cognitive psychology

Cognitive Psychology Definition and Characteristics

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes

OR

Cognitive Psychology the field of psychology that studies how the mind organizes perceptions, processes information, and interprets experiences.

The field of cognitive psychology is based on following characteristics

1. Intelligence2. Thinking3. Perception4. Learning5. Memory6. Cognitive –Neuro Psychology

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Cognitive Psychology Intelligence

Intelligence:The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

Theories of Intelligence:There are four different theories regarding intelligence:

1. Triarchic Theory2. Raymond Cattell’s Theory 3. Charles Spearman’s Theory4. Howard Gardner’s Theory5. Biological Theory

1. Triarchic Theory:This theory was proposed by Robert J. Sternberg. According to this theory intelligence is how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout their lifespan. He distinguishes among three aspects of intelligence

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2. Raymond Cattell’s Theory:

Psychologist Raymond Cattell first proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and further developed the theory with John Horn. He suggests that their are two different kinds of intelligence

Fluid Intelligence:Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education. Example of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles

Crystallized Intelligence:

Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences. Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension and vocabulary exams.

3. Charles Spearman’s Theory:

In 1927 Charles Spearman proposed a general intelligence factor or g-factor or g, which underlies all intelligent behavior. He was of the view that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.

4. Biological Theory:

Researchers have identified several areas of brain e.g. lateral prefrontal cortex, which are related to the intelligence referring them as “workspace”. This workspace is responsible for the organization and coordination of information and helps to transfer material to other parts of brain. In this view, functioning of the workspace represent general intelligence.

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5. Howard Gardner’s Theory:

In the 1980s and 1990s, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the idea of 8 kinds of intelligence, which are relatively independent of one another. These eight types of intelligence are:

1. Linguistic: This area has to do with words, spoken or written2. Logical–mathematical: This area has to do with logic, abstractions,

reasoning and numbers3. Musical: This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and

music. 4. Spatial: This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize

with the mind's eye5. Bodily-kinesthetic: It involve skills related with using whole body or its

various parts in the solution of the problem6. Interpersonal: This area has to do with interaction with others7. Intrapersonal: This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective

capacities8. Nature: Ability to identify and classify patterns in nature

Gardner believes that each of these domains of intelligence has inherent value but that culture and context may cause some domains to be emphasized over others.

Intelligence Testing

The psychometric approach to intelligence emphasizes people’s performance on standardized aptitude tests. Achievement tests measure skills and knowledge that people have already learned. Aptitude tests predict people’s future ability to acquire skills or knowledge.

Intelligence tests can be given individually or to groups of people. The best-known individual intelligence tests are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

a) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

b) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

c) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

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a) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale:

Alfred Binet was a french psychologist whom the french government commissioned with developing a method of identifying intellectually deficient children. In 1905 the result was Binet - Simon scale that gives the intellectual capacity of children through 30 different questions. Binet incorporated the concepts of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) mental age given by William Stern.

In 1916 it was reviewed by Lewis Terman of Stanford University who proposed that formula that was (M.A/C.A) should be multiplied by 100 for getting rid of the decimals. Thus gives the present formula for Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (M.A/C.A)×100.

The Stanford-Binet was revised in 1937, 1960, 1973, and 1986.

Mental age: an individual's level of mental development relative to others

b) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

David Wechsler published the first test for assessing intelligence in adults in 1939. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale contains many items that assess nonverbal reasoning ability and therefore depends less on verbal ability that does the Stanford-Binet. It also provides separate scores of verbal intelligence and nonverbal or performance intelligence, as well as a score that indicates overall intelligence.

c) The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is an intelligence test which produces an IQ or intelligence quotient. It was developed by Dr. David Wechsler in 1949. The test measure verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing speed.

Artificial Intelligence:

It is the capability of a computer to perform functions that are normally associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning or self-improvement. Scientists are now-a-days trying to incorporate the field of robotics with AI so the problem of man power would be solved and efficiency would increase. Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots

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Thinking:Thinking is the manipulation of mantel representation of information. Thinking transforms information into novel and different forms, permitting people to answer questions, solve problem and reach goals.

Kinds of Thinking:

There are two principle kinds of thinking

a) Autistic Thinkingb) Realistic Thinking

Autistic Thinking:

Fantasy dreams and wishful thinking are all examples of autistic or unrealistic thinking. It is an end in itself and not a mean to an end. There are two types of autistic thinking:

1. Dreaming2. Day-Dreaming

Realistic Thinking:

Another name for realistic thinking is reasoning which helps us to adjust to the world. Reasoning is often motivated to reach solution of problem involving an individual livelihood. There are three types of reasoning:

1. Deductive2. Inductive3. Evaluative

Problem Solving:

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

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The Steps in Problem-Solving

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution. Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

1. Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved.

3. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences.

4. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available information. The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution.

5. Allocating Resources: Before we begin to solve a problem, we need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then we do not want to spend too much of our available resources

6. Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.

7. Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem.

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Cognitive Psychology Perception

Perception:

Perception is a complex cognitive process that is concerned with selection, organization and interpretation of stimuli. It can be presented by the following equation:

P = S + MWhere P stands for Perception, S stands for Stimuli and M stands for Meaning

Depth/Space/Distance Perception:

Depth perception is the brain tendency to see the world in three dimensions even though the images that strike our retinas have only two dimensions. In other words the ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance is known as Depth Perception.

Cues of Perception:

There are two cues of perception depending upon the involvement of eyes. These cues are:

a) Monocular Cuesb) Binocular Cues

a) Monocular Cues:

As the name indicates monocular cues are those that can operate when only one eye is looking. There are different types of monocular cues


Linear Perception:

In linear perception parallel lines converge with distance

Relative Clearness:

In relative clearness hazy object seen as more distant.

Relative Height:

In relative height smaller image is more distant.

Interposition:

In interposition closer object blocks distant object

Relative Motion:

In relative motion closer objects seem to move faster

Texture:

In the texture perspective object with coarse texture appear closer and the objects with fine texture appear distant.

b) Binocular Cues:

Binocular cues are those that can operate when only both eyes are looking. The types of monocular cues are:

Retinal Disparity:

It is an idea that images of an object from the two eyes differ. The closer the object, the larger the difference (disparity.)

Convergence:

It is extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object that the brain keeps track of to measure distance.


Perceptual Constancy:

Another important ability that helps people make sense of the world is perceptual constancy. Perceptual constancy is the ability to recognize that an object remains the same even when it produces different images on the retina.

Although perceptual constancy relates to other senses as well, visual constancy is the most studied phenomenon. Different kinds of visual constancies relate to shape, color, size, brightness, and location.

Shape constancy: Objects appear to have the same shape even though they make differently shaped retinal images, depending on the viewing angle.

Size constancy:Objects appear to be the same size even though their images get larger or smaller as their distance decreases or increases.

Color constancy:People see objects as having the same color whether they are different

Location constancy: Stationary objects don’t appear to move even though their images on the retina shift as the viewer moves around.


Illusion

An illusion is a misinterpretation of a sensory stimulus. Usually Visual Illusion

Types of Illusion:There are different types of visual illusion

a) Muller-Lyer IllusionAn optical illusion in which two equally long line segments are perceived to differ in length because one of the line segments is braced by inward-facing arrowhead-shaped diagonal lines, but the other line segment is braced by outward-facing arrowhead-shaped diagonal lines

b) The Ponzo Illusion

In the Ponzo illusion, two identically-sized lines appear to be different sizes when placed over parallel lines that seem to converge as they recede into the distance.


c) Zollner Illusion

In the Zollner illusion, straight lines appear to move even though they are static.

d) Kanizsa Triangle Illusion

The Kanizsa Triangle is an optical illusion in which a triangle is perceived even though it is not actually there.


Movement

There are two types of movement

a) Apparent Movementb) Real Movement

a) Apparent Movement:It is the movement present in subjective and illusionary visual perception of movement in the absence of real movement. Apparent movement can be generated by rapid succession of motionless stimuli that mimic the changes that occur in true movement e.g. movies

b) Real Movement Real movement is the that type of movement in which the physical stimulus is actually moving and we perceive it as moving

Extra Sensory Perception:

It is an ability to acquire information by paranormal means independent of any known physical senses or deduction from previous experience. ESP is also sometimes casually referred to as a sixth sense

Apperception:

The mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses

Cognitive Psychology Learning

Learning:Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or

preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.

OR

Learning is the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge.

Conditioning:

It is a behavioral process whereby a response becomes more frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement, with reinforcement typically being a stimulus or reward for a desired response.

Types of Conditioning:

There are two types of conditioning namely:

1. Classical Conditioning.2. Operant Conditioning.\

1. Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus i.e. the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), having unconditioned response (UCR), is converted into conditioned stimulus CS having Conditioned response (CR) after conditioning.

The Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response.

The Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.

The Conditioned Stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

The Conditioned Response is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus.


Experiment of Pavlov:From time to time the dog was given access to food, and each presentation was accompanied (usually slightly preceded) by the occurrence of a neutral event, such as a flashing light. After several training trials (pairings of light and food), the dog would salivate at the flash of light, before any food had appear. Salivation at the presentation of food is called an unconditioned response (UR) [unconditioned response (UR) evoked by a stimulus before an animal has received any explicit training with that stimulus], since it occurs automatically (unconditionally). The food is an unconditioned stimulus (US) [unconditioned stimulus (US) evokes an unconditioned response]. The animal’s tendency to salivate when the light flashes is conditional on the light having been paired with food, so this is referred to as a conditioned response (CR) [conditioned response (CR) evoked by a conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning] and the event that evokes it as a conditioned stimulus (CS) [conditioned stimulus (CS) evokes a conditioned response as a result of classical conditioning].Behaviorists have described four principles associated with classical conditioning. Some involves the initial establishment of the response, while others describe the disappearance of a response. These principles are

a) Acquisitionb) Extinctionc) Spontaneous Recoveryd) Stimulus Generalizatione) Discrimination

a) AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.

b) ExtinctionExtinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

c) Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response.

d) Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned.

e) DiscriminationDiscrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus


2. Operant Conditioning:It is the form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences i.e. it is based on reinforcement, which occur when an event following the response, strengthen the tendency to repeat that response.

Experiment of Skinner:B.F Skinner did an experiment in which a hungry rat was placed in the operant conditioning chamber and every time it pressed the lever it was rewarded with a food pellet in the food dish which was used to reinforce its behavior. Rats scurried around the box randomly touching parts of the floor and wall. Eventually the rat accidently touched the lever and a food pellet was released. The same sequence was repeated and with more trials the time taken to press the lever eventually decreased. The random movements of the rat eventually became deliberate, rats then ate the food as fast as they could press the lever. Thus he concludes that the rat operated on their environment to receive a food reward

Reinforcement and Punishment:

These are the core ideas of operant conditioning which are either positive (introducing a stimulus to an organism's environment following a response), or negative (removing a stimulus from an organism's environment following a response). This creates a total of four basic consequences

a) Positive Reinforcementb) Negative Reinforcementc) Positive Punishmentd) Negative Punishment

a) Positive reinforcement:It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.

b) Negative reinforcement:It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

c) Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

d) Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal")It occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.


Shaping:

Shaping is a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and closer to a desired response.

Reinforcement Schedules:

A reinforcement schedule is the pattern in which reinforcement is given over time. Reinforcement schedules are of two types

1. Continuous Reinforcement2. Intermittent Reinforcement

1. Continuous Reinforcement:In continuous reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement every time a particular response occurs.

2. Intermittent Reinforcement:In intermittent or partial reinforcement, someone provides reinforcement on only some of the occasions on which the response occurs.

Types of Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

There are four main types of intermittent schedules,

a) fixed-ratio scheduleb) variable-ratio schedulec) fixed-interval scheduled) variable-interval schedule

Fixed-Ratio Schedule:In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a set number of responses, such as when a car salesman earns a bonus after every three cars he sells.

Variable-Ratio Schedule:In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement happens after a random number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule:In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after a set amount of time, such as when an attorney at a law firm gets a bonus once a year.

Variable-Interval Schedule:In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement happens after random amount of time.


Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

In classical conditioning, the organism learns an association between two

stimuli—the UCS and NS (e.g. food and tone)—that occurs before the natural response (e.g. salivation).

In operant conditioning, the organism learns an association between behavior and

its consequences. Behavior changes because of the consequence that occurs

after it.

Classical conditioning usually deals with reflexive or involuntary

responses such as physiological or emotional responses.

Operant conditioning usually deals with voluntary behaviors such as active

behaviors that operate on the environment.

UCS → UCR NS

CS →CR

Although classical and operant conditionings are different processes, many learning situations involve both.


Operant & Classical Conditioning in Human Settings: These two conditionings are quite common in human settings some of the fields regarding these conditioning are:

a) EducationAs the child gets good grade in the exams he was reinforced by reward like trophies, appreciation and cash awards etc i.e. strengthen his/her behavior.

b) OfficeWhen ever an employee show progress in his work owner or boss often strengthen his/her behavior through bonus

c) TherapyOperant conditioning techniques are most often used as part of a cognitive-behavioral treatment plan.

d) Child DevelopmentParents often use operant conditioning, such as rewarding language Acquisition with hugs and kisses.

e) Advertising Modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson's use of conditioning. The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product being sold) so the consumer will feel positively toward the product just like they do with the US.

f) Fear & AnxietyMany phobias that people experience are the results of conditioning. For example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river below. The father finds this funny and so decides to do it whenever they cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all bridges which now evoke fear.


