Cognition Recognition – What’s the brain got to do with it anyway? Thinking Tools and Strategies in the High School Classrooms

Monika von Oppell

Clayfield College, Brisbane, Australia mvonoppell@primusonline.com.au

Charles Rheault

Anglican Church Grammar School, Brisbane, Australia. cfrheault@primusonline.com.au

“The environment of learning and thinking we create within

our schools will transport our society to the realm of the future”

Abstract This paper describes the theoretical foundation and basis of a built-in Whole School Thinking Skills Curriculum. The findings and experiences of five years of a formal implementation of this program will be workshopped in two sessions during the Conference on Thinking: Cognition Recognition – knowledge of the brain and how this new understanding may be used to support learning in the classroom, and, The implementation of Thinking Tools and strategies in the Classroom. The explicit teaching and modelling of the de Bono Thinking Tools coupled with other thinking strategies and techniques is not a bolt-on production of an existing program but a developed in-line programme drawing on current and ongoing educational research with special reference to the organ of learning, the brain. The practitioners and authors of this paper have consciously introduced teaching and learning practices to parallel how the brain learns and reacts to situations it both creates and encounters. All aspects of the curriculum design are an organised and deliberate use of knowledge to enhance and assist learning. Thus, a number of theorists, detailed in Figure 1, have been drawn upon in order to integrate their findings into the bigger learning and education picture.

It may be observed that within the education framework of curriculum development the use of ‘integration of subject disciplines’, particularly within a junior or primary school context, is common. However, insofar as teaching practice in particular is concerned, there seems a paucity of knowledge and integration of brain and educational research with respect to pedagogy and education practices in all areas of education. It has become popular recently for schools to adopt a particular philosophy or theoretical perspective, thus creating de Bono schools, Dimensions of learning schools, Marzano schools, or Habits of Mind schools. However, it is our belief that education should consciously encompass and incorporate a far bigger picture and holistic approach utilizing not only research and findings specifically conducted for education but also incorporating what is successful for learning outside of the classroom in business e.g. advertising and marketing findings.

1

Integrated Theorists

TaxonomiesBloom/Anderson Cognitive Krathwohl Affective Simpson Psychomotor

Brain scanning was not available during the 1800’s or earlier and so an exact understanding and comparison of the wiring and firing of the brain was unknown. However, current research postulates that there is evolutionary change evident in the functioning and wiring of today’s children’s brains (Nagel 2007). Adolescents’ brains of today are firing and wired differently from those of previous generations. This understanding, both cognitively and emotionally needs to be factored into the delivery of education programs in adapting to, and to suit the needs of a knowledge-creating generation. The global economy and functioning is a rapidly changing factor to consider, and while business has had to adapt in order to survive, it may be questioned as to what adaptations are being made within most schools and educational facilities to keep abreast with the development and explosion of knowledge which they themselves are creating. Therefore it becomes inherently the added responsibility of schools in preparation of today’s youth, who will slot into and function in tomorrow’s world.

Would it be considered acceptable to have an eighteenth century expert teach to today’s youth? Most would agree that it would probably not be pertinent nor appropriate to contemplate this notion. However, as the speed of change and progress in the world accelerates, and the half life of knowledge becomes shorter, the evolutionary change of the brain away from the rules-based, passive Industrial-era education requirements to the kinaesthetic, visual, rapidly changing world of today, it may be worth reflecting on whether the educational practices today are addressing yesterday’s basis of knowledge. The brains of the youth of today are firing differently and quicker than from students of the past, as the stimuli of technology and pace of emotional persuasion impose themselves on today’s adolescents. This has to be factored into their educational needs and programs. Many education mission statements today cite the need to develop responsible, independent learners. However, it may be worth reflecting how this may be achieved using the passive, rules-based,

Fogarty Learning and the brain Transfer of learning

Gardner Multiple Intelligences

Sylwester Levine

Perkins, Jay - Transfer of learning

Marzano Dimensions of Learning

Costa Habits of Mind

De Bono- Tools + Thinking Language

Quantum Physics

Jensen Edwards

Swartz Graphic Organisers Buzan Mind mapping

String Theory

M

Figure 1. Integrated Theorists.

