 million per yeara 70 percent increase in the an-nual loss of value from the base scenario if the reef degradesfurther. is loss of value is projected to have knock-onimpacts by reducing tourist visitation to Jamaica by 9,000

18,000 visitors annually, costing an estimated US$9 millionto US$19 million per year to the Jamaican tourism industry and US$11 million to US$23 million per year to the entireJamaican economy (Figure 2).

e economic risks to the Jamaican tourism industry arelarge. Beach erosion due to reef degradation will reduce visitor demand, and the costs from beach engineering solu-tions (such as sand replenishment) will likely increase in thefuture. In order to promote reef protection, it is crucial thatkey stakeholders take full account of the economic valueof reef-based ecosystem services. is requires that theeconomic bene ts of coral reefs be publicized and leveragedto build national political will for greater reef conserva-tion. Environmental policy should also be strengthened toaddress the drivers of coral reef degradation (over shing,poorly planned coastal development and pollution). Fur-thermore, new opportunities for long-term conservationfundingsuch as new markets, payments for ecosystemservices, and charging polluters for damagesshould beexplored.

This summary is based on:Kushner, B., P. Edwards, L. Burke, and E. Cooper. 2011. Coastal Capital: Jamaica. Coral Reefs, Beach Erosion and Impacts toTourism in Jamaica. Working Paper. Washington, DC: WorldResources Institute.

2. This calculation is based on Edwards, P. 2009.Measuring the Recreational Value of Changes in Coral Reef Ecosystem Quality in Jamaica: The Application of Two Stated Preference Methods. Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Studiesthesis, University of Delaware. Edwards looked at touristswillingness to pay for environmental quality to determine theloss in value per meter loss of beach width.

Table 1 Annual loss in consumer satisfaction (US$) at beaches due to coral reef degradation (after 10 years of erosion)

LocationLoss in value due to current rates

of beach erosionLoss pertourist

Loss in value if the beach erodesfaster due to reef degradation

Loss pertourist

Diff erence due to furtherreef degradation

Negril $5.5 million $15 $10.9 million $30 $5.3 million

Montego Bay $7.1 million $15 $10.7 million $23 $3.6 million

Ocho Rios $6.5 million $15 $11.1 million $26 $4.6 million

Total: $19.2 million $32.7 million $13.5 millionNote: The loss in consumer satisfaction was calculated using a per meter value of $5.11 per visitor (based on Edwards 2009), coupled with the average num-ber of overnight visitors a year for each site: Negril (360,927), Montego Bay (466,075), and Ocho Rios (425,026) (Jamaica Tourist Board 2009).

30

25

20

15

10

5

0Total welfare

loss due to reef degradation

Economic impactson tourism sector

Impacts onJamaicaneconomy

High estimateLow estimate

Figure 2 Losses from beach erosion due to furtherreef degradation(annual losses during the tenth year of erosion)

U S $ m

i l l i o n s


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Jamaicas Reef-Associated Fisheries: Diminished, Yet Vital

Coral reef-related sheriesde ned as sheries thatinvolve the capture of sh that depend directly oncoral reefs, mangroves, or reef-protected habitatsuch as seagrasses for at least a portion of their life cycleare socially and economically important in Jamaica. Reef-related sheries support between 15,00020,000 active

shermen, most of whom are artisanal. Fisheries providecoastal communities an important safety net of foodand employment in times of need. Jamaicas sheries alsoprovide a wide range of employmentincluding wholesaleand retail vendors, processors, gear makers, boat builders,and ice suppliersand contribute directly and indirectly tothe livelihoods of more than 100,000 people island-wide, ornearly 5 percent of the population.

Unfortunately, Jamaicas nearshore waters are among themost over shed in the Caribbean. Many artisanal sher-men have few alternative sources of income, creating a highlevel of dependence on Jamaicas nearshore sheries. Use of

sh pots or traps with small mesh sizes, mechanization andsubsidies to the shing industry, along with a rapid increasein spear- shing and compressor diving have all exacerbatedthe overexploitation of Jamaicas reef sheries.

For a long time, the Pedro Banklocated 80 km o shorehad remained a healthier shery thanks to lower pressurefrom land-based pollution and shermen alike. With Ja-

maicas mainland shing grounds degraded, shing pressureis increasing on the Pedro Bank, and illegal poaching (bothforeign and domestic) and inadequate enforcement threatenthe ecological sustainability of this o shore shery as well.Likewise, the conch sheryJamaicas most strictly regu-lated sheryis threatened by poaching and underreport-ing of catches. A further threat to the countrys sheries hasbeen the recent explosion in the population of the lion shan invasive carnivorous speciesin Jamaican waters.

