coded language - ncic.pdf

8/14/2019 Coded Language - NCIC.pdf

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National Cohesion and Integration Commission

The Use of Coded Language and Stereotypes among KenyanEthnic Communities

Brief 1

BackgroundNational Cohesion and Integration Commission conducted a nationwide studyon the Use of Coded language and Stereotypes by various communities inKenya and how they are perceived by the users and target groups. This study

was prompted by the realization that individuals sometimes use stereotypesand coded language to invoke feelings of hate towards particular Kenyan ethniccommunities which, in turn, raises the possibility of recurrence of ethnicconflicts.A stereotype is defined in this study as an entrenched generalised belief

amongst a people about the typical behaviours, attributes, attitudes, abilities

and weaknesses of other people such as members of other ethnic communities.Coded language is defined as the use of language in a manner intended toconceal the normal meanings of expressions (words, phrases, sentences etc.).Such stereotypes and coded language are usually known to the users (in thiscase the ethnic communities that use them) while the target communities maynot be aware about them or their meanings

Objectives Identify the common ethnic stereotypes and coded language used by

Kenyan communities. Establish how the stereotypes and coded language are perceived by the

user communities. Establish how the stereotypes and coded language are perceived by the

target communities. Establish the common motivations for the use of the stereotypes and

coded language.

Justification for the Study


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The PEV of 2007/2008 in Kenya was partly blamed on incitements some based on stereotypes & use of coded language.

There is continued use of ST & CL to invoke hate and tension amongKenyan ethnic communities.

There is lack of full awareness about ST & CL among Kenyans and howthey are perceived by users and target communities.

Social Cohesion and integration among Kenyan communities cannot besuccessfully achieved without awareness about ST & CL.

There is not much empirical data/knowledge on the use of (upon whichpolicy and practice may be anchored)

Significance Timely as part of the process of reducing ethnic polarisation cause by the

use of stereotypes and coded language especially in the electioneering

year. Provide an empirical basis upon which relevant agencies may intervene

and anchor policy. In order to facilitate and promote good relations, harmony and peaceful

coexistence between persons of different ethnic and racial backgroundsin Kenya, the Commission needs to identify how Kenyan ethniccommunities perceive one another and how these perceptions areexpressed.

The overall purpose of such a study (especially as conceived by the NCIC)is to raise awareness about these stereotypes and coded language andinterrogate their implications on national cohesion and integration inKenya.

Stimulate discourse on CL and ST.Methodology

Research designQualitative survey Research site and sampling: purposive sampling - 39 counties spread all

over Kenya, an average of 30 participants in every county = 1233

participantsData generation:

Interviews, FGDs, Document analysis, open ended questionnaires,informal conversations (ethnographic interviews)Data analysed qualitatively

Data transcribed, coded (open, axial and selective) County used as basic unit of analysis Presented under various research questions stereotypes, coded

language, perceptions by users, and perceptions by target community.


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Brief 2Key Findings from the Study

i. Findings confirm that stereotypes and coded language have a more orless symbiotic relationship. Stereotypes especially negative ones about

other ethnic communities - are normally expressed in coded languagewhile some coded expressions reflect the stereotypes held by innercommunities about outer community.

ii. In all Kenyan ethnic communities, there are entrenched beliefs amongstthe people about the behaviour, attributes, attitudes, abilities andweaknesses of members of other ethnic communities.

iii. The study revealed that every linguistic community in Kenya hasstereotypes / use coded expressions about other Kenyan Communities.

Some of these are specific to particular communities while others aregeneral referring to all other Kenyan communities. Similarly,practically all ethnic communities studied have stereotypes and/or codedexpressions used to refer to them by other communities in Kenya.

iv. Almost every Kenyan ethnic community has bothpositiveand negativestereotypes about them (by other communities) and about other Kenyancommunities. The positive stereotypes reflect such beliefs as courage,generosity, business acumen, loyalty to deals, success in educationand recognition of some unique characteristics about the target

communities.

v. The negative stereotypes, on the other hand show contempt, insultandsometimes outright hateabout the target communities.

vi. Most of the stereotypes and even coded terms are historical and deep-rooted and have been passed on from generation to generation to theextent that it was not possible to identify exactly when the communitystarted holding/using them e.g. Emoit loa akwara, used by the Turkana

in reference to the Pokot, which means enemy with a spear.

vii. However, there are more recent stereotypes and coded expressionsassociated with significant historical events, especially of a politicalnature. For example some stereotypes and coded words are associatedwith the 2007/2008 post-election violence in Kenya or politicalrelationships and/or affiliations between different communities. For


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example, one Kenyan community is referred to by a few others as kabilachoma due to their perceived roles (burning of houses) during the post-

election violence.

viii.