2

obedient-centred and anti-risk methodologies employed in many schools today reminiscent of the Industrial-era education models.

The twelve brain-mind learning principles developed by Caine and Caine (1997) serve as a solid basis and guideline to the functioning and learning of the brain. (Figure 2)

The twelve-brain/mind learning principles: (as defined by Caine & Caine 1997) 1. The brain is a complex adaptive system. 2. The brain is a social brain.

3. The search for meaning is innate. 4. The search for meaning occurs through patterning. 5. Emotions are critical to patterning. 6. Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes.

7. Learning involves both focused and peripheral attention. 8. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.

9. We have at least two ways of organizing memory. 10. Learning is developmental. 11. Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. 12. Every brain is uniquely organized.

Figure 2: The twelve brain-mind principles. Caine & Caine: (1997)

Dispositional Change: Emotions govern all learning Research indicates that one of the most critical areas governing ALL learning is that of the emotions.

DISPOSITIONS HABITS OF MIND ATTITUDES

Content

Personal

Development

Subject Matter

Content

Sport

Subject Matter

Content

Academic

Subject Matter

Content Boarding Subject Matter

Content Business Subject Matter

Content Learning Support Subject

Content

ESL Subject matter

Skills Strategies Graphic Organisers

F.I.P O.P.V A.P.C P.M.I CAF A.G.O C & S

Thinking Skills D

ecision-Making

Planning Skills Choosing

Evaluating Problem

-Solving

Sequencing Com

parison Forecasting

Six Thinking 'H

ats' Lateral T

hinking

Green Hat Black Hat Yellow Red Hat White Hat Blue

Content Business Subject Matter

Content Voc. Ed Subject Matter

Content

Pastoral Care

Subject Matter

The Limbic system, otherwise known as the emotional centre of the brain, governs all learning. Adults usually process emotions using their frontal lobes, thereby controlling untoward and ‘at-risk’ behaviour and reactions. In a learning situation, an adult may rationalise the importance of attending even though the topic may be familiar or even boring. However, adolescents have not developed the ability to use their frontal lobes to process their

3

emotions and reactions; thus in such a situation, the adolescent simply ‘tunes-out’. The adolescents’ frontal lobes are immature, sometimes almost non-existent; consequently their behaviour is driven by the immediate reactions of the limbic system. It is thus imperative that adolescents can see ‘the bigger picture’ of the material and how it is of value to them, in order for them to attend and be engaged in a meaningful manner.

David Perkins, from Harvard University, has done much work with respect to the learner’s disposition to learning. Disposition is not simply the learner’s attitude but also refers to their inclination to use the learned material and their sensitivity as to where the learned material may be used. Dispositions are thus critical to learning and to the transfer of learned material. Dispositions therefore form the foundation for all learning and should underpin any educational program, as shown in figure 3. Dispositions cannot be ‘learned’. However, they can be modelled and therefore alter behavioural states to favour learning through a culture created to allow for a safe environment for students to ‘experiment’ with their learning style and strengths, as well as their desires. Eric Jensen’s research into how behavioural states may be altered by the teacher to assist in this process shows how teachers may change the learner’s dispositional state. One cannot change a person’s attitude but a teacher can positively affect and alter the existing state of a student, through various techniques, to open them up to learning.

Emotional understanding is critical for the engagement of today’s learners; thus simple ‘hooks’ such as the colour of handouts, graphic material, layout and presentation of material, design and placement of visual material as well as the enjoyment the learner derives from the activity all play important functions in the engagement of the learners. Wall space in classrooms (high school too, not only junior schools) should be used more for learning, not for decoration or semi motivational techniques but as tools to trigger and engage the learners.

Students’ work and ‘work in progress’ should be visible, not just pretty posters and pictures as decoration, but walls that talk and teach! These must be changed with great regularity. The learners of today inhabit an ever changing visible and audible world. They are able to physically and emotionally tune out and change channels when something no longer interests them. This is the reality of their world and thus as teachers, if we are to have a greater effect, we need to understand this and use this knowledge to our and the students’ advantage.