Despite these pressures, Jamaicas sheries continue to provide valuable jobs and revenue for the country. From 2001to 2005, gross revenue from the sale of reef-related sh av-eraged US$33.1 million per year, including US$24.2 millionper year from domestic sales and US$8.9 million per yearfrom exports (Tables 2 and 3). We also estimate the value of the subsistence catch (consumed domestically and not soldon the market) to average US$1.2 million per year dur-ing that time period. Combined, these sh sales contributeUS$34.3 million per year, a value equivalent to 0.3 percentof Jamaicas annual GDP.

While o cial data show that overall national trends in shcatch volume and value have been relatively stable in recentyears, studies also show that the quality and average size of

sh landed are declining, and that shermen are having totravel further out to sea to maintain their level of catch. In

Table 2 Value of sh catches in Jamaica in US$ millions, 199620051996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Finsh 46.6 20.8 15.6 23.5 17.1 16.3 26.2 17.2 32.9 26.6

Conch 10.5 13.4 12.5 10.0 6.9 6.9 3.7 4.0 4.7

Lobster 7.2 2.4 1.5 3.0 4.7 8.5 3.2 2.7 1.2 2.7

Shrimp 1.4 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Total Value 65.8 37.2 29.7 36.5 22.1 32.0 36.6 23.9 38.5 34.3

Source: STATIN 2007 in ECOST 2007. (Adjusted to US$ 2011.)

Table 3 Average annual revenues from reef-related sheries, 20012005

Avg. annualCatch (MT) % solddomestically Gross revenues (localsales, US$ millions) %exported Gross revenues(exports, US$ millions) Avg. sale price(US$)/kg Total gross revenues(US$ millions)

Finsh 6,383 90% $21.4 10% $2.4 $3.73 $23.8

Conch 717 5% $0.3 95% $5.0 $7.35 $5.3

Lobster 269 60% $2.2 40% $1.5 $13.71 $3.7

Shrimp 198 100% $0.3 0% $1.55 $0.3

Total Value 7,566 NA $24.2 NA $8.9 NA $33.1

Source: ECOST 2007, STATIN 2007 in ECOST 2007 and Murray 2008.3 (Adjusted to US$ 2011.)

3. Murray, A. 2008. Jamaica National Report. Belize City: Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism Secretariat; ECOST Project. 2007.Case Study 2: Jamaica ;STATIN. 2007. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Online at:http://statinja.gov.jm .
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fact, due in large part to decreasing Jamaican sh stocks,the country now has to import from abroad most of the sheaten on the island. ese trends indicate that the currentlevel of shing e ort is not ecologically sustainable and that,should this level of e ort continue, yields will decline in thefuturealong with the economic value of Jamaicas reef-related sheries.

In recent decades, the Jamaican economy has incurred highlosses from the decline of its reef sheries. A 2003 study found that over shing at landing sites on Jamaicas northcoast led to a 13 percent decline in total sh catch volumeand a 17.3 percent decline in sh catch value between 1968and 2001. Scaling this up to the national level suggests thatJamaicas failure to e ectively manage its sheries cost thecountry US$1.6 billion in lost revenues over the periodfrom 1975 to 2000, not counting the Pedro Bank shery. 4

Recent positive steps taken by the Jamaican governmentincluding the dra ing of a National Fisheries Policy

beginning in 2003, the establishment of the NationalFisheries Advisory Board in 2008, the creation of newsh sanctuaries in 2009 and 2010, and initiatives to

control the lion sh invasioncould all eventually help to restore sh stocks in Jamaica and thereby mitigate a key threat to the countrys coral reefs.Passage of a new sheries law based on thedra National Fisheries Policywhich aims toachieve sustainable sheries yieldsis thereforeessential. Adequate funding for implementationand enforcement of sheries regulationsaswell as the political will for e ective law en-

forcementwill be critical if these initiatives areto curb the decline of Jamaicas sheries.

Jamaicas sheries are in a troubling state of decline, butthey are not beyond repair. Further investment in maintain-ing coastal habitat, protecting coral reefs, and managing

sheries sustainably to restore sh stocks is greatly needed.If Jamaicas sheries were restored, they could make an evengreater contribution toward the countrys economy and tothe well-being of its people.

This summary is based on:Waite, R., E. Cooper, N. Zenny, and L. Burke. 2011. Coastal Capi-tal: Jamaica. The Economic Value of Jamaicas Coral Reef-Related Fisheries. Working Paper. Washington, DC: World ResourcesInstitute and The Nature Conservancy.

Past economic valuations of coastal and marine resources in Jamaica

WRI reviewed 14 previous economic valuation studies of Jamaicas coastal resources. These studies used a varietyof techniques to assess the values of tourism, sheries,shoreline protection, and other coastal ecosystem services. Three of the studies were national in scope; the remain-ing local-level studies focused on the three main touristdestinations of Montego Bay, Negril, and Ocho Rios, as wellas Discovery Bay and Portland Bight.