Insight Learning:

This theory was proposed by Wolfgang Kohler. He said that insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error.Sultan, one of Kohler's chimpanzees learned to use a stick to pull bananas from outside of his cage by putting pieces of stick together. Given two sticks that could be fitted together to make a single pole that was long enough to reach the bananas, aligned the sticks and in a flash of sudden inspiration, fitted the two sticks together and pulled in the bananas. He didn't do this by trial and error, but had a sort of sudden inspiration or insight

Observational Learning Theory:Observational learning, proposed by Albert Bandura, is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others. It is argued that reinforcement has the effect of influencing which responses one will partake in, more than it influences the actual acquisition of the new response. Bandura named the process of social learning as modeling and gave four conditions required for a person to successfully model the behavior of someone else:

a) Attention to the model-In order for the behavior to be learned, the observer must be attentive to the modeled behavior.

b) Retention of Details-The observer must be able to recall the modeled behavior.

c) Motor Reproduction-The observer must have the motor skills to reproduce the action, the observer

d) Motivation and Opportunity- The observer must be motivated to carry out the action they have observed and remembered, and must have the opportunity to do so.

Bobo Doll ExperimentIn his famous "Bobo doll" experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.


Memory:

Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences.

OR

Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information.

The Computer Model:

According to this theory there are three major processes involved in memory

a) Encodingb) Storagec) Retrieval

a) Encoding

In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding.

b) Storage

Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it.

c) Retrieval

The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

Cognitive Psychology Memory

Multi-store Model:

According to the multi-store model of memory proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin. There are three stages of memory:

a) Sensory Memory:Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.

b) Short-Term Memory:Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term memory.

c) Long-Term Memory:Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access.


Types of Memory:

Psychologists often make distinctions among different types of memory. There are three main distinctions:

a) Implicit vs. explicit memoryb) Declarative vs. procedural memoryc) Semantic vs. episodic memory

a) Implicit vs. Explicit Memory

Sometimes information that unconsciously enters the memory affects thoughts and behavior, even though the event and the memory of the event remain unknown. Such unconscious retention of information is called implicit memory.

Explicit memory is conscious, intentional remembering of information. Remembering a social security number involves explicit memory.

b) Declarative vs. Procedural Memory

Declarative memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces, events, and concepts. Remembering the capital of Pakistan, the rules for playing football, and what happened in the last game of the World Series involves declarative memory. Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit because it involves conscious, intentional remembering.

Procedural memory is recall of how to do things such as swimming or driving a car. Procedural memory is usually considered implicit because people don’t have to consciously remember how to perform actions or skills.

c) Semantic vs. Episodic Memory

Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic memory is recall of general facts, while episodic memory is recall of personal facts. Remembering the capital of France and the rules for playing football uses semantic memory. Remembering what happened in the last game of the World Series uses episodic memory.


Biological Basis of Memory:fMRI shows that when people memorized the label “dog” with the sound of a bark the auditory cortex activated when they retrieved it. Those memorized the label “dog” to a picture activated their visual cortex when they retrieved it. Retrieving a memory reactivates the sensory area of the cortex that was involved in the initial perception of the event.

Biochemical Basis of Memory:There are two hypotheses concerning the biochemical basis of memoryThe 1st hypothesis is that the basic event of conditioning or learning is the transfer of RNA molecules from surrounding glial cells into conducting neurons and the subsequent transformation of the protein synthesizing apparatus of the neuron. The transfer of RNA across membranes (of activated neurons only) is presumed to be due to electrophoretic migration in the reversed potential gradient during impulse conduction. The 2nd hypothesis is that information is coded for storage in the CNS in the form of frequency characteristics of spreading action potentials to which a neural membrane can become tuned by alteration of its protein structure.

Forgetting:Forgetting refer to apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage.Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first person who studied the phenomenon of forgetting. Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable word. He then measured his own capacity to retain a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off. Plotting the result a curve was obtained. This curve was named as forgetting curve.