Figure 4. Dispositional Poster – Make Time for Thinking

The Thinking Tools and strategies described in this paper have been found to enhance the dispositional aspects of the individual. Thus, subtly working in conjunction with the ability and cognitive level of the students, this additional aspect contributes positively in affecting his/her self-esteem and

confidence levels with regards to the metacognition of their own learning and their outlook

4

on learning. Dispositional posters, (Figure 4), regularly changed, remind students of habits they should engage in, and tools they can use to assist them.

The dispositional level of each student affects not only the students’ temperament or attitude to learning but also their inclination to use the learned material, as well as their sensitivity and intuitive nature, as to where the information can or may be exploited to suit their individual learning requirements. Figure 5 illustrates the relationship between dispositions and emotions and how the dispositional aspects influence the individual’s ability to transfer the information (after Perkins & Tishman). It is the individual’s disposition that would seem to play a large role in his/her ability to create and recreate useable knowledge, as it is strongly and closely coupled with the brain’s emotional centre.

Figure 5. Dispositions and learning

It is interesting to note that it is in the area of dispositional and perceptional change that the marketing world successfully operates (Figure 6). Products today are created and developed which are not really needed, yet the need and thus the desire of these are created within the market and so the consumers’ perceptions of what they thought they did not need, is changed! It is therefore with this in mind that the educator’s main role lies if there is to be transfer and understanding of content. The use of Thinking Tools and strategies assists in changing the learners’ perception by creating greater autonomy over their learning. Having a sense of control over one’s learning and knowledge thereby making it a pleasurable experience for the teacher and the student, serves as a catalyst for further learning. Emotions are thus central to focusing, engaging and keeping students, particularly adolescents, on task in the learning process.

5

Brain Maturation: the adolescent, immature brain:

E x p e r ie n c e in flu e n ce s o u r p e r c e p tio n w h ic h c o n tr o ls

o u r e x p e c ta tio n s . E x p e c ta t io n s s h a p e

o u r a tt itu d e w h ic h th e n d e te r m in e s o u r b e h a v io u r

It is now understood that the adolescent brain undergoes a severe pruning of neurons at the onset of puberty; thus the adolescent brain is an immature one, in particularly and especially the frontal lobe area. CAT scans show the lack of hardware in these regions early during this developmental stage. While the young student may physically resemble an adult, their frontal lobes are only beginning to mature and develop, thus their reasoning; decision-making and problem-solving abilities are exceedingly immature and emotionally driven. However, the need for success drives

many to resort to memory and replications of facts and data retention in order to perform well in standardised tests. In focussing a student on a P.M.I (evaluation) or perhaps a C&S (prediction) empowers the student to broaden and deepen his/her thinking, enabling him/her to be provided with the necessary tools to do better thinking. This has proven to be so much more valuable in teaching than telling students to ‘think or work harder’ or to find more information! Learning is essentially about knowledge creation. “We used tools in the past to leverage our muscles; we need tools today to leverage our mind.” (Bill Gates).

Figure 6. Experience and Perception governs attitude and behaviour

Figure 7. Comparison of Frontal and Rear functions of brain. (after Fogarty)

During the junior phase of learning (prep to about year 6), students are, in the words of Fogarty, ‘learning to be human!‘ (Figure 7) They are learning many basic and necessary skills such as how to read, spell, feed themselves, tie their shoelaces, memorise information, ride a bicycle, greet other people, socialise, etc. Once mastered, these tasks are stored as default patterns of thinking and used with little thought, when necessary. During these years, the parent or adult does the complex thinking and makes the important decisions for the child. The transition to the senior phase of learning relies on and uses many of these basic skills. However, the mode of assessment, responsibilities and expectations change and so too, the

way students react, learn and process information. Oftentimes students are not involved in the explanation of this change-process which needs to take place within their own learning. This short-sightedness within the current learning process often fails to explain to students and their parents, their heavy reliance upon known default learning patterns which have thus far served them well! Up until this time, students have used memorisation techniques successfully and for many, this is the only learning technique they know. While students may be successfully ‘walked through’ the requirements of a task, students who have a repertoire of