The studies provide a rationale for increased investment inthe protection of Jamaicas coastal ecosystems, and manyalso explore sustainable ways to nance coastal and marineconservation. However, these studies have had limited suc-cess in inuencing Jamaicas policy makers. In some cases, thestudies were not made publicly available; in others, resultswere not e ff ectively communicated to decision makers. A fulllist of the studies is available at www.wri.org/coastal-capital .

4. Sary, Z., J. Munro, and J. Woodley. 2003. Status Report on a Jamaican Reef Fishery: Current Value and the Costsof Non-management. Gulf and Caribbean FisheriesInstitute (GCFI).
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Buff ering Waves, Protecting Resources

Coral reefs play an important role in protecting theshoreline by reducing wave energy, during bothroutine conditions and storms. is is apparentwhere waves break on the edge of a coral reef and muchcalmer water is found inside the reef. Coral reefs can reducewave energy by more than 75 percent. In this way, coralreefs lessen coastal erosion and reduce inundation duringstorms. e e ectiveness of a coral reef in reducing waveenergy varies with the type of the reef, continuity and size of the reef, distance from shore, depth below the surface, andcomplexity (roughness) of the live coral structure on thereef, as well as the wave height. Fringing, patch, and barrierreefs protect an estimated 60 percent of Jamaicas shoreline. 5

To assess the importance of coral reefs in reducing waveenergy and inundation in Jamaica, WRI worked closely withpartners in Jamaica to select three representative sections of coastline and apply a hydrodynamic model for three pilotsites (Negril, Discovery Bay, and the Kingston / Port RoyalCays area). At the three pilot locations, we estimated in-shore wave heights, water level at the shoreline, and coastalinundation both for current coral reef conditions and with aseverely eroded coral reef for two storm scenarios (a 1-yearand a 25-year storm event).

As the reef degrades, larger inshore waves will result in in-creased erosion and higher water levels at the shore. e dif-ference in water level at the shoreline between the currentreef and severely degraded reef scenarios were highest

at Discovery Bay, with a di erence of 0.8 m for the one-year return period storm and 0.6 m for the 25-year storm.Smaller di erences were seen in Negril and Kingston/PortRoyal (Table 4).

In order to extrapolate from these three pilot sites to thenational level, we classi ed each segment of the Jamaicanshoreline according to ve coastal characteristics to identify the pilot site it most closely matches. e coastal segmentsidenti ed as having high levels of shoreline protection fromreefssimilar to the Discovery Bay siteinclude CoralGardens, Falmouth, Discovery Bay, St. Anns Bay, Morant

Point, Savanna-La-Mar, and Southern Negril (shown indark blue in Map 2).

Using this classi cation scheme, along with our modelingresults, allows us to estimate areasand identify valuablebuildings and infrastructurethat are likely to be inun-dated if the reef erodes severely. Map 3 provides an exampleof the mapping of change in inundated areas for the 25-year

storm event for the central north coast near Discovery Bay.Areas in yellow have an elevation under 1.4 m and are ex-pected to be inundated despite the wave attenuation by thecurrent reef. Areas in red are between 1.4 and 2.0 m eleva-tion and are projected to be inundated (during the 25-yearevent) if the reef becomes severely degraded. e additionalinundated area includes over 100 structures, including twohotels, a church, and an air eld.

Classifying the relative protection a orded by reefs hasimplications for strategies to rehabilitate and preserve reef structure. is is particularly crucial on the north coast,where fringing reef systems a ord a high degree of protec-tion and where a great deal of exposure exists in the formof major hotels, mining and manufacturing infrastructure,along with burgeoning population centers such as MontegoBay, Falmouth, and Ocho Rios. Jamaicas south coastdominated by shelf marginal and patch reefis generally a orded the least amount of protection from its reefs. eseresults support the case for targeted conservation of reef structures along parts of the coastline where they o er thegreatest protectionto people, infrastructure, and valuableassets.

This summary is based on:Maxam, A., P. Lyew-Ayee, and K. McIntyre. 2011. A Classicationof the Protection given by Reef Systems in Jamaica - Utilizing GISand Oceanographic Methods of Analysis. Working Paper. King-ston, Jamaica: Mona Geoinformatics Institute (MGI).