Theories of Forgetting:The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows

a) Cue-dependent forgettingb) Decay theoryc) Motivated Forgettingd) Interference theory

a) Cue-dependent forgetting:

The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall. A proper cue can reverse the phenomenon of forgetting. It is also known as retrieval failure.

b) Decay Theory:According to decay theory, memory fades with time. Decay explains the loss of memories from sensory and short-term memory. However, loss of long-term memories does not seem to depend on how much time has gone by since the information was learned.

c) Motivated Forgetting:Sigmund Freud proposed that people forget because they push unpleasant or intolerable thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious. He called this phenomenon repression. The idea that people forget things they don’t want to remember is also called psychogenic amnesia.

d) Interference Theory:

According to this theory, people forget information because of interference from other learned information. There are two types of interference: retroactive and proactive.

Retroactive interference happens when newly learned information makes people forget old information.

Proactive interference happens when old information makes people forget newly learned information.


Memory Improvement

There are number of techniques that are used for memory improvement. Some tips regarding to it are:

a) Focusing attention

b) Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.

c) Structure and organize the information you are studying.

d) Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.

e) Elaborate and rehearse the information

f) Relating new information to things already know.

g) Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.

h) Teach new concepts to another person.

Schema Theory:Concept of schema theory was firstly introduced in 1932 through the work of British psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett. According to this theory, knowledge is a network of mental frames or cognitive constructs called schema (pl. schemata). Schemata organize knowledge stored in the long-term memory.

Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Neuropsychology

Cognitive Neuropsychology:Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes.

&Cognitive Neuropsychology that investigates human cognitions based on neuropsychological causes through brain pathology, recording, stimulation or imaging.

Studying BrainThere are two types of method for studying brain

a) Invasive Methodsb) Non-Invasive Methods

Non-Invasive MethodsMethod How It Works Advantages Disadvantages

Computerized Tomography

(CT) scan

X-ray cameras rotate around head, combining images into 3D picture of brain structure

High resolution images of brain structure

Allows direct view of level of interest

Potential damage due to high radiation levels

No information about brain function

Positron Emission

Tomography (PET) scan

Tracks brain’s consumption of radioactive glucose injection, providing images of brain function

Allows researchers to examine which brain areas consume most energy in a given task, thus providing info about brain function

Radiation injection Lengthy process Expensive equipment

needed to create radioactive isotopes

No information about brain structure

Magnetic Resonance

Imaging (MRI)

Strong magnetic field causes disorientation of atoms in brain; reorientation = signal as to soft tissue density (picture of brain structure)

Allows researchers to examine brain structure without exposure to radiation involved with CT scan

Non-invasive, painless procedure

Can be an uncomfortable, claustrophobic experience

No information about brain function

Functional Magnetic

Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Type of MRI that detects amount of blood flow in different brain regions (proxy for oxygen consumption; brain function)

High spatial resolution (3-6 millimeters)

Non-invasive, painless procedure

Quick imaging process

Can be uncomfortable, claustrophobic experience


Invasive Methods Method How It Works Advantages Disadvantages

Stereotaxic Apparatus(usage of

electrodes)

Examine an individual’s behavior after the electrical stimulation through placing conductors in their brain

Allows the stimulation of different parts of brain

Allows research on fluke circumstances that are difficult to observe in natural settings

Ethical Issue Injurious to brain

Stereotaxic Surgery (Lesions,

Histology, Pharmacology)

Examine an individual’s behavior after psychosurgery creating lesions and effects of certain drug

Slide studies of the particular affected area.

Allows for educated guessed about links between brain areas & function

Full experimental control.

Damage to brain Issues associated

with the subject

Stereotaxic Atlas

Different maps of the brain areas are developed by examining in detail

One can approach to any area with the help of these maps

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SleepSleep is just one of many types of consciousness we experience, and sleep itself comprises several states of consciousness. Even when we’re sleeping, our brains and bodies continue to work.

Biological Rhythms

Sleep is affected by biological rhythms or periodic physiological changes. Biological rhythms are regular, periodic changes in a body’s functioning. There are three types of biological rhythms:

a) Circadian rhythmsb) Infradian rhythmsc) Ultradian rhythms


a) Circadian rhythms:It is a biological cycles that occur about every twenty-four Sleep follows a circadian rhythm. Hormone secretion, blood pressure, body temperature, and urine production also have circadian rhythms.

b) Infradian rhythms:Biological cycles that take longer than twenty-four hours

c) Ultradian rhythms:These are the Biological cycles that occur more thaSleep follows an ultradian rhythm of about ninety minutes as well as a circadian rhythm. Alertness and hormone levels also follow ultradian rhythms

Biological rhythms usually synchronize with environmental events such as changes in daylight. However, experiments have shown that many biological rhythms continue to have the same cycle even without cues from the environment. Such biological rhythms are endogenous, which means that they originate from inside the body rather than depend on outside cues.