6

Thinking and Learning Skills and strategies are able to function more independently and broadly in their discovery and creation of knowledge. This alone fills the student with confidence, thus encouraging the emotional aspect of growth with the individual and consequently allows for the exponential confidence escalation to take hold. Equipping students with an understanding of their brain development and functioning, identification of default patterns of thinking and study strategies, provides them with an understanding of the need and desire for change and new learning techniques, and as a result, reinforces the knowledge that they have control over their own learning processes and that this is separate from their innate intelligence. All too often students who have done well in the primary phases and whose grades have dropped substantially in the senior phase will lose heart and self-esteem explaining this phenomenon as being linked to their ‘lack of intelligence’ and being referred to as being challenged or not as clever as their peers. This is also all too often encountered in second and third year university students who have never had to develop more suitable study and learning methodologies but relied upon good memory, who now suddenly begin to encounter problems mainly due to the volume of material that needs to be digested. They falter and rather than revise and consider a change of process immediately jump to the conclusion that they are not clever or smart enough for a particular course of study! Sax (2005 in Nagel) states that “academic stress has been shown to be a common pathway to substance abuse among high school and tertiary students”.

Working on the premise that a goal within education is to create responsible, life-long, independent learners, it would seem then a duty of the educator to equip their students with a healthy repertoire of Thinking Tools and strategies that would enable them to control and have control over their own thinking, learning, problem-solving and decision-making processes. Hattie (2005) has shown through extensive research how this teaching is one of the top factors in improving student’s results.

It is interesting to note that there are many institutions that limit the teaching of Thinking Skills and strategies, particularly the de Bono tools, within the primary school phase of learning only. However, there are very few senior school institutions where these tools are included as part of the learning programme strategy. The general premise seems to be that having been taught these in the primary phase of learning, there is no need for repetition during the senior phases of learning and as such, students will transfer these thinking skills into the new environment. It is our experience that there are few students who have been exposed to these tools in their junior school years who have shown an initiative on their own to use them and continue to do so during their senior school years without modelling and reinforcing taking place. A number of factors are probably responsible:

• The immature brain lacks the reasoning component to transfer these tools • Students simply forget these tools are available • “It’s not cool” • Thinking tools and strategies are seen as a ‘primary school thing’ • A lack of teacher modelling • Lack of teacher understanding of types of thinking and therefore types of

tools • It is also the teacher/school’s thrust to engage students in a type of

education learning related to a heavy emphasis in a memory-based content driven assessment structure. This type of focus within schools requires that a majority of pedagogy time be dedicated for the most part to teaching which is void of reflection and creative problem solving as well as authentic assessment.

7

The teaching of complex Thinking Skills and thus frontal lobe inclusion within the process of learning often becomes the victim of subject-specific content-driven assessment and evaluation procedures and therefore it is not surprising that students do not bring these tools with them into the senior phases of learning. To overcome this apparent problem within a content-driven environment, students need to be exposed to a high degree of the modelling of thinking tools and a learning language that surrounds them. In particular, schools need to place the teaching of the tools and practice of transference of tools into a variety of settings, reinforce the use of dispositions and allow for the building of the foundation of complex thinking. The global educational tendency in most middle and high schools in separating learning into a plethora of disciplines not only violates the way the brain works (moving from whole to parts) but hinders the interdisciplinary transfer of learning. Constant reminding such as modelling, as well as knowing and constantly using the tools, assists learners in ‘picking up’ the appropriate strategies that will assist them in creating a broad, balanced and multi-perspective view of thinking!

Planning, a frontal lobe activity, is difficult for many adults but particularly so for the growing brains of adolescents. Experience shows that few students out of choice commit their plans to paper. Simply having the planning process explained does not encourage its use. Our experience demonstrates that using the thinking tools (A.G.O (Aims, Goals and Objectives) together with appropriately generated graphic organisers, assists learners in downloading their thinking, thus making their learning and thinking process visible to themselves and their teachers. This assists the learners to create new habits of thinking and time management, thus moving beyond the realm of repeating old learning habits.