Table 4 Modeled change in water level at shorelinefor current and degraded reef condition

Study Site

Storm

Scenario

Water level at shoreline (in meters)Current

reef

Degraded

reef Diff erence

Negril1-year 0.8 1.3 0.5

25-year 1.3 1.7 0.4

Discovery Bay1-year 0.6 1.4 0.8

25-year 1.4 2.0 0.6

Port Royal/Kingston

1-year 1.0 1.4 0.4

25-year 2.7 2.9 0.2

Source: All wave height and shoreline water level results are from: Houser,C. 2010.2-D Analysis of Wave Attenuation and Run-Up for Select Sites in Jamaica . Unpublished analysis summary for WRI. Texas A&M University.Note: A 1-year storm event is the largest storm that occurs during a typical

year. A 25-year storm event is the largest storm likely to occur during a25-year period.

5. Shoreline within 500 m of a coral reef was classied as protected.(From Burke et al. 2011.)


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Map 2 Relative shoreline protection from coral reefs in Jamaica

Source: MGI 2011. (The shoreline characterization is based on coral reef type, slope and orientation, distance from shore, and the complexity of the reef shape.)

Map 3 Modeled coastal inundation for a 25-year storm event near Discovery Bay, Jamaica

Source: MGI 2011.


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Actions Needed

Coastal Capital: Jamaica shows that coral reefs provide realbene ts to Jamaicas economy. Many critically importantand economically valuable ecosystem services that reefsprovide could be lostincluding reef-associated tourism,shoreline protection, and habitat for sheriesresulting inlosses of jobs, revenue, and increased erosion and property damage during storms.

Jamaicas reefs are already threatened by over shing andpollution, and are increasingly threatened by global chang-esespecially warming seas. Jamaicas reefs can surviveand recover, but this will require e ective managementand protection. It is in the long-term economic interest of Jamaica to:

Promote sustainable shing:!" Improve sheries management. Enact legislation and regu-

lations aimed at sustainable yields, and invest in improvedmonitoring, enforcement, research and data collection.

!" Strengthen marine protected areas . Develop long-termfunding for integrated management e orts, including theexpansion of protected area networks and sh sanctuaries.

!" Provide for alternative livelihoods for artisanal shermen.is will help to ease the intense pressure on Jamaicas reef

sheries.

Manage coastal development wisely:!" Improve wastewater management . Enhanced management

of sewage, as well as runo from construction would im-prove coastal water quality, bene ting both coral reefs and

sh.

!" Protect mangroves. Mangroves serve as important shhabitats, and also act as bu ers, reducing agricultural run-o that reaches coral reefs. e government should seek to protect remaining mangroves from clearance for beachand coastal development.

!" Improve land-use planning and zoning. Reassessment of the governments current setback regulations would es-tablish a more adequate bu er zone between beaches andcoastal infrastructure, protecting both coastal ecosystemsand beachside hotels.

Reduce watershed-based sedimentation andpollution:!" Promote improved agricultural techniques . Improved soil

conservation (using terracing) and reduced use of chemi-cals would reduce ows of sediment and pollutants tocoastal waters.

!" Retain and restore vegetation . Reforestationusing localspecieswould help reduce erosion, especially on steepslopes and in riparian areas.

History demonstrates that conserving ecosystems beginswith widespread awareness of the bene ts they provideand the political will to act. It will therefore be importantto publicize and disseminate the key ndings of Coastal Capital: Jamaica to the Jamaican government, businesscommunity, citizens, conservation groups, and development

agencies. Increased political will, new business initiativesand grassroots advocacy will all be necessary to overcomethe barriers to conserving Jamaicas coral reefs, ultimately allowing reefs to continue to provide bene ts to Jamaicaseconomyand peoplefor generations to come.

WRI and Economic Valuation of Coastal Resources The World Resources Institute (WRI) launched the Coastal Capital proj-ect in the Caribbean in 2005. The project works with local partnersto produce national and subnational assessments of the economiccontribution of coral reefs and mangroves. WRI aims to increase localcapacity to perform ecosystem valuations, to raise public aware-ness of the economic and social benets of marine resources, and toprovide estimates of the monetary value that can be used to informplanning and decision making.

For more informationPlease visit www.wri.org/coastal-capital or contact:

Lauretta Burke ( [email protected] )Benjamin Kushner ( [email protected] )

Photo Credits

Beach erosion: Emily Cooper

Fishermen: Edward RobinsonAll others: Krishna Desai

Coastal Capital Project Partners This project was made possible by funding provided by the JohnD. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. The project was imple-mented by WRI in collaboration with the University of the West Indies(UWI) Marine Geology Unit (MGU), the Mona Geoinfomatics Institute(MGI), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and Texas A&M University. Manyother partners in Jamaica also provided data, reviewed the analyticalapproach and results, and guided outreach. These include: CaribbeanRegional Fisheries Mechanism; CARIBSAVE Partnership; FisheriesDivision, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries; International Union forthe Conservation of Nature (IUCN); University of the West Indies; andKrishna Desai and Peter Espeut (independent).

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coastal capital - jamaica (summary)

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