cognitive and social construc

COGNITIVE AND SOCIALCONSTRUCTIVISM: DEVELOPING TOOLS FOR AN

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM

KATHERINE C . POWELL, E D . D .

CODY J. KALINA

Florida Atlantic University

An effective classroom, where teachers and students are com-municating optimally, is dependent on using cónstructiviststrategies, tools and practices. There are two major types of con-structivism in the classroom: (1) Cognitive or individualconstructivism depending on Piaget's theory, and (2) Social con-structivism depending on Vygotsky's theory. Similaritiesinclude inquiry teaching methods and students creating conceptsbuilt on existing knowledge that are relevant and meaningful.Differences include language development theory where think-ing precedes language for cognitive constructivism and languageprecedes thinking for the theory of social constructivism.Understanding communicative tools and strategies helps teach-ers to develop individual learning methods such as, discoverylearning, and social interactive activities to develop peer collab-oration.

IntroductionConstructivism is a vague concept, but

is currently discussed in many schools asthe best method for teaching and learning.For many educators or teachers, it has avariety of meanings. In order for teachersto use it effectively, they have to knowwhere the student is at a given learningpoint or the current stage in their knowl-edge of a subject so that students can createpersonal meaning when new informationis given to them. When in the classroom,teachers have the potential to teach con-structively, if they understandconstructivism. Cónstructivist teachingstrategies and practices are the next impor-tant step in educational reform.Cónstructivist teaching strategies have agreat effect in the classroom both cogni-tively and socially for the student. A teachermust understand and use methods of both

cognitive and social constructivism, if heor she is to run an effective cónstructivistclassroom.

In cognitive constructivism, ideas areconstructed in individuals through a per-sonal process, as opposed to socialconstructivism where ideas are construct-ed through interaction with the teacher andother students. While they are fundamen-tally different both types will ultimatelyform overall constructivism or construct-ed learning elements for students to easilygrasp; the main concept being that ideas areconstructed from experience to have a per-sonal meaning for the student. To beeffective, both theories of constructivismneed to be explicit in communicating con-cepts so that students can connect to them.Teachers need to understand these theo-ries, as well as, know how to incorporatecónstructivist teaching methods, strategies.

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tools and practices to develop an effectivelearning environment.

Cognitive ConstructivismMany educators in schools throughout

America are required to teach construc-tively in their classrooms. The termcognitive constructivism can connoteambiguous or puzzled reactions fromteachers who are told that they should beusing teaching strategies to promote thisform of learning approach for their stu-dents. Substantial individual thought needsto be acquired in content or subject areasfor students to actually understand thematerial instead of just being able to reciteit. Providing classroom situations andactivities that promote individual learningis required. Jean Piaget, a well-knownFrench Swiss developmental psychologist,who wrote many books and articles onlearning, construed this process. Piagetwas originally a biologist and theoristsstate that he thought in terms of studentsbecoming "little scientists," who learnvoraciously as individuals who build con-ceptual structures in memory to storeinformation. Initially, he built his theoriesobserving his own children as they learnedand played together.

Piaget's main focus of constructivismhas to do with the individual and how theindividual constructs knowledge. Cogni-tive constructivism came directly fromPiaget's work. Piaget's theory of cognitivedevelopment proposes that humans can-not be given information, which theyimmediately understand and use; instead,humans must construct their own knowl-edge (Piaget, 1953). He stated that

children's schémas are constructed throughthe process of assimilation and accommo-dation, when going through four differentstages of development (Wads worth, 2004).Piaget's (1953) four stages of developmentare: Sensorimotor stage, which a child goesthrough from ages zero to two; preopera-tional stage (two to seven years old),concrete operational stage (seven to elevenyears old), and the formal operational stage(eleven years old to adulthood).