The study reveals that several stereotypes and coded expressions reflectthe cultures of the target communities. For example, the communitiesthat practice male circumcision and those that do not, attractstereotypes and coded terms that reflect such identities. Manycommunities identify the Luo with expressions that identify them as non-circumcising.

ix. It is also common to find stereotypes and coded terms associated withthe economic activities of the communities referred to such as; farming,fishing, pastoralism or business people. For example, most communitiesstudied identify people from the Kikuyu community as being business

men and women while some identify the Maasai as pastoralists.

x. Still some stereotypes capture peaceful and close social relationshipsbetween communities such as, extent of intermarriage and /or whether

the referent communities produce good wives or not. A relevantexample is the reference to the Luhya by the Luo as kayuochwa,translated literally as our in-laws, which is interpreted to mean thosefrom whom the user community have married and/or those who havemarried from the user community.

xi. The opposite of the kind of stereotype and coded expressions highlightedabove are those stereotypes and coded expressions that are intended to

refer to communities that are regarded as enemies in one way or theother or those communities whose members should never be trusted. Forexample, these kinds of stereotypes and coded expressions are held/usedby the Turkana and Pokot with regard to one another and a number ofother communities.

xii. The study also shows that the stereotypes and coded expressions arepredominantly about neighbouring communities. However, some of themrefer to communities that live quite far apart. For example, the Kambahave stereotypes about the Luhya, while the Kisii have stereotypes andcoded expressions about the Meru.

xiii. Furthermore, the study reveals that in the urban areas where there aredifferent Kenyan communities living and/or working together the


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stereotypes held and coded expressions used reflect those of thecounties of origin. For example, Kenyans who speakLuo, Kisii, Kamba

or Bukusu languages generally hold stereotypes and used codedexpressions similar to those held in the counties predominantly

inhabited by these people. This is similar in counties that are

cosmopolitan in nature (where many different ethnic communities havesettled) such as Trans Nzoia, Uasin Gishu and Nakuru.

xiv. The study further reveals that in many cases, the stereotypes held bymany Kenyan communities and the coded expressions used are known

to or understood by many people among the target communities. This iscommon among neighbouring ethnic communities, in urban areas, in

cosmopolitan counties or amongst people who have lived extensivelyamongst other ethnic communities.

xv. The study revealed that the stereotypes in particular have beenperpetuated by the local media (especially Radio and Television) throughthe many entertainment programmes where presenters or actors imitatethe speeches or act out the perceived attitudes, behaviours and othercharacteristics associated with particular ethnic communities in Kenya.

xvi. Generally, it has emerged from this study that stereotypes and codedexpressions per se (even when they are negative) would not necessarilycause hate or cause people from particular ethnic communities to beviolent against the other. Indeed, it emerged that ethnic hate and/orviolence is largely associated with malicious individuals who would want

to emphasise the negative stereotypes and possibly use codedexpressions to incite particular ethnic communities against others for

very selfish reasons, usually couched as community concerns orinterests. Indeed it featured from the data that the use of stereotypesand coded expressions in this manner can be traced to specificcontexts associated with crime, competition for resources orperhaps more commonly political contests.

xvii. Some of the stereotypes have been passed on from generation togenerationand have become an integral part of the identity of the target

Kenyan communities in the view of the inner communities.

xviii. It also emerged that sometimes language is coded in such a manner thateven members of the same linguistic community who do not sharespecific codes would not understand the underlying meanings and

intentions.