The Function of Sleep

Although everyone sleeps, no one really knows why people sleep. Researchers have proposed several theories to explain how sleep evolved to be a necessary behavior:

a) People conserve energy by sleeping periodically.b) Sleep has a protective function, as it keeps people tucked away at night, safe

from predators.

c) Sleep restores body tissues that are depleted during daily activities


Sleep Stages

There are five distinct stages of sleep in each cycle:

1↔ 2↔3↔4↔REM

a) Stage 1 Sleep

When people fall asleep, they enter into stage 1 sleep, which lasts just a few minutes. In this stage heart rate, breathing rate, and body temperature drop, and muscles relax.

b) Stage 2 Sleep

Stage 2 lasts about twenty minutes and is characterized by short bursts of brain waves called sleep spindles.

c) Stages 4-3 SleepAfter stage 2 people then pass into slow-wave sleep i.e. stages 3 and 4. In these stages lasting about thirty minutes, show slow breathing and pulse rates, have limp muscles, and are difficult to rouse.

d) REM SleepAt the end of stage 4, people go back through the stages in reverse, from stage 4 to 3 to 2 to 1. When they reach stage 1, instead of waking up, people go into REM, or rapid eye movement, sleep. REM sleep is a stage of deep sleep in which, brain wave activity resembles that of an alert person. During REM sleep, pulse rate and breathing become irregular, eyes move rapidly under closed lids, and muscles remain very relaxed

The REM stage of sleep gets longer and longer as the night passes, while stage 3 and 4 sleep gets shorter and shorter. During the night’s first sleep cycle, the REM stage lasts about ten minutes. During the night’s last sleep cycle, people may spend about forty to sixty minutes in REM sleep. Non-REM sleep becomes shallower as the night goes on, and eventually the sleeper awakens.


Sleep Disorders Disruptions of sleep or excessive amounts of daytime sleepiness are called sleep disorders. These may be caused by physiological or psychological factors. Some of the more common sleep disorders include:

a) Sleep Apneab) Insomniac) Parasomniad) Sleep Paralysise) Somnambulismf) Narcolepsy

a) Sleep ApneaSnoring may represent a difficulty in keeping the throat open while one sleeps. Its more serious companion is a chronic medical condition where the affected person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep. These episodes last 10 seconds or more and cause oxygen levels in the blood to drop. It can be caused by obstruction of the upper airway, resulting in obstructive sleep apnea, or by a failure of the brain to initiate a breath, called central sleep apnea

b) InsomniaInsomnia is an inability to obtain a sufficient amount of sleep to feel rested and can be characterized either by difficulty falling or staying asleep. It is the most common sleep disorder, with many potential causes.

c) ParasomniaParasomnia is a sleep disorder characterized by abnormal sleep behaviors. Parasomnia involves unconscious complex, semi-purposeful, and goal-directed behaviors that have meaning or importance to the individual.

d) Sleep Paralysis or CataplexySleep paralysis is characterized by a temporary inability to move while transitioning from sleep to wakefulness, such as when falling asleep or waking up. It may be frightening as one may seem to be awake, but unable to move. It is common, but may also be a symptom of narcolepsy.

e) SomnambulismThis disorder is characterized by Sleepwalking in which individual become physically active, they may get up and walk around their room or even carry on a conversation, but they remember nothing of their actions when they wake up.

f) NarcolepsyA condition characterized by an extreme tendency to fall asleep whenever in relaxing surroundings


Eye:

Parts of Eyes:

a) ScleraIt is a tough white layer of connective tissue that covers the entire eyeball except the cornea. External cover of the sclera keeps the eye moist.

b) CorneaThe cornea is the clear bulging surface in front of the eye. It allows for the passage of light into the eye and functions as a fixed lens.

c) IrisIt is the colored part of the eye containing a ring of muscles

d) PupilThe iris surrounds an opening called the pupil, which can get bigger or smaller to allow different amounts of light through the lens to the back of the eye. In bright light, the pupil contracts to restrict light intake; in dim light, the pupil expands to increase light intake.

e) LensIt lies behind the pupil and iris. It can adjust its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far away.