Figure 8, a Semester planner, is a most effective tool in creating a visual time frame. A general comment from students when using this framework is: “wow! I didn’t realise I only had a few days that I could work on it. It seemed so far away!”

8

As with all tools at this stage of learning, students need to be encouraged and reminded over and over again to use such tools. Doing it once with a class will not create a permanent usage!

Figure 8. Semester Planner (time management)

Figure 9 is an example of a Planner used for the preparation of a written assessment task. Students must write their understanding of the question in their own words, not a simple paraphrasing of that set in the task sheet, which is how most students begin. This immediately reveals to the teacher the student’s understanding of what is required. Space is provided for the jotting down of points to better understand their argument (body of the text), as well as to see the appropriateness of their introduction and of their conclusion. Students are also invited to consider the grade they are working towards, by placing this at the top of the form. This assists with their disposition, self-esteem and belief and focuses them on their work. On the reverse side of the sheet, students are reminded to reflect on the criteria or conditions for the task e.g. word length, format etc. Students often miss many of these finer details in a superficial reading of the task. A CAF (Consider All Factors) wheel is provided where students are encouraged to note all the factors they know that will contribute or detract value from their task should they not attend to these prior to submission e.g. spelling, grammar, vocabulary, staying on task, format, editing, font size etc. Although students know that these elements of criteria exist as part of the exercise, they too often rely on teachers to remind and tell them what to do through a teacher generated checklist.

Figure 9. Essay Planner

The CAF used in this format encourages students to do their own thinking and planning, being proactive and not rely on the teacher to tell them what to do. This transition from teacher led to student driven helps create independent learners. The various stages of thinking, planning, understanding and compilation of the task are made evident using such a plan. The student becomes a more active participant in the learning and review process, rather than a passive listener and receiver of instructions! Being able to see where more detail, facts, data, supportive material etc. is required, enables the student to move forward with greater confidence than trying to assimilate a number of suggestions or instructions and replicating these in a pleasing format. It is through this process of thinking, planning, reflection and

9

discussion that dendrites are created and grown in the brain. This is learning! This is knowledge creation and understanding. Replication, cut-and-paste, copying and trying to repeat what may receive good marks is using old default patterns of thinking and in the words of Nagel “tests and worksheets don’t grow dendrites”.

From the perspective of the affective learning domain, the students in contributing and allowing for the development of their own involvement within the learning sequence will have demonstrated they have matured to the phase of willingly accepting the responsibility for their own learning. These changes in disposition within themselves, lead to discovery, responsibility and learning, and hold them in a critical growth pattern along the pathway towards independence in their own learning. The use again of Thinking Tools in assisting students acquire the skills and confidence in reaching this juncture starts early in the primary phase of their learning and is developed further in the adolescent years of education. These are modelled further within the middle schooling years and actualise themselves as part of the learning self as developing seniors prior to their progression into the post secondary phase of their education.

The sequence planner, Figure 10, is a tool that assists the learner in becoming more confident in understanding logic and sequence in learning and planning. This tool assists both the student and teacher in a variety of sequence-related tasks.

The strength of the organisers and the thinking tools lies in their simplicity and versatility. Graphic organisers need to be located in all learning areas and be openly displayed in all teaching locations providing ready access for both teacher and/or students.

Figure 10. Sequence planner

10

Colour and Format: The use of colour is subtly reinforced with all graphic organisers. The choice of the colours coincides with de Bono’s Six Thinking HATS; i.e;

Blue = planning, organising, summarising White = information Yellow = plus thinking, value, benefits, CAF Green = creative thinking, ideas, CAF.

Students soon associate the different types of thinking with the colours being used thereby using this additional sense in assisting their thinking recall and planning process, as well as allowing for transference of cognitive functions to take place. Not only does the use of language reflect the type of thinking needed e.g. “some Blue Hat thinking is needed” but also by this simple engagement of colour, it reinforces the importance of a multi-stimuli approach which occurs within in the learning process. Students are often overheard stating ‘use the blue planning sheets’. Blue is a colour which becomes synonymous with planning.