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xix. It was confirmed that the use of coded language and stereotypes werewidespread during the 2007 electioneering period in Kenya and partly

contributing to heightening of inter-ethnic tensions which culminated ininter-ethnic violence.

xx. Some of the perceptions towards these stereotypes and coded languagehave the potential to advance hate, which could possibly precipitateviolence in Kenya. Politicians tend to use stereotypes and coded languageduring political campaigns to rally support of members of innercommunities (and sometimes other communities) against target

communities.

xxi. The implication here is that either very few Kenyans truly interact freelyenough to enable them correct the stereotypes held or the possibilitythat these interactions are primarily on the surface - and have very

minimal effects. Perhaps a more analytical way of putting it is that yes,Kenyans interact physically and socially in the urban areas andcosmopolitan counties but, in terms of general deep emotionalengagement, they still retreat or feel safer to their ethnic boundaries. Theimport of this is that, it should not be assumed that Kenyans in thecosmopolitan counties and/or urban areas are free from the stereotypes

they would also benefit from the educational interventions.


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Brief 3Positive stereotypes

i. From the findings stated above, it is clear that, generally, the positivestereotypes and coded expressions promote harmoniousrelationships/co-existence between the users and the target

communities, for example the Luos and the Luhyas who regard eachother as in-laws. Some of them invoke a sense of pride e.g. when the

Kikuyus are recognised as astute business people and the Kambas arecredited as great craftsmen or the Kalenjins are praised as giftedathletes. There are many more positive stereotypes and codedexpressions as reported in the findings and generally the study showsthat they elicit equally positive reactions. This is because the positive

stereotypes reflect such beliefs as courage, generosity, businessacumen, loyalty to deals, support of friendly communities successin education and recognition of some unique characteristics aboutthe target communities.

Phrase User Community Targetcommunity

Meaning

Wanabiashara CoastalCommunities

Kikuyu Businessmen

Warriahs Somalis and Non-Somalis

Somalis Somali Male

Ghubr Somalis and Non-Somalis

A Somali Girl A Daughter

Walalo Non- Somalis Somalis A slang term for

Warriah as describedabove

Aviasala Kamba Kikuyu Entrepreneurs

Tiga kuviuka tamuruthia

Embu Anyone whowalks in a hurry

Doing things fast/in ahurry like acircumciser

Wararu Meru andTharaka

Ladies fromSomali andBorana

communities

Ladies

Mbuna Kuura Meru and

Tharaka

Any person who

goes across riverkuuru

Across river kuuru

IIoobua Maasai Luo This is a referencename for the Luocommunity becausethey are known toremove their teeth as a

way of cultural rite of


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passage

Kap kulusia Kalenjin Luhyas From the mountain

Kap mama Kalenjin Abagusii In- Laws

Chitab Kipsongik Kalenjin Abagusii People of Millet

Chitab Ndisiot Kalenjin Abagusii People of the Banana

Pik ap Ngokyet Kalenjin Luhyas People of chickenChitab Ainet Kalenjin Luos People of the lake

Chitab Kongoek Kalenjin Luhyas People of Termites

Mogonik Kalenjin Kisii People of the banana

Toot Kalenjin Non-Kalenjin Visitor

Mumera Kikuyu Kikuyu Gentleman

Kamau Luhya Kikuyu Name from kikuyutribe

Bababere Luhya Kalenjin Milk lover

Vechai Luhya Maragoli Love tea

Panandi Luhya Kalenjin The Nandi community

Va mabwoni Luhya Kikuyu The people of potato

Vu khumatsi Luhya Luos Water

Chebo araraita Kalenjin Luo Of the lake side

Ngetik Kalenjin Luo Boys

Rubwa Kikuyu Kipsigis Highlands

Kamama Kalenjins Kikuyu Uncle

Basuta Muka Bukusu Kalenjins The ones that carrythe milk guard

Baruka Njoya Bukusu Other Luhyacommunities that

neighbour theBukusu

The ones that crossedRiver Nzoia

Bamasaba Bukusu Abagishu ofUganda andKenya

The people from theshores of Mt. Elgon

Bekhunyanja Bukusu Luos From the lakeside

Basatumka Bukusu Kalenjins Kalenjins are cattlekeepers and keep milkin guards. Belittling

when they sayKhasutamka

Onjelo Luo Kalenjin An athleteJarabuon Luo Kikuyu From the land of sweet

potatoes

Kaoche/koyuoro Luo Luhya In-laws

Abanyikwe Kuria Kalenjin Athlete

Mwa Mijikenda Kamba Brother

Murume Meru Gentleman


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Akavi Kamba Maasai Wood artists