In Piaget's sensorimotor stage childrenbegin to discover their environment aroundthem through their own senses and phys-ical activity and then language, as they getolder within this stage. Children in his nextstage of preoperational develop their ownlanguage skills but still cannot grasp thethoughts of others. As Piaget describedwithin this stage there is "symbolic func-tion" where children begin to distinguishpictures or symbols for different objectsin their immediate environment and anoth-er sub-stage of "intuitive thought" wherechildren ask all sorts of questions abouteverything within their environment(Wadsworth, 2004). Within Piaget's con-crete operational stage, a pivotal growthpoint in the brain in logical development,children begin to replace intuitive thoughtwith their own logical reasoning. InPiaget's (1953) formal operational stagechildren, up to adulthood, will start usinghigher levels of thinking or abstract ideasto solve problems. Piaget's stages are well-known and are accepted as the basis fordepicting the growth of logical thinking inchildren. Although there has been criti-cism ofhis specific stages, Piaget's theoriesstill hold true and are revered by many the-

Cognitive and Social Constructivism... / 243

orists.Piaget's theory includes assimilation

and accommodation, which are processeschildren go through as a search for bal-ance or "equilibration" (Wadsworth, 2004).When describing Piaget's theory, "equili-bration occurs when children shift fromone stage to another and is manifested witha cognitive conflict, a state of mental unbal-ance or disequilibrium in trying to makesense of the data or information they arereceiving. Disequilibrium is a state of beinguncomfortable when one has to adjust hisor her thinking (schema) to resolve confiictand become more comfortable" (Powell,2006, pp. 26, 27). According to Piaget(1953), assimilation is when children bringin new knowledge to their own schémasand accommodation is when children haveto change their schémas to "accommodate"the new information or knowledge. Thisadjustment process occurs when learning,as one is processing new information to fitinto what is already in one's memory.Teachers need to facilitate this process inthe classroom.

Piaget's stages of development are allabout the ability to leam at different agesin childhood based on logical develop-ment. His theory on equilibration,assimilation and accommodation all haveto do with the children's ability to con-struct cognitively or individually their newknowledge within their stages and resolveconflicts (Piaget, 1953). Recognizing thatthis process occurs within each individualstudent at a different rate helps the teacherfacilitate constructivist learning. Piaget'scognitive constructivism theory incorpo-rates the importance of understanding what

each individual needs to get knowledgeand leam at his or her own pace. Observ-ing students and comprehending their levelof difficulty is paramount to this process.For example, when teaching complex con-cepts, some students in the classroom maygrasp them quickly while others can bestruggling. Asking questions of studentsto know where they may have difficulty ispart of the inquiry method to alleviate mis-interpretation. Understanding these stagesand teaching within the ability of studentsto grasp concepts logically and intellectu-ally is a main goal of all teachers. Effectiveleaming occurs when clarity begins.

Social ConstructivismSocial constmctivism is a highly effec-

tive method of teaching that all students canbenefit from, since collaboration and socialinteraction are incorporated. This type ofconstructivism was formed after Piagethad already described his theories involv-ing individual or cognitive constructivism.Lev Vygotsky, the founding father of socialconstmctivism believed in social interac-tion and that it was an integral part oflearning. Social constructivism is basedon the social interactions a student in theclassroom along with a personal criticalthinking process. All of Vygotsky'sresearch and theories are collectivelyinvolved in social constructivism and lan-guage development such as, cognitivedialogue, the zone of proximal develop-ment, social interaction, culture and innerspeech (Vygotsky, 1962). Understandinghis theories or building a classroom whereinteraction is prominent helps developeffective classrooms.


Vygotsky's theory of development andall of its language aspects are various con-cepts that are part of social constructivism.One of Vygotsky's main theories is thezone of proximal development, or ZPD.This part of child development controlshow a child learns. ZPD is explained ineducational psychology books and Vygot-sky's theory focuses on the differentpsychological functions that emerge as achild grows. ZPD has been described asa zone where learning occurs when a childis helped in learning a concept in the class-room (Vygotsky, 1962). By assistingchildren in learning, many theorists andeducators have proven that Vygotsky's the-ory works. Often children will leam easiestwithin this zone when others are involved.An example would be an activity where astudent works on the assignment with aidfrom the teacher. Once students achievethe goal of the initial activity, their zonegrows and the students can do more. Thisinvolves the social constructivist methodwhere students act first on what they cando on their own and then with assistancefrom the teacher, they leam the new con-cept based on what they were doingindividually.