The format for the CAF organiser (Consider All Factors) is important (see figure 11). This is usually printed on either yellow or green paper. Unlike a blank sheet of white paper

Figure 11. CAF organiser

that may be somewhat disconcerting for many unconfident students, this coloured organiser encourages students to contribute their ideas. Again, this organiser may be used in a variety of ways. Figure 11 has been used during a year 11 geography lesson where students were asked to consider all the economic factors they could think of influencing a particular region. Using this thinking tool and organiser engages the learners in the thinking process rather than reinforcing a passive, reception of facts. Such an organiser also invites the foreign language students and challenged learners to download their thinking. In the past it was observed that such learners tended to take a backseat, waiting for information to be given to them or the questions answered by the ‘bright students’.

11

The use of movement is an important factor with respect to using this graphic organiser. Most kinaesthetic learners benefit from being able to move the object with which they are engaging within the learning process. The necessity of having to physically move the paper around exposes the thinker each time to a new perspective and horizon and assists with the development of a unique pattern of thought. This act of movement coupled with the design and colour of the paper assists in stimulating a fuller range of senses and allowing our thinking the opportunity of creating a pattern of distinctive interconnected thoughts built around a central theme or idea. Many learners today are tactile and increasingly kinaesthetic. Memory is not only stored in the brain, but research shows, memory receptors are found in different part of the body too. Witness many people today trying to recall a telephone number, to no avail, but, provided with a phone, the same people unhesitatingly dial the number! The hand recalls the kinaesthetic memory of the number pattern. Furthermore, being kinaesthetically involved in the learning, assists in retaining the learners’ attention and focus, particularly girls, who, because of the greater degree of message transfer from each brain hemisphere, are more likely to become distracted and unfocused. The objective of the thinking is written in the cloud in the centre of the CAF organiser, to assist in focus and re-focus during this thinking stage.

This multi-modal approach engages the learner more comprehensively within their own strength of learning style. What this also does is to reinforce within each pattern a joined coloration of design, colour and patterning each of which reinforces the other in developing a rewarding learning experience. This contributes towards the foundation for future desire on the part of the student to become engaged with the process of self-reward as they witness how they have contributed to their own desired learning and outcome.

A further advantage of this organiser is that it is a precursor to the mind-mapping process and assists learners to move away from the learnt acceptability of having to write neatly, in linear fashion on white paper! Girls, in particular seem to be prone to losing focus of the thinking task in order to keep the work neat and tidy and so are distracted by erasers and white-out. Sometimes, to alleviate this and to keep students on task, concepts may be typed onto cards, which may then be manipulated into categories and parts without affecting the neatness and tidiness of the paper. Figure 12 shows senior students exploring categories, meaning and definitions using this strategy. Figure 12. Use of movement in learning and

understanding. Identification of Types of Thinking:

12

Much has been written about Higher and Lower Order Thinking during the emergence of awareness for the teaching of Thinking. These terms were often coupled with Boom-Anderson’s Hierarchical Taxonomy, thus Synthesis and Evaluation (numbers 6 and 7) were deemed to be higher order levels while knowledge and comprehension were lower order thinking types. The problem with this identification is that there is no clear understanding or definition of synthesis as a type of thinking process. How does one synthesize? What does it involve? Tools have been developed, created and used by man because they fulfil a function e.g. one writes with a pen, carves with a knife, irons with an iron etc. While many people have been exposed to the various de Bono Thinking Tools, few have been taught explicitly what type of thinking purpose these serve. Consequently these tools are often forgotten chiefly because of the insecurity of the user as to how and where their use is most beneficial. Educational papers and literature further confuse the issue by adding more complex terms such as complex-thinking, critical-thinking, decision-making, and problem solving into an already crowded jargon-infested industry. None of these concepts are single entity thinking processes but consist of a number of different types of thinking in order to arrive at a decision, much like cooking – a number of different tools and steps are involved in the process. Decision-making therefore, may involve Considering All the Factors (CAF) involved, identifying the stakeholders, clarifying the viewpoint of the stakeholders, (O.P.V) prioritising aspects (FIP), considering alternatives and possibilities (A.P.C), clarifying the purpose or problem and evaluating a number of options (P.M.I) before either making a decision or suspending judgement due to more information being needed! When educators and students begin to understand the process and steps involved in their own thinking, they are more able to confidently identify the thinking tools necessary for the task and then to use the appropriate Tools and supporting organisers available to them. Figure 13 illustrates a range of thinking types identified by Jamie Mackenzie. Superimposed over this range are the de Bono tools thereby showing their link with types of thinking and therefore, where they would be most suitable in assisting in the thinking processes.