Ero Kamba Maasai Maasai greetings

Mumbele Kamba Mbeere Mbeere tribe

Uju ni muruguru Tharaka, Nithiand Meru

Those living nearthe mountain

This one is from theuphill

Pik ap Nyanja Kalenjin Luos People from the lakeKap Chelit Kalenjin Kamba Sharpening of teeth

Lemeek Kalenjin, (Keiyo) Luhya/Luo Tribe Luhya/Luo People

Cheptukenyot Kalenjin (Keiyo-Marakwet)

Tugen A Tugen lady

Kokoiyot Kalenjin (Keiyo-Marakwet)

Kikuyu A Kikuyu

Sambur Turkana Samburu Samburu tribe

Basuta Muka Bukusu Kalenjin Guard carriers

Basomeki Bukusu Nandi Nomads

Bikaap beko Bukusu Luo People from the lake

Bandu bengaaki Bukusu Sabaot People from the hills

Jagot Luo Kalenjins People who live in themountains


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Brief 4

The negative stereotypes,i. The negative stereotypes show contempt, insultand sometimes outright

hate about the target communities. Most of them stereotypes and

even coded terms are historical and deep-rooted in the sense thatthey have been passed on from generation to generation to the extentthat it was not possible to identify exactly when the community

started holding/using them.ii. In relevance to the stereotypes and coded expressions that could be

considered negative,four possible scenarios are identifiable from thefindings:1. Identificationof a community with a bad practice,2. expression of contempt due to a trait considered immoral or

childish,3. Instilling of a sense of suspicion and /or mistrust about the

target community4. Expression of deepseated hate of the target community.

Negative and emotive stereotypes

Although the study revealed that the use of coded language andstereotypes can stir ethnic animosity depends a lot on the context, therespondents identified some stereotypes and coded language seemed toevoke emotive and negative feelings among the target communities andshould be discouraged all the times. Data relevant to this issue wasgenerated from elders, opinion leaders, professionals, businessmen and

even politicians. The general finding is that, granted, some of thestereotypes and coded expressions amounted to insult; show of contempt

and sometimes even hate. The participants acknowledged that naturallysome of these would cause annoyance, invoke ill feelings, discouragecombined ventures such as in business or entrench mistrust andcould discourage other forms of social interactions. Some of theseinclude:

1.ThiefWhile the word thief a normal term in day today life, it emerged from the

study that many communities have terms that connote negative emotivefeelings where referring to the members of the Kikuyu community. This termtends to stir ethnic animosity anytime it is used to refer to members of the

Kikuyu community.


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Phrase/Word inLocal Language

User Community TargetCommunity

Meaning.

Tugo Somali Kikuyu These are

words/phasesused to refer tothe members ofthe Kikuyucommunity and

are always usedin a negativeintensions.

Sokomokabul Somali Kikuyu Thief

Imeet Maasai Kikuyu Thief

Chorik Kalenjin Kikuyu They are always

seen as thosewho love moneyand alwaysready to steal oruse any meansto obtain it.

Jokuoye Luo Kikuyu Thieves,

Osuuji Maasai Kikuyu Someone whocannot betrusted


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2.UncircumcisedThis term has been used repeatedly to refer to the members of the Luo ethniccommunity who culturally did not use circumcision to initiate the youth intoadulthood. The term is therefore used negatively by various communities to

portray all the members of the Luo community as children, premature, notfully developed etc. It is also used to refer to some other communities such asthe Turkana.



Meaning.

Mwiji Embu Luo An uncircumcisedman often

demeaning

Jathi Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman

Kabisi Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman

Serikal Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman

Kavirondo Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman

Lememurata Samburu Turkana Used to refer to theTurkana since

some they areuncircumcised.