f) RetinaIt is a thin layer of neural tissue that contain rod and cones that helps in establishing an image

g) FoveaIt is the center of the retina where vision is sharpest.

h) Blind Spot It is the point of entry of the optic nerve on the retina, insensitive to light. It is an area where a person's view is obstruct


Function of Eye:Light enters the eye through a small hole called the pupil and is focused on the retina. Eye had a focusing lens, which focuses images from different distances on the retina. The colored ring of the eye, the iris, controls the amount of light entering the eye. It closes when light is bright and opens when light is dim. A tough white sheet called sclera covers the outside of the eye providing moisture. Front of sclera is transparent, known as the cornea, in order to allow the light to enter the eye. Ciliary muscles in ciliary body control the focusing of lens automatically. Inverted image formed on the retina is transmitted to brain by optic nerve. The image is finally perceived by brain through visual cortex

Colour Perception:Color perception is the capacity of an individual to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light they reflect, emit, or transmit.


Theories of Colour Perception:There are two theories of colour perception

a) The Trichromatic Theoryb) The Opponent Process Theory

a) The Trichromatic Theory

Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the trichromatic theory, or Young-Helmholtz theory. This theory states that the retina contains three types of cones, which respond to light of three different wavelengths, corresponding to red, green, or blue. Activation of these cones in different combinations and to different degrees results in the perception of other colors.

b) Opponent process theoryEwald Hering proposed the opponent process theory. According to this theory, the visual system has receptors that react in opposite ways to three pairs of colors. The three pairs of colors are red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white. Some receptors are activated by wavelengths corresponding to red light and are turned off by wavelengths corresponding to green light. Other receptors are activated by yellow light and turned off by blue light. Still others respond oppositely to black and white. Opponent process theory also accounts for complementary or negative afterimages. Afterimages are colors perceived after other, complementary colors are removed. When one member of the colour pair is "fatigued" by extended inspection, inhibition of its corresponding pair member is reduced. This increases the relative activity level of the unfatigued pair member and results in its colour being perceived.

Color Blindness

Color blindness, or color vision deficiency, refers to the inability of a person to correctly distinguish certain colors. Color vision problems range from the inability to see different shades of a color to not being able to see certain colors at all.


Causes of Color Blindness:

Color blindness is caused by cells in the retina that incorrectly process colors. Specialized cone cells, which are responsible for color vision, lack the ability to send the correct signals to the brain. Color blindness is usually hereditary. About eight percent of men and one percent of women are color vision deficient. More males are affected by the disorder than females.Occasionally, certain eye diseases cause color blindness, referred to as "acquired color blindness." Aging can also cause the disorder; as the lens darkens with age, older people may find it difficult to distinguish colors.

Stroop effect

The Stroop effect is a demonstration of the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue," "green," or "red") is printed in a color not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color. The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop who first published the effect in English in 1935. This phenomenon occur as our right hemisphere try to read colour and our left hemisphere try to read the written word.


Language:

Language is a system of symbols and rules that is used for meaningful communication. A system of communication has to meet certain criteria in order to be considered a language:

a) A language uses symbols, which are sounds, gestures, or written characters that represent objects, actions, events, and ideas. Symbols enable people to refer to objects that are in another place or events that occurred at a different time.

b) A language is meaningful and therefore can be understood by other users of that language.

c) A language is generative, which means that the symbols of a language can be combined to produce an infinite number of messages.

d) A language has rules that govern how symbols can be arranged. These rules allow people to understand messages in that language even if they have never encountered those messages before.

The Building Blocks of LanguageLanguage is organized hierarchically, from phonemes to morphemes to phrases and sentences that communicate meaning.

a) Phonemes These are the smallest distinguishable units in a language.

b) Morphemes These are the smallest meaningful units in a language. In the English language, only a few single letters, such as I and a, are morphemes.

c) Syntax Syntax is a system of rules that governs how words can be meaningfully arranged to form phrases and sentences.


Stages of Language

Children go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce complex, multi-word sentences.

a) Babbling:The first stage of language development is known as the prelinguistic, babbling or cooing stage. During this period, which typically lasts from the age of three to nine months, babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa. By five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.

b) Single Words:The second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language development. Around the age of 10 to 13 months, children will begin to produce their first real words. While children are only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, it is important to realize that they are able to understand considerably more.

c) Two Words: The third stage begins around the age of 18 months, when children begin to use two word sentences. These sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs, such as "Where daddy?" and "Puppy big!"

d) Multi-word Sentences:Around the age of two, children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject and predicate. For example, a child might say "Mommy is nice" or "Want more candy."

Theories of Language:

There are four basic theories for language acquisition

a) Environmental Influences on Language Acquisition

A major proponent of the idea that language depends largely on environment was the behaviorist B. F. Skinner. He believed that language is acquired through principles of conditioning, including association, imitation, and reinforcement.

According to this view, children learn words by associating sounds with objects, actions, and events. They also learn words and syntax by imitating others. Adults enable children to learn words and syntax by reinforcing correct speech.

b) Biological Influences on Language Acquisition


The main proponent of the view that biological influences bring about language development is the well-known linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argues that human brains have a language acquisition device (LAD), an innate mechanism or process that allows children to develop language skills. According to this view, all children are born with a universal grammar, which makes them receptive to the common features of all languages. Because of this hard-wired background in grammar, children easily pick up a language when they are exposed to its particular grammar.

c) Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis:

Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed the linguistic relativity hypothesis. He said language determines the way people think. For example, Whorf said that Eskimo people and English-speaking people think about snow differently because the Eskimo language has many more words for snow than the English language does.

d) Interactionist Theory:

Lev Vygotsky being the brightest among Interactionists argue that language development is both biological and social. He argues that language learning is influenced by the desire of children to communicate with others.

e) Brain and Language

At the left inferior frontal cortex lies Broca's area, which is usually associated with the production of language, or language outputs. At posterior portion of the left temporal lobe lies Wernicke's area, which is associated with the processing of words that we hear being spoken, or language inputs.

Multilingualism:

Multilingualism or bilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use, of multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. People sometimes assume that bilingualism impairs children’s language development; there is no evidence to support this assumption. Bilingual children develop language at the same rate as children who speak only one language


Emotions:

Feelings that generally have both cognitive and physiological elements and that influence behavior

OR

A natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others

Theories of Emotion:

There are three different popular theories of emotion

a) James-Lange Theory of Emotionb) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotionc) Schachter-Singer Theory

a) James-Lange Theory of EmotionThe James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. According to this theory, you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions. For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and you see a snake. You begin to tremble and your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will interpret your physical reactions and conclude that you are frightened.

b) Cannon-Bard Theory of EmotionThis theory states that we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling and muscle tension simultaneously.

c) Schachter-Singer Theory Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain emotion. They said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they find in their environment.


Neurological basis of Emotion:The amygdala, in the brain’s temporal lobe is important in experience of emotions, as it provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing stimulus and the recall of that stimulus later as it was evident from the P.E.T of several people inducted in an experiment, in which are asked to recall some sad and some happy moments in their life, while they were recalling the functionality of amygdala was observed being varied with the intensity of the stimulus subjects are recalling. As the neural pathway connect the amygdala, hippocampus and visual cortex scientists believe that all these three are some how related with emotions.

Aggression:

Aggression refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both physical and psychological harm to oneself, other or objects in the environment

ORAggression, is behavior, or a disposition towards behavior, that is forceful, hostile

or attacking


Theories of Aggression:

There are three theories regarding the aggressive behavior

a) Frustration-Aggression Theoryb) Social Learning Theoryc) Aggression as an instinct

a) Frustration-Aggression Theory:

When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their frustration is likely to turn to aggression.

b) Social Learning Theory:Social Learning Theorists, such as Bandura (1965), claim that aggressive behavior is learned through observing and imitating aggressive models. Aggressive behavior is strengthened and maintained if it has a desirable outcome (reinforcement). Bandura's series of Bobo doll experiments showed that aggressive behavior is imitated

c) Aggression as an instinctThe theory suggests that human aggression is an innate biological drive similar to sex and As such, it cannot be eliminated, but must be controlled, for the good of society. The theory is based on observations of non-human species in which aggression is used to maintain territory and fighting is necessary for survival. The theory supports the contentious notion that sport acts as a catharsis providing a safe and socially acceptable outlet for aggression.

Brain and Aggression:It is suggested that relatively minor damage to the pre-frontal cortex and the amygdala in the limbic system may cause increased aggression

Neurotransmitters and Aggression:It is suggested that lower level of serotonin and higher level of dopamine causes increased aggression

Hormones and Aggression:Testosterone is clearly related to aggression in humans. Not only does more testosterone result in more aggression; successful aggression (winning a fight) results in more testosterone. Estrogen on the other hand works to normalize it, as male have higher level of testosterone so they are more aggressive.

cognitive psychology

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