Monika von Oppell Monika von Oppell -- Clayfield College, Australia Clayfield College, Australia Charles Rheault, ACGS, Brisbane, AustraliaCharles Rheault, ACGS, Brisbane, Australia

Figure 13. Types of Thinking and Thinking Tools

13

Knowing what type of thinking is required and understanding the processes involved assists learners and knowledge-creators to best use the tools at their disposal. It is often stated that teachers teach thinking whether they use thinking tools or not. This is not debated as anyone posing questions is indeed provoking the thinking of the other. However, given a repertoire of thinking tools and strategies accelerates, empowers and exacerbates the thinking processes creating greater independence, efficiency and esteem. Figure 14 shows how the thinking tools have been superimposed over the Inquiry Process to assist students in their thinking and allowing them to be the fore-runners of their own destiny. Thinking is for tomorrow, Living is for today, Remembering was for yesterday!

14

15

Figure 14. Inquiry Process with Thinking Tools.

THE INQUIRY PROCESS Mechanistic Elements Cognitive

BRIEF Creates direction

IDENTIFICATION OF NEEDS

Needs of project to be done

Why make .... Who needs ..... General needs ....

Thinking

Pupils’ needs, i.e. what they are going to get out of it.

INVESTIGATION Collect information on topic Where to look? What does it mean? Is it valuable information? Where else to find information?

IDEAS BRAINSTORMING

1 ...... 2 ...... 3 ..... 4 ..... 5 ..... 6 ..... 7 .....

Creative thinking Learn process of brainstorming: = non-judgmental = freeing brain to let go of prejudices = allow creativity = freedom

Do designs fit specifications?

Which is most suitable? Cost implications?

Further investigation? More brainstorming?

Critical thinking. Linking knowledge. Evaluate needs and specifications. Seeing new patterns for iand evaluate.

deas

Communicate reasons for an idea. Think of why it is suitable or unsuitable.

Practical Evaluation

DEVELOPINGDESIGNING

MODELLING Materials to use Processes to use Methods to use

PLANNING Neat drawings Technical proposals Implementation plan

Thinking critically Application of knowledge from other areas, e.g.maths (scale) Reality

REALISATION

TESTING

Inquiry Process (after von Oppell, 1997) © M von Oppell

Building Doing Making Constructing

Does it work? How well does it work?

How does it satisfy the brief? How can it be improved? How did I tackle the problem?

Planning sequences Overcoming obstacles in construction / implementation

Evaluation of modeling process

Evaluate humanistic elements of the process. Problem areas? Most difficult areas, e.g. conflict, application of knowledge, se

EVALUATION Reality Testing

quencing, communications, ....

Figure 14. Inquiry Process with Thinking Tools.

References Bellanca J. and Fogarty R. (1990) Catch Them Thinking, A handbook of classroom strategies. Hawker

Brownlow Education, Australia

Burnett R. (2005) Collaborative planning in the Secondary School. From Actively Managing LD Conferences.

Caine R., Caine G. (1991) in The Middle Years. The essential teaching repertoire. ed. Howard. D.L & Fogarty R. 2004. Hawker Brownlow Education. Australia

Caine G., Caine R. N., Crowell S. (1994) MINDSHIFTS. A brain based process for restructuring schools and renewing education. Hawker Brownlow Education. Australia

Costa Al ed. (1991) Developing Minds: Programs for Teaching Thinking. Volume 2. U.S.A.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Costa Al. ed. (1991) Developing Minds: Programs for Teaching Thinking. Volume 2. U.S.A.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Deak J. (2002) Girls will be Girls. Hyperion, New York.