Kihii Kikuyu Luo Uncircumcisedman

Ngetik Kalenjin Luo Uncircumcisedman

Abachabu/abaisia

/abagima

Kisii Luo Uncircumcised

man


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3. Animals, Smelly, Foolish, Dogs, Bushmen, MonkeyThe following table shows various stereotypes on coded language used byvarious communities to refer to others which the target community identify asoffensive and cause tension.



Meaning.

Macengi Akamba Mbeere Dangerous smallanimal that destroys

crops.

Nyamu cia ruguru Kikuyu People from

upcountry

Animals from

upcountryAjayee Kamba Maasai Smelly

Longuulkitkit Maasai Kamba Smelly armpits

Longuu Samburu Turkana Smelly and unclean

people.

Uriti ja mutiganiawa wa kunati

Tharaka People fromTigania

Foolish like Tiganiafrom Kunati

Rubwa Kikuyu Kalenjin People who eat dogs

Pik ap kongoek Kalenjin Luhya People who eattermites

Soqi Samburu Pokot The inhuman,

beasts and cattlerustlers

Emoit Turkana Pokot A cattle thief

Bosyanju Luhya Sabaot Arsonist.

Avalivavandu/Avaseeve.

Luhya Kikuyu/Embu/Meru

The Kikuyu will eatpeople the way a

hyena does. Thismeans that they cancon someone until

the person isfinancially or

materially drained.


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Brief 5Main Causes/MotivationsMost participants attributed the use of stereotypes and coded expressions to;

i. Ignoranceabout the referent communities. Some stereotypes and codedexpressions seem to be associated also with lack of reasonable

awareness about other ethnic communities in terms of culturalorientations, economic activities and religious practices, among otherissues. Apparently, it has emerged that there is the presumption thatthe cultures of the inner communities and other socio economicissues raised above, are more superior to that of the outercommunities. There are also stereotypes and coded expressions thatseem to capture the sheer suspicion of one ethnic community by

another due to lack of adequate information or interaction.

ii. Lack of reasonably long interactions,

iii.Unfair generalisation of isolated incidents.

iv.Most of these participants attributed the use of stereotypes and codedexpressions to propagate hate and to incite people to violent conflict

or conflict of various forms by a section of ill-motivatedpoliticians orother influential members of the communities with personal motivessuch as to win support against political opponents, instil fear in somesections (e.g. to stop them from supporting someone) or to rallysupport when threatened with certain consequences e.g. by being

sacked from positions held in the government.


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Brief 6

Recommendations The study illustrates that there are plenty of good perceptions about

Kenyan ethnic communities other than bad ones. The task for allKenyans is to promote equal opportunities for Kenyans so as to create

the chance to bring out the different strengths for recognition by others.Perhaps in this way, the seemingly entrenched notion (through) the

stereotypes that some ethnic communities are more endowed, gifted,favoured, suited or preferable in particular professions, occupations,activities or situations would be demystified. Thus, highlight the positive

stereotypes that unite us than focus on the negative ones that divide us.

There is need to strongly discourage the use of negative emotivestereotypes and coded language that have the intrinsic potential of

causing tension and conflict between different ethnic groups.

There is need to embark on massive education of Kenyan ethniccommunities about others. This kind of education would target thestereotypes and coded expressions that particularly seem to stem fromthe lack of appreciation of different social-cultural- economic orientationsof Kenyan ethnic communities. Such educational endeavours couldtarget particularly young people, preferably those of the primary school

going age who face the immediate danger of imbibing the stereotypesand coded expressions before they are able to fully comprehend their

meanings.

The education could build on the findings from various groups that theyare aware of these stereotypes but, in normal circumstances, would notbother about the stereotypes or stop them from relating with members ofother ethnic communities as they had done before. For example,practically all the Kikuyu participants interviewed said they wouldcontinue running their businesses even amongst some communities that

they know stereotypically brand some Kikuyu as thieves; many Kisii andKamba participants declared they would continue to interact freely evenwith people from other ethnic communities that they were aware branded

them as witches; The Luo participants reiterated that they would notnormally feel inferior even when working amongst ethnic communitiesthat branded them as bigchildren, because they come from a communitythat traditionally does not circumcise males, and the list goes on,

practically with regard to all Kenyan communities in the study.

The civic education alongside the more formalised educationalprogrammes would probably enhance the achievement. It should be


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