Along the same lines of cooperativelearning, Vygotsky (1962) also used scaf-folding in his theory, to understand thatchildren leam more effectively when theyhave others to support them. Scaffoldingis an assisted learning process that sup-ports the ZPD, or getting to the next levelof understanding, of each student from theassistance of teachers, peers or other adults.For example, when a child learns to countobjects alone he or she may miss a num-

ber; however, if a teacher holds their fin-ger and points directly to the object withthem, counting out loud together, the childcan then do the counting correctly by them-selves. In scaffolding a unique type ofinternalization or "getting it" will occurfor each student. This process occurs whena student will be asked to perform a taskthat has some meaning to the student andwith assistance, will complete it. Whilethis task may be difficult to perform, thereis a support system available from theteacher. This support system will ultimatelyallow the student to solve the problem.

According to Vygotsky cooperativelearning is an integral part of creating adeeper understanding. Cooperative learn-ing is a part of creating a socialconstructivist classroom. Students shouldnot only work with teachers one-on-one,but they should also work with other stu-dents. Students have a lot to offer oneanother. When students master completionof projects or activities in a group, the inter-nalization of knowledge occurs for eachindividual at a different rate according totheir own experience. Vygotsky believedthat internalization occurs more effective-ly when there is social interaction. "Acommon question about knowledge iswhether it is constructed intemally, depend-ing on a situation in a point of time orgenerally and some theorists claim thatsocial constructivism and situated learn-ing confirm Vygotsky's notion that learningis inherently social and embedded in a par-ticular cultural setting" (Woolfolk, 2004,p. 326). Various perspectives on materialcould open up completely new and excit-ing opportunities for a student. Teachers


can create work experiences for studentsto collaborate with each other to constructcognitive or individual intemalization ofknowledge.

Vygotsky is a firm believer that socialinteraction and cultural influences have ahuge effect on a student and how learningoccurs. Teachers should recognize thediversity of the class and embrace theirdifferences. Diversity can be defined asdifferent ethnic backgrounds, but in theclassroom is it a combination of ethnicity,identity and biological differences that givevaried experiences and understanding toeach individual (Woolfolk, 2004). Stu-dents have to understand themselves andothers around them before they can startlearning the curriculum. A teacher thatembraces the various cultures can havestudents discuss their different back-grounds to one another. Just as studentstalk about their different cultures, theyshould talk about the material being taught.Some teachers are under the impressionthat talking during class is detrimental tolearning. It is not that mindless chattershould be tolerated, but teachers can usethe verbal energy that students have to theiradvantage. Teachers should promote dia-logue of the material so that students cancritically think about what they are learn-ing. If they think critically, they will walkaway with personal meaning that was con-structed on their own. The idea ofdiscussion is echoed throughout social con-structivism and is enriched throughdiversity.

There is a distinct connection in all ofthese aspects of social constructivism. InZPD and in scaffolding there is a corre-

spondence between the teacher, peer orother adult and the student. To embracediversity, students must interact socially.The key is communication and for com-munication to occur at its most effectivepoint; all participants must be on the samecommon ground. Language usage in theclassroom is the most important processin a social constructivist setting. Vygotskystated that language enhances learning andthat it precedes knowledge or thinking.Vygotsky believed "it is incorrect to con-sider language as a correlative of thought;language is a correlative of consciousness.The mode of language correlative to con-sciousness is meanings. The work ofconsciousness with meanings leads to thegeneration of sense, and in the process con-sciousness acquires a sensible (meaningful)structure" (Kozulin, 1990, p. 190). Socialinteraction is important to effective lan-guage usage and the development ofefficient communication in the classroom.Students should use language as much asthey use oxygen.

Comparing Cognitive andSocial Constructivism

As students are learning in the class-room, the approaches of cognitive andsocial constructivism have similarities anddifferences. Both value the inquiry or ques-tion and answer method, as introduced bythe Greek philosopher Socrates in the fifthcentury B.C. (documented by Plato) andmade popular in America by John Dewey,a twentieth century progressive educator."Inquiry learning is an approach in whichthe teacher presents a puzzling situationand students solve the problem by gather-


ing data and testing the conclusion. JohnDewey described the basic inquiry learn-ing format in 1910 and many theorists haveemphasized different forms" (Woolfolk,2004, p.329). Both theories claim thatguided forms of teaching or facilitation arenecessary, as students construct their ownconcepts and understanding of what isbeing taught. Students need guidancewhen teachers explain complex topics andknowledge has to be brought out of themsince they have their own experience todraw on. Piaget's theory has a heavyemphasis on the reasoning ability of indi-viduals and how individuals interpretknowledge. Vygotsky believed that therewere variables such as, social interaction,culture and language that affected how theindividual learned knowledge. These dif-ferent theories admired today led to thetwo major forms of constructivism thathave a common ground and history.

Piaget's theories celebrate the individ-ual and his or her own personal process togain knowledge building on experience.In cognitive constructivism, Piaget statedthat thought precedes language and evolvesfrom inner activity as information isprocessed based on what already exists, aswell as, through inquiry. "Inquiry learn-ing methods are similar to discoverylearning and share some of the same prob-lems, so inquiry must be carefully plannedand organized, especially for the less pre-pared students who may lack thebackground knowledge and problem-solv-ing skills need to benefit" (Woolfolk, 2004,p. 332). Cognitive constructivism willfocus more on facts and constructingknowledge within one's own schémas. For

Piaget, social interaction does occur andmay be part of the learning process; but itis the individual who constructs knowl-edge based on his or her personalexperience. Piaget also believed that innerspeech or reading to oneself is not a pre-requisite to thinking and that one outgrowsthis process; whereas, Vygotsky believedthat inner speech was part of the integralprocess of learning and thinking.

Vygotsky would say that social inter-action and culturally organized activitiesare necessary in the classroom for properpsychological development. For theseactivities, people that have more knowl-edge than the individual must be involvedin these activities, or in the zone of prox-imal development. Therefore, the socialcónstructivist environment includes activ-ities where students experience their levelof understanding and seek assistance toget to the next level. Bigge and Shermis(2004) stated that Vygotsky's theory oflearning and teaching was based on therelationship of children's social experienceand that learning was a part of humandevelopment. Social constructivism willengage students in activities creating rela-tionships that will directly affect what theylearn. Students need activities that helpthem express their personalities such as, agroup projects, where they pick the piecethat represents their interests. As stated,Vygotsky believed that language preced-ed knowledge and the process of socialinteraction using language helps individ-uals learn.

Vygotsky's theory includes the rela-tionship of thought and language and howlanguage usage through interaction was

Cognitive and Social Constructivism... /247

required before thinking could even exist.He described his zone of proximal devel-opment (ZPD) as a discrepancy betweena child's actual mental age and the level achild could reach with assistance througha cognitive experience, where humanbeings learn through a highly empiricaltheory of intellectual development (Bigge& Shermis, 2004). The key concepts inVygotsky's ZPD theory are 'assistance'and 'experience' at the level a student canhandle so that he or she can learn. Socialconstructivism has more of an emphasison the relationship between the individualand social requirements or interaction.Both cognitive and social constructivistteaching methods must be used by teach-ers interactively so that students canprocess individually what they learned ina group or from another adult or peer.

While social and cognitive construc-tivist theories are different there is onemajor similarity; the way constructivistclassrooms should be run. "Both Piagetand Vygotsky agreed that the teacher's rolewas that of a facilitator and guide, and notof a director or dictator. Piaget saw chil-dren gaining knowledge from organizingand reorganizing data as they receive infor-mation. Vygotsky saw social interactionor collaboration as the chief method forlearning and placed more emphasis on lan-guage development" (Powell, 2006, p.54).Both views of constructivism can be incor-porated in to the classroom and should beincorporated for the best personal devel-opment of the students. Teachers andstudents must communicate to conveyinformation and for learning to take place.Constructivism should not only happen

sometimes in the classroom, or happen inone or two of the student's classes, but inall of the student's classes and in everyteaching activity so that true learning canoccur.

Tools and Practices forthe Constructivist Teacher

Teachers from every subject area needto develop psychological or strategic toolsto create a constructivist environment forall students. In order to ensure an effec-tive constructivist environment, teachersneed to learn teaching strategies or activ-ities that employ the theories of both Piagetand Vygotsky when assigning tasks orimparting information. Allowing studentsto discover knowledge individually helpsthis process such as, including questionand answer periods after every significanttopic, as well as having the teacher be ableto assess where students are formallythrough testing and informally through dis-cussion or dialoguing. Bigge and Shermis(2004) described Vygotsky's view ofpsychology, where every word is a gener-alization or a concept, as an act of thought,and meaning is a result of thinking. Themore prepared and comfortable teachersare in using effective tools such as con-versation, discussion, and inquiry; the morethey will use them and students can becomeadept at thinking and communicating.

There are different perspectives onlearning and what constitutes an effectiveconstructivist classroom. However, acquir-ing knowledge, experience orunderstanding is common to all of them.How to create an effective constructivistclassroom and measure the successful


results of students' leaming, would includealtemate teaching practices. For example,creating a constmctivist strategy involvesestablishing a common interaction in theclassroom, such as a debate on nature ver-sus nurture, or Darwin's theory ofevolution. Leaming can occur when stu-dents are challenged, open, andcomfortable, while giving their full atten-tion. It is important that teachers andleamers develop tmst and openness in theclassroom for all students to becomeengaged and attentive. When students arenot engaged, an ineffective classroom canbe subject to dismptive students, and leam-ing will not occur.

Effective teaching methods include cre-ating an environment where students feelfree to create unique concepts and stmc-tures to place in their memory for furtherretrieval. The components of a constmc-tivist environment include providing meansfor students to experience real world ormeaningful practices. Students learnthrough examples that they can relate to onan emotional, or on a cognitive basis. Stu-dents can experience their world usingmeaningful practices that connect emo-tional or affective, as well as thinking orcognitive parts of self. For example, stu-dents who write essays could select theirown topics corresponding to their readingassignments so that creative expressioncan follow. Real or meaningful knowl-edge is based on one's ability to accept,reason, or acquire information. The abili-ty to retrieve this new information whenneeded implies that one constructed per-sonal meaning, which will remain inmemory until required. Effective teachers

beget effective leamers.The teacher and student dynamics

include honesty and tmst so that teachingand leaming becomes effortless. A com-mon ground must be secured in theclassroom where teacher and student dis-cussions are free and where the studentsfeel comfortable to discuss their ideas orconcepts without inhibitions or fear. "Aconcept is formed, not through an interac-tion of associations, but through anintellectual operation within which all ofthe elementary functions participate in aspecific combination. For example, a childcognitively unites diverse objects intogroups under a common name", (Bigge &Shermis, 2004, p. 127). This commonground, where the dynamic flows, allowslearning or individual construction tobecome liberated and this contagiousatmosphere can fill the classroom. The con-structivist classroom allows effectivelearning where light can be shed so thatimagination, knowledge and inspirationcan glow within each individual student.

ConclusionIt is possible to understand and apply

constmctivist teaching strategies and prac-tices in the classroom. There are two majortypes of constmctivism: Piaget's individ-ual or cognitive constructivism andVygotsky's social cognitive constmctivism.Many theorists discuss advantages and dis-advantages; but the actual process ofleaming with meaning and students con-stmcting concepts to create knowledge iscommon to both types. We have exploredboth the cognitive and social interactiveleaming environment and various teaching


strategies or tools that can help procurethis process to ensure an effective class-room. Knowledge has to be built onexisting knowledge and one's backgroundand experience contributes to this process.There are similarities and differences withboth, as well as, situational advantageswhen using one method over the other;however, they both have their place in theclassroom and occur interactively in aneclectic learning atmosphere. Teachersneed to be familiar with these construc-tivist theories.

Cognitive constructivism can be con-sidered the grandfather of this teachingand learning style and many theoriststhroughout the years have added and sub-tracted to this method; however, the basicsof constructing knowledge stays the same.Social constructivism is also historicallyparallel to Piaget's theory and evolved toinclude a more dynamic and social inter-active environment for learning. Bothmethods use the inquiry method to facili-tate learning and can be used alternativelyand interactively to produce an effectivelearning environment. The goal is to pro-duce an inquiring and acceptingatmosphere that leads to each studentreaching his or her full potential, if theteacher is attentive and guides each stu-dent through the process. Developing toolsthat secure inquiry and social interactionin the classroom, along with cooperativeskills and individual discovery learning,helps teachers produce an effective con-structivist environment. Students andteachers involved in an interactive facili-tating environment can both benefit fromthis dynamic and effective leaming atmos-phere.

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