De Bono E. (2000) Personal communication

De Bono E. (1986) CoRT Thinking Teachers Notes. Pergamon press. Oxford

De Bono E. (1970) Lateral Thinking. New York: Wartlock

De Bono E. (1995) Parallel thinking. London: Penguin.

Edcwards J., and Martin B. (2006/7) Making a difference: Productive mindset for teachers. Workshop proceedings. Brisbane

Fisher R. (1990) Teaching Children to Think. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.

Fogarty R.., McTIGHE J. (1993) Educating Teachers for higher order thinking: The three-story intellect. Theory into Practice, 32(3) Summer 1993:161-169

Halpern D.F. (1989) Thought and Knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. Second Ed. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Jensen E. (1996) Brain-Based Learning. California, Turning Point Publishing

Jensen E. (1998) Teaching with the Brain in Mind. ASCD publications. USA.

Jensen E. (2002) Brain compatible strategies. Focus Education, Australia.

Langrehr J. (1988) Teaching students to think. Bloomington: National Educational Service

Langrehr J. (2002) Metacognition, the Missing Link in our classrooms. Education Horizons, Vol 7, No 2, 2002 Eleventh year.

Marzano R. J., Brandt R. S., Hughes C. S., Jones B. F., Presseuseb B. Z., Rankins S. C. et al. (1988). Dimensions of thinking: A framework for curriculum and instruction, Alexandria: The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Mccombs B.L., Marzano R. J. (1990). Putting the self in self-regulated learning: The self as agent in integrating will and skill. Educational psychologist, 25 (1), pp51-69.

McKenzie J. From Now On –The Educational Technology Journal. FNO press, Washington. http://fnopress.com accessed 2005; 2006.

Nagel M. (2007) Tests and Worksheets don’t grow Dendrites: Working with the 21st Century Adolescent Brain! Conference Workshop. 5th International Conference of the Middle Years of Schooling. Gold Coast

Paul R W. (1993) Critical Thinking. Foundation for Critical Thinking, Santa Rosa

16

17

Perkins D. (1993) Creating a Culture of Thinking. Educational Leadership Nov. 1993: pp 98-99

Perkins D.N., Simmons R., and Tishman S. (1990). Teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Journal of structural learning, 10 (4), 285-303.

Pohl M. (1997) Teaching Thinking Skills in the Primary Years. A whole school approach. Hawker Brownlow. Victoria.

Rodriques E.R., Bellanca J. (1997) What is it about me you can’t teach? An instructional guide for today’s educator. Hawker Brownlow. Australia.

Swart T R., Fischer S. D., Parks S. (1998) Infusing the Teaching of Critical and Creative Thinking into secondary Science Critical Thinking Books & Software. California

Swartz R. J., Perkins D. N., (1990) Teaching Thinking: Issues & Approaches. Pacific Grove: Midwest Publications

Swartz R. J., Reagan R. (1997) Infusing critical and creative thinking into content instruction - a workshop. Conference proceedings 7th International Conference on Thinking. Singapore.

Tishman S. (2001) Added value: A Dispositional Perspective on Thinking. Developing Minds, a resource book for teaching thinking. A. Costa (ed). ASCD revised edition. Vol 3.pp 72-75

Tishman S., Jay E., & Perkins D.N. (1993 Teaching thinking dispositions: From transmission to enculturation. Theory into practice, 32 (3), pp147-153.

Tishman S., Perkins D. N., & JAY E. (1995) The thinking classroom, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Underbakke M.., Borg J. M., and Peterson D. (1993) Researching and developing the knowledge base for teaching higher order thinking. Theory into practice, 32 (3), pp 138-146.

von Oppell (McDonald) M.A., (1998) The Social component of the technological process and interdisciplinary- integrated studies. M.Ed Thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg.