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O t J t

THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES

THECOINS OF INDIABY

C. J. BROWN, M.A.READER IN ENGLISH LITERATURE, LUCKNOW UNIVERSITY;MEMBER OF THE NUMISMATIC SOCIETY OF INDIA.

With Twelve Plates

" Time, which antiquates antiquities, and hath an art to makedust of all things, hath yet spared these minor monuments."

SIR THOMAS BROWNE, Hydriotaphia.

ASSOCIATION PRESS(Y.M.C.A.)

5, RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTALONDON: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSNEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNEBOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS

1922


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The Right of Translation is Reserved.

PRINTED IK INDIA


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CONTENTSCHAP. PAGB

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . 7ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . 11

I. THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA . . . . 13II. COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS, THE S"AKAS ANDPAHLAVAS .. .. .. .. ..22

III. COINS OF THE KUSHANA KINGS .. .. ..33IV. THE COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS . . . . 40V. THE MEDIAEVAL COINAGES OF NORTHERN AND

CENTRAL INDIA TILL THE MUHAMMADAN CON-QUEST . . . . . . . . 50VI. THE COINAGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA .. .. 56VII. THE MUHAMMADAN DYNASTIES OF DEHLI . . 67VIII. THE COINAGES OF THE MUHAMMADAN STATES . . 78IX. COINS OF THE SURIS AND THE MuGHALS . . . . 89X. CONTEMPORARIES AND SUCCESSORS OF THEMUGHALS .. .. .. .. .. 100

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . 110PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN COINS .. 112INDEX 113


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LIST OF PLATESPLATB NEAR PAGE

I. EARLIEST COINS OF INDIA .. .. ..20II. COINAGE OF THE INDO-GREEKS, ETC. .. ..21

III. COINAGE OF THE INDO-SCYTHIANS, ETC. . . . . 30IV. KUSHANA COINS . . . . . . . . . . 31V. COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS . . . . . . 38

VI. MEDIEVAL COINAGE OF NORTHERN INDIA .. 39VII. SOUTH INDIAN COINS .. .. .. ..48VIII. COINS OF THE SULTANS OF DEHLI . . . . 49IX. COINS OF MUHAMMADAN STATES . . . . 54X. SURI AND MUGHAL COINS . . . . . . 55XI. MUGHAL COINS .. .. .. .. ..64XII. COINS OF POST MUGHAL DYNASTIES, ETC. . . 65

The Key to each Plate will be found on the page facing it.


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INTRODUCTIONTHIS little book has been written as an introduction

to the study of the subject with which it deals, and isintended primarily for Indian readers. At the sametime the writer trusts it may be of some service tostudents and collectors, in India and elsewhere, asgiving a general conspectus of all the more importantseries of Indian coins. Two objects have been keptprominently in view : (1) to describe the evolution ofthe coinage itself, (2) to show its importance as asource of history, or as a commentary upon economic,social and political movements. In attempting this,certain limits have naturally imposed themselves.Coins purely foreign in fabric, as those of the Graeco-Bactrian kings, of the Portuguese, and of the variousEuropean trading companies, even when struck andcurrent in India, have been rigidly excluded : thisexclusion does not, however, extend to money issuedby resident foreigners with the permission and in thestyle of Indian rulers. For a cognate reason the year1857 has been fixed as the downward limit in thissurvey. Again, for the sake of simplicity, technicaltopics, such as weight-standards and metallurgy, haveonly been touched upon where discussion appearedunavoidable.

The chief desire of the writer has been to arouse inIndians an interest in their country's coinage, in thestudy of which so many fields of research lie as yet


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8 THE COINS OF INDIAalmost untouched. Although India has no coins toshow comparable to the supreme artistic conceptions ofthe Sicilian Greeks, the study of her coinage, in addi-tion to its exceptional importance as a source of history,is attended by peculiar advantages, not the least ofwhich is the fact that materials for study lie, as itwere, almost at one's door. In nearly every Indianbazar, even the smallest, in the shops of the Sarrafsor money-changers, gold, silver and copper coins are tobe had, sometimes in plenty, and can be bought cheap-ly, often at little more than the metal value. Thereis even the chance of obtaining for a few coppers,and a far more important consideration saving fromthe melting pot, a coin which may add a new fact, or aname, or a date to history.A detailed description will be found opposite eachof the plates, giving transliterations and translations of

the coin legends; and these, with the list of selectedauthorities at the end of the book, should provide thekey to a fuller knowledge of the subject. To almost allthe works mentioned in the latter the writer is indebted,although it has been impossible to acknowledge all obli-gations in detail. Mention must also be made of Dr.George Macdonald's fascinating little study, The Evolu-tion of Coinage (The Cambridge Manuals of Science andLiterature), as well as of the late Dr. Vincent Smith'sOxford History of India, which has in general beenaccepted as the authority for the historical facts anddates, somewhat plentifully incorporated throughout thebook.

In conclusion, I am under special obligation to Mr.John Allan, of the Department of Coins and Medals,British Museum, for continual assistance, for kindly


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INTRODUCTION 9reading through my manuscript and offering numeroususeful suggestions, and particularly for his help ingetting casts prepared for the plates, all of which havebeen taken from coins in the British Museum ; to Mr.H. Nelson Wright, I.C.S., who also kindly read throughthe manuscript, gave me invaluable assistance in thetransliteration of the coin legends, and freely placed atmy disposal his exact and extensive knowledge of theMuhammadan coins of India. To Mr. J. H. Waller,Secretary of the Association Press, I am also consider-ably indebted for the infinite trouble he has taken insupervising the preparation of the blocks for bothfigures and plates which illustrate this little volume.

Ranikhet, C. J. BROWN.May, 1921.

NOTE. The Cambridge History of India, Volume I, AncientIndia, appeared while this book was in the press. Fortunately,it has been possible to incorporate the conclusions arrivedat in that work, which have been accepted for the period whichit covers. The view of the Indo-Greek and later coinages takenby Professor Rapson in Chapters XXII and XXIII has also beengenerally accepted as a working hypothesis.


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ABBREVIATIONSAnno Domini .. .. .. .. .. A.D.Copper .. .. .. .. .. JE.Hijri Year .. .. .. .. .. A.H.Silver .. .. .. .. .. .. AR.Gold AV.Billon .. .. .. .. .. .. Bil.British Museum Catalogue .. .. .. B.M.C.Grains .. .. .. .. .. .. Grs.Indian Antiquary . . . . . . . . LA.Indian Museum Catalogue .. .. .. I.M.C.Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal . . . . J.A.S.B.Journal of Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society .. .. .. .. .. J.B.B.R.A.S.Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society . . . . J.R.A.S.Numismatic Chronicle .. .. .. .. Num. Chron.Numismatic Supplement to the J.A.S.B. . . Num. Supp.Obverse . . . . . . . . . . Obv.Catalogue of Coins in the Panjab Museum, Lahore . . P.M. C.Regnal Year .. .. .. .. .. R.Reverse .. .. .. .. .. Rev.Samvat Year . . . . . . . . . . S.Weight . Wt.


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Fig. 1. Phagunimitrasa in Early Brahml Script. Cf. PI. I, 4.

I

THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIAAMONG primitive peoples trade was carried on by

barter, that is, exchange in kind. Gradually, with thespread of civilising influences the inconvenience of pro-miscuous exchange made itself felt, and certain mediawere agreed upon and accepted by the community atlarge. Wealth in those early times being computed incattle, it was only natural that the ox or cow should beemployed for this purpose. In Europe, then, andalso in India, the cow stood as the higher unit ofbarter. At the lower end of the scale, for smallerpurchases, stood another unit which took various formsamong different peoples shells, beads, knives, andwhere those metals had been discovered, bars of copperor iron. In India the cowrie-shell, brought from theMaldive Islands, was so employed, and is still to be seenin many bazars in the shops of the smaller money-changers. The discovery of the precious metals carriedthe evolution of coinage a stage further : for the barterunit was substituted its value in metal, usually gold.The Greek stater and the Persian daric certainly, andpossibly the Indian suvarna, so frequently mentioned bySanskrit authors, was the value of a full-grown cow ingold, calculated by weight. However this may be, inancient India gold dust, washed out of the Indus andother rivers, served the purposes of the higher currency,


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14 THE COINS OF INDIAand from 518 B.C. to about 350 B.C., when an Indian pro-vince or satrapy was included in the Achsemenid Empireof Persia, 360 talents in gold dust was, Herodotus tellsus, 1 paid annuallyas tribute from the province into thetreasury of the Great King.

Silver from natural sources was at that time lessplentiful in India, but was attracted thither in largequantities in exchange for gold, which was cheaper therethan elsewhere in the ancient world. The transitionfrom metal weighed out to the required amount to piecesof metal of recognized weight and fineness regularizedby the stamp of authority is not difficult of explanation.The great convenience of the latter would recommendthem at once to the merchant, and to the ruler as thereceiver of tribute and taxes. Both in Asia and Europethis transition can be illustrated from extant specimens ;but, whereas in Europe and Western Asia, from theinscriptions which appeared early on the coins them-selves and from outside evidence, we know the origin ofthe earliest coins and the names of the cities or districtswhich issued them, the origin of India's earliest coin-age, like so much of her early history, is still shroudedin mystery.This much can be said, that in its earliest stages thecoinage of India developed much on the same lines asit did on the shores of the Aegean. Certain small in-gots of silver, whose only mark is three circular dots,represent probably the earliest form : next in order aresome heavy bent bars of silver with devices stampedout with a punch on one side. 2 These two classes ofcoins are computed to have been in circulation as coins,at least as early as 600 B.C., but they have not beenfound in any quantity. The time as well as the terri-tory in which they circulated was probably thereforerestricted. On the other hand, from almost everyancient site in India, from the Sundarbans in Bengal to

1 Herod III, 94. Quoted in Cunningham, Coins of AncientIndia, p. 12.3 Cf. I.M.C., p. 136, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (ingots), Nos. 4, 5, 6(bars).


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THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA 15Kabul, and as far south as Coimbatore, have been re-covered thousands of what are known to numismatistsas " Punch-marked coins " and to Sanskrit authors asPuranas ("ancient") or Dharanas. These arerectangular (PL I, 2) and circular (PI. I, 1) flat piecesof thin silver (much alloyed), or more rarely copper,cut from a hammered sheet of metal and clipped to theproper weight. One side (the obverse) is occupied by alarge number of symbols impressed on the metal bymeans of separate punches. In the oldest coins theother, the reverse side, is left blank, but on the majoritythere appears usually one, sometimes two or three,minute punch marks ; a few coins have both obverse andreverse covered with devices. These devices appear inwonderful variety more than three hundred have beenenumerated ; they comprise human figures, arms, trees,birds, animals, symbols of Buddhist worship, solar andplanetary signs. Much further detailed study of thesecoins will be needed before anything can be definitelystated about the circumstances under which they wereminted. It seems probable that in India, as in Lydia,coins were first actually struck by goldsmiths or silver-smiths, or perhaps by communal gilds (seni) . Coins withdevices on one side only are certainly the oldest type,as the rectangular shape, being the natural shape ofthe coin when cut from the metal sheet, may beassumed to be older than the circular ; on the otherhand, both shapes, and also coins with devices on one aswell as on both sides, are found in circulation apparentlyat the same time. It has also been recently shown1that groups of three, four, and sometimes five, deviceson the obverse are constant to large numbers of coinscirculating within the same district. It may perhapstherefore be conjectured that the "punch-marked"piece was a natural development of the paper hundl, ornote of hand ; that the coins had originally been struckby private merchants and gilds and had subsequently

1 By Dr. Spooner, Dr. Bhandarkar, and E, H. Walsh. Cf.Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 1919, pp. 16-72,463-94,

2


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16 THE COINS OF INDIApassed under royal control ; that they at first bore theseal of the merchant or gild, or combination of gilds,along with the seals of other gilds or communities whoaccepted them j 1 and that, when they passed under regalcontrol, the royal seal and seals of officials were firstadded to, and afterwards substituted for, the privateor communal marks. Be that as it may, we see herein the very earliest coinage the commencement ofthat fascination which the square coin seems to haveexercised upon Indian moneyers of all periods ; forit continually reappears, in the coins of the Muham-madan kingdoms of Malwa and Kashmir for example,in some beautiful gold and silver issues of the Mughals,Akbar and Jahangir, and even in the nineteenth centuryin copper pieces struck by the Bahawalpur State in thePanjab. Most writers agree, as indeed their shape,form, and weight suggest, that the "punch-marked"coins are indigenous in origin, and owe nothing to anyforeign influence. In what part of India they originat-ed we do not know : present evidence and the littleknowledge we possess of the state of India in thosetimes indicate some territory in the north. As to theperiod during which they were in active circulation weare not left so completely at the mercy of conjecture.Finds and excavations tell us something : contemporarywriters, Indian and foreign, drop us hints. Sir JohnMarshall records, during the recent excavations roundTaxila, the find of 160 " punch-marked " coins of debasedsilver, with a coin in fine condition of Diodotos ofBactria (circ. 245 B.C.). 2 Then there is the interestingstatement of the usually trustworthy Latin writer,Quintus Curtius, that Omphis (Ambhi) presented"Signati argenti LXXX talenta " " 80 talents ofstamped silver " to Alexander at Taxila. These andsimilar pieces of evidence show us that

"punch-marked

"coins were well established in Northern India during

1 Even in Mughal times bankers were in the habit of placingtheir mark on the rim or even on the face of coins which passedthrough their hands.3 Guide to Taxila, p, 117,


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THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA 17the fourth and third centuries B.C., when the greatMaurya Empire was at the height of its power. Thelarge quantities continually being unearthed suggest along period of circulation, so that in their earliestforms " punch-marked" coins may go back to the sixthcentury, and may have remained current in somedistricts of the north as late as the second century B.C.At some period, perhaps during the campaigns of thegreat Chandragupta and the settlement of the Empireunder his grandson Asoka, these coins became theestablished currency of the whole Indian peninsula,and in the southern districts, at least, they must haveremained in circulation for three, perhaps four, centurieslonger than in the north, for in Coimbatore district" punch-marked " coins have been found along with adenarius of the Roman Emperor Augustus ; and someof the earliest individualistic coinages of the south,which apparently emerge at a much later period, theso-called " padmatankas," for instance, seem to bethe immediate successors of these "punch-marked"coins.

. Now the distinction between north and south whichhas just been drawn in tracing the history of thisprimitive coinage is very important ; for this samedistinction enables us to divide the remaining ancientand mediaeval Indian coins down to the fourteenthcentury into two classes, northern and southern. Thereason for this is that Northern India, during that period,was subjected to a series of foreign invasions ; theindigenous coinages of the north were therefore con-tinually being modified by foreign influences, which, witha few exceptions to be noted, left the coinages of thesouth untouched, to develop by slow stages on strictlyIndian lines. The coins of the south will be describedin a separate chapter.To return to Northern India : at the time of Alex-ander's invasion the whole of North-Western India andthe Panjab was split up into a number of small states,some, like the important state of Taxila, ruled by a king,Others governed by " aristocratic oligarchies," Almost


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18 THE COINS OF INDIAall the coins about to be dealt with are either of copperor brass, and the earliest of them were struck, doubtless,by the ruling authorities in these states. Even aftertheir subjection to the great Maurya Emperors some ofthese states may have retained their coining rights, forit is a salient fact in the history of coins that coinage inthe base metals in India and elsewhere has not, untilquite recent times, been recognized, like coinage in goldand silver, as the exclusive privilege of the ruler. Astriking example is afforded in the copper token moneyissued by private tradesmen in England during theeighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. On thebreak up of the Maurya Empire, at the close of the thirdcentury, a number of small independent kingdomssprang into existence, and these proceeded to issuecoins, some bearing evident traces of foreign influence,but on the whole following Indian models closelyenough to be included here.

No attempt can be made to deal with this class ofcoins exhaustively : a few typical examples only can beselected for description and illustration. The readerwho wishes to pursue the subject further is referred forguidance to the Bibliography at the end of this book ;and, since at present little attempt has been made toclassify or examine these coins in any detail, fewerfields of research are likely to yield a richer reward tothe patient student.The earliest of these copper coins, some of whichmay be as early as the fifth century B.C., were cast.The casting of coins by pouring molten metal intoa cavity formed by joining two moulds together musthave been a very ancient practice in India. Sometimesthe moulds of several coins were joined together forthe casting process, and the joins thus left are notinfrequently found still adhering to the coins (PI.I, 3). 1 These coins are for the most part anonymous.

1 This process was in operation in Morocco until the middle ofthe nineteenth century. Nearchus, the companion of Alexander,says that the Indians used only cast bronze but not hammered,Stmbo XV, C, 7ia,


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THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA 19Even after striking from dies had superseded thisclumsy method in the North-West, we find cast coinsbeing issued at the close of the third century by thekingdoms of Kausambi, Ayodhya and Mathura, some ofwhich bear the names of local kings in the Brahmi1script.The earliest die-struck coins, with a device on oneside of the coin only, have been assigned to the endof the fourth century B.C. Some of these, with a liondevice, were certainly struck at Taxila, where they arechiefly found. Others present various Buddhist symbols,such as the bodhi-tree, svastika, or the plan of a monas-tery, and may therefore belong to the time of Asoka,when Buddhism first reached the North-West, orGandhara, as the territory was then called. Themethod of striking these early coins was peculiar, inthat the die was impressed on the metal when hot, sothat a deep square incuse, which contains the device,appears on the coin. A similar incuse appears on thelater double-die coins of Panchala (PI. I, 4), Kausambi,and on some of Mathura. This method of striking mayhave been introduced from Persia, and was perhaps aderivative from the art of seal-engraving.In the final stage of die-striking, devices were im-pressed on both sides of the coin, and the best of these"double-die" coins show not only greater symmetry ofshape, either round or square, but an advance in theart of die-cutting. Some of the earliest of this typehave been classed as gild tokens. The finest werestruck in Gandhara : among these one of the commonest,bearing a lion on the obverse, and an elephant onthe reverse(Pl. I, 5), is of special importance, since anapproximate date can be assigned to it, for it wasimitated by the Greek princes, Pantaleon (PI. II, 2)

1 Brahmi (Fig. 1), Phoenician in origin, was the native scriptof Northern India, and was written from left to right. Kharo-shthi (Fig. 2) was a derivation from the Aramaic script, and waswritten from right to left ; it is believed to have been introducedduring the Persian domination of Western India, and continuedin use on the North-West frontier until about the fourth centuryA.D.


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20 THE COINS OF INDIAand Agathokles, who reigned on the North-Westfrontier about the middle of the second century B.C.In the execution and design of some die-struckcoins from the North-West there are undoubted tracesof foreign influences : but such devices as the humpedbull, the elephant and the religious symbols arepurely Indian. There is, on the other hand, littleforeign influence traceable in the die-struck coins,all closely connected in point of style, which issuedduring the first and second centuries B.C. from Panchala,Ayodhya, Kausambi and Mathura. A number of thesebear Brahmi inscriptions, and the names of ten kings,which some would identify with the old Sunga dynasty,have been recovered from the copper and brass coins ofPanchala, found in abundance at Ramnagar in Rohilk-hand, the site of the ancient city Ahichhatra. Similarlytwrelve names of kings appear on the Mathura coins,but we have little knowledge of these kingdoms beyondwhat the coins supply. Certain devices are peculiar toeach series : thus most of the Ayodhya coins have ahumped bull on the obverse, the coins of Kausambi a treewithin a railing.In the coins of Eran1 we have an illustration, asRapson says, " of the development of the punch-markedsystem into the die system." These coins are rectangularcopper pieces (PL I, 6), and the device on each consistsof a collection of symbols like those which appear onthe " punch-marked " coins, but struck from a single die.They are specially interesting in that they representthe highest point of perfection reached by purely Indianmoney. Some of these, in common with a class ofround coins found at Ujjain (Avanti), display a specialsymbol, the "cross and balls," known from its almostuniversal occurrence on the coins of ancient Malwa asthe Malwa or Ujjain symbol.Though its territory lay partially in Southern India,it will be convenient to include here the coinage of the

1 Eran, or Erakina, the capital of the ancient East Malwakingdom, in the Saugor district, Central Provinces.


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KEY TO PLATE I1. Round punch-marked coin. AR.

Wt. about ;50 grs.Obv., an animal, solar symbol, etc.Rev., three symbols.

2. Rectangular punch-marked coin.AR.Obv., bull, solar symbol, etc.Rev., several indistinct "symbols.

3. Pair of cast coins, showing: join.JR.

Obv., three-arched chaitya. cres-cent above.

Rev., elephant to left.4. Panchala: Phalgunimitra. ^C.Wt. about 220 grs.

Obv., figure standing on lotus, toleft a symbol.

Rev., in incuse, in early Brahmi,Phagunimitrasa "(Coin) of Phal-gunimitra " ; above 3 symbols.

5. Taxila ; double die coin. M. Wt.about 180 grs.Obv., elephant to right, above a

chaitya.

Rev., in incuse, lion standing toleft, above swastika, to left chai-tya.

6. Eran ; punch-marked. IE,.Obv., various symbols, includingan elephant and the Ujjain sym-

bol.

7. Andhra : Gotamiputra Vilivayakura. Bil. Wt. about 200 grs.

Obv., chaitya within railing, aboveswastika, to right a tree.

Rev., bow and arrow ; aroundRano Gotamiputasa Vilivayaku-rasa "(Coin) of Raja Gotami-putra Vilivayakura."

8. Mathura; Rajuvala, satrap. Bil.Wt. 38 grs.

Obv., diademed bust of king toright ; corrupt Greek legend.

Rev., Pallas with aegis andthunderbolt to left ; Kharoshthilegend, Apratihatachakrasa chha-trapasa Rajavulasa "(Coin) ofthe satrap Rajavula, invinciblewith the discus." Kharoshthiletters in field.

Note. Where it has been impossible to ascertain the weight of the particularcoin illustrated, the average weight of coins of its class has been given ; allsuch weights are qualified by the word " about."


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PLATE I


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PLATE II


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KEY TO PLATE II1. Sophy tes (Saubhuti ). AR. Drachm.Wt. 58 '3 grs.

Obv., helmeted head of king toright.

Rev., cock to right, above cadu-ceus ; in Greek, Sophutou.2. Pantaleon. JE. Wt. about 160 grs.

Obv., in incuse, lion to right. InGreek, Basileos Pantaleontos"(Coin) of king Pantaleon."1Rev., Indian dancing girl. InBrahmi, Rajane Patalevasha.

3. Apollodotos. JE. Wt. 235-255 grs.Obv., Apollo clad in chlamys andboots standing to right, holdingan _ arrow. In Greek, Basileossoteros Apollodotou ; monogramto left.

Rev., tripod, Kharoshthi letters infield. In Kharoshthi, Maha-rajasa tratarasa Apaladatasa"(Coin) of the king, the saviour,Apollodotos."

4. Menander, AR. Hemidrachm.Wt. 377 grs.Obv., diademed bust of king to

left, thrusting javelin with righthand. In Greek as No. 3, butMenandrou .

Rev., Pallas to left with aegis onoutstretched arm, hurlingthunderbolt with right hand.Monogram to right. In Kha-roshthi as No. 3, but Menadrasa,5. Hippostratos. AR. Didrachm. Wt.143 '2 grs.

Obv., diademed head of king toright. _In Greek, Basileos mega-lou soteros Hippostratou "(Coin)of the great king.the saviour H."

Rev., king in full panoply on horseto right, monogram to right. InKharoshthi, Maharajasa trata-rasa mahatasa jayamtasaHipustratasa "(Coin) of theking, the great saviour, theconqueror Hippostratos."6. Menander. JE. Wt. 38 grs.

Obv., elephant's head with bellround neck.Rev., club of Herakles with twosymbols.Legends as No. 4.

7. Philoxenos. AR. Hemidrachm.Wt. 27'3 grs.Obv., helmeted bust of king to

right. In Greek, Basileos anlketouPhiloxenou.Rev., king on horseback ; to right,Greek letter S, and monogram.In Kharoshthi, Mafia? ajasaapadihatasa Philasinasa "(Coin)of the unconquered kingPhiloxenos."

8. Antialkidas. AR. Hemidrachm.Wt. 37-9 grs.Obv., bust of king to right wearing

flat " kausia." In Greek, Basileosnikephorou Antialkidou.

Rev., Zeus on throne bearing Nikeon outstretched right hand ;elephant, retiring to left, hassnatched away her crown. Mono-gram in field. In Kharoshthi,Maharajasa jayadharasaAmtiali-kitasa. "(Coin) of the victoriousking, Antialkidas."

9. Hermaios and Kalliope. AR.Hemidrachm.Obv., conjugate busts of king andqueen to right ; in Greek, Basileos

soteros Hermaiou kai Kalliopes.Rev., king on prancing horse toright. Monogram below. InKharoshthi, Maharajasa trata-rasa Heramayasa Kaliyapaya.

10. Strato I with Strato II. AR.Hemidrachm. Wt. 37 grs.Obv., diademed bust of aged king.In Greek, Basileos SoterosStrdtonos uiou Strdtonos. (Mean-ing doubtful. )Rev.. Pallas to left with segisand thunderbolt. In Kharoshthi,Maharajasa tratarasa Stratasapotrasa chasa priyapita Stratasa,"(Coin) of king Strato Soter andof his grandson, Strato Philo-pater."

. 11. Nahapana. AR. Hemidrachm.|

Wt. 29'2 grs.Obv., head of satrap to right.Corrupt Greek legend.Rev., thunderbolt and arrow. InBrahmi, Rano Chhaharatasa ; in

Kharoshthi, Nahapanasa^(Coin')of the Kshaharata kingNahapana.In these bilingual coins, unless otherwise noted, the same inscription isreproduced in both languages. Technically the reverse of this coin isthe obverse, as being the impression from the lower die.


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THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA 21great Andhra dynasty, since several of its issues areclosely connected with the currency of the north. TheAndhras probably became independent about the year230 B.C., and their rule lasted for four and a halfcenturies. Their coins of various types have beenfound in Malwa, on the banks of the Krishna andGodavari rivers, the original home of the race, as farsouth as Madras, in north Konkan, and elsewhere in theDeccan and the Central Provinces. The earliest towhich a date can be assigned are those bearing thename of a king Sri Sata, about 150 B.C. Most Andhracoins are either of billon1 or lead, with Brahmi legendson both obverse and reverse, and characteristic devicesare the elephant, chaitya (Buddhist chapel), and bow(PI. I, 7). Sometimes the "Ujjain symbol " appears onthe reverse. One issue, in lead, of Vasishthiputra SriPulumavi (about A.D. 130) is interesting, in that it hason the obverse a ship with two masts, and was evidentlyintended for circulation on the Coromandel coast.Coins have been assigned to seven Andhra kings, thelatest of which, Sri Yajna Satakarni (about A.D. 184),struck not only the usual lead and billon coins, butrestruck and imitated the silver hemidrachms of thesatrap Nahapana (PL III, 1). The Andhra lead coinagewas copied by one or two feudatory chiefs in Mysoreand North Kanara.

1 Billon, orpotin, is a mixture of silver and copper in varyingproportions.


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SUCCESSORS OF THE MUGHALS 101gonal shape of the coins is said to owe its origin to astatement in the Yogini Tantra, which describes theAhom country as octagonal. Some of the smaller coinsare, however, round, and Siva Simha, for a coin of S.1651, on which he associates the name of his queen,Pramathesvari, and Rajesvara Simha (1751-69), for twoof his issues, adopted the square Mughal form and stylewith legends in Persian. The inscription on SivaSimha' s coin is as follows : obverse, Shah Sheo Singhstruck coin like tJie sun by order of the Queen PramathesvariShah; reverse, In the year 15 of the fortunate reign atGargaon 1651 (= A.D. 1729). For this the Nur Jahanissues of Jahangir were obviously the model. Withthe exception of a coin of Suklenmung, all gold andsilver was struck to a standard of 176 grains, and half,quarter, eighth, and even smaller fractional pieces wereminted. Several of the earlier Rajas employed theAhom language and script for their legends. Sanskritwritten in the Bengali script was first used by SuryaNarayana (1611-49). Pramatta Simha (1744-51) andRajesvara Simha employ both, but after the coronationceremony of the latter Sanskrit alone was used. Thelegends, in either script, are always enclosed withindotted borders (PI. XII, 8). These thick rather solid-looking coins, though attractive on account of their un-usual shape, are entirely without artistic merit; theyceased to be minted with the cession of Assam to theBritish in 1826. The broad round silver pieces of theRajas of Jaintia (Jayantapura) of the eighteenth cen-tury, and the coins of the hill state of Tipperah, bearlegends similar in style to the Assamese Sanskrit coins,and, like them, are dated in the Saka era. The dates onthe Ahom coins of Assam are reckoned according tothe Jovian cycle of sixty years.

II. THE COINAGE OF NEPALThe considerable Mughal influence exhibited in themodern coinage of the Malla kings of Nepal, which

starts in the early years of the seventeenth century,finds expression in the native legend which affirms that


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102 THE COINS OF INDIARaja Mahendra Malla of Kathman^u obtained permissionto strike coins from the Dehli court. Although noneof his money has come to light, the story gains somesupport from the weight of the early Nepalese coins,which are all half-rupees, and from a curious piece ofPratapa Malla of Kathmantfu (1639-89), which imitatesJahangir's coinage, even adopting fragments of thePersian inscription.

Nepal, at the period when the coinage begins, wasdivided into three principalities Bhatgaon, Patan andKathmandu and probably the earliest coins are those ofLakshmi Narasimha,ruler of the last province (1595-1639),although the earliest date, Nepali Samvat1 751 (= A.D.1631) appears on one struck by Siddhi Narasimha ofPatan. The usual design on the coins, perhaps suggest-ed by some of Akbar's and Jahangir's issues, consists ofelaborate geometrically ornamented borders surround-ing a central square or circle, with the legends in Nagarifitted into the spaces left in the design. On the obverseappear the king's name, titles and date, and on thereverse various symbols, accompanied sometimes by afurther title or a religious formula. The Gurkhas, whoconquered the country in 1768, continued the style of theirpredecessors (PI. XII, 6), but occasionally struck full aswell as the ordinary half-rupees. Girvan YuddhaVikrama (1799-1816) and Surendra Vikrama (1847-81)also struck gold similar in design to the silver coins,and the latter introduced a copper currency.The silver tang-ka (tankah) of Tibet was directlyimitated from the coinage of Jagajjaya Malla of Kath-u (1702-32).

HI. SUCCESSORS TO THE MUGHALSThe confusion into which the coinage of India fell

on the break up of the Mughal power, when indepen-dent mints sprang up in every part of their widedominions, may be gathered from the calculation made

1 This Nepali or Newar era was introduced by RaiaA.D, 879,


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SUCCESSORS OF THE MUGHALS 103in the early part of the nineteenth century, that therewere no less than 994 different gold and silver coins,old and new, passing as current in the country. Thecomplexity of the subject is further accentuated by theimpossibility of distinguishing at present the earliercoins of independent mints from the imperial issues.Later on, the gradual debasement, caused by the additionof special local marks and the evolution of distinc-tive types in certain states, makes classification easier.Few of these coinages have hitherto been treatedcomprehensively, and all that can be attempted here isa bare outline, according more detailed treatment onlyto the more considerable moneying states.The papers of the East India Company, fortunately,have preserved for us a record of events typical ofwhat was taking place in many parts of India.They show that, besides coining the South Indianpagodas, already noticed, and copper and silver coinsin European style, the English factories were earlyengaged in reproducing the rupees of the Mughalemperors. The first which can be fixed with anycertainty are those from the mint of Bombay, orMumbai, as it appears on the coins, opened in thereign of Farrukhsiyar (1713-19); and in 1742 theemperor, Muhammad Shah, granted the Company asanad permitting them to coin Arkat rupees. Graduallythe Company assumed control of all mints withinits increasing territories. In 1765, for example, afterthe battle of Buxar it took over the Bengal mints. Uni-formity of standard was maintained, first by engrav-ing special marks on the coins (Fig. 9, 4), and then byfixing the regnal year. 1 Thus the gold and silver coinsof the Banaras mint of the Hijri years 1190 to 1229 allbear the same regnal date 17. 2 So also the year 19

1 This was to stop peculation on the part of money-changers,bankers and even revenue collectors, who made a rebate on allrupees not of the current year.3 On the Banaras coins the actual regnal date, i.e. of Shah'Alam II, is added beneath the conventional date 17 ; this was notadopted for other mjpts,


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104 THE COINS OF INDIAwas fixed for the Murshidabad mint, the year 45 forFarrukhabad. These coins, still inscribed with theMughal emperor's name, became more and more Euro-pean in style (PI. XII, 9), those of Farrukhabad beingeven struck with a milled edge, until finally supersededby the British Imperial currency of 1835.A similar evolution, but in the direction of deteriora-tion, can be traced in the issues of the Marathas, Rajputs,and other powers. The Marathas seized the importantmint of Ahmadabad in 1752 ; and the coins struck therein the Mughal style (until it was closed by the Britishin 1835) all bear as a characteristic mark the " Ankus,"or elephant-goad. The Peshwa also had a mint atPuna ; and numerous private mints in Maharasthra,some striking pagodas and fanams as well as rupees,were worked with or without his permission. OtherMaratha mints were those of the Bhonsla Rajas atKatak in Orissa and at Nagpur ; rupees of the latterbear the mint-name Surat. So also the Gaikwar hada mint at Baroda, Scindia at Ujjain and later on at Gwa-liar, Holkar at Indor. Jaswant Rao Holkar issued, in1806, a notable rupee with Sanskrit legends on bothobverse and reverse (PI. XII, 7).Numerous Rajput states copied the imperial coinagein their local mints, Jaipur (opened about 1742),Bikaner, Jodhpur, and many others; but in the nine-teenth century the names of the ruling chiefs weresubstituted for that of the titular emperor. Silver andgold were struck in the emperor's name by the Nizam sof Haidarabad, who were content to distinguish theirseveral issues by the addition of their initials(PI. XII, 4) until 1857, after which the full name of theNizam took the place of the emperor's. The Rohillasduring the period of their ascendancy had a group ofmints in Rohilkhand, the chief of which were Najibabad,Muradabad, Bareli and Saharanpur. The copper coin-age of these independent states is excessively crude, andthe practice of striking to local standards, which beganunder the later Mughals, now became general. Thecopper mints were probably entirely in private hands.


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SUCCESSORS OF THE MU&HALS 105Here it will be convenient to deal with a coinage,

which, though partially of Mughal lineage in other res-pects, stands by itself. The reign of Tipu Sultan ofMysore, though lasting only sixteen years (1782-99), wasproductive of one of the most remarkable individualcoinages in the history of India, comparable in manyways to that of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. His father,Haidar 'AH, as we have already seen (Chap. VI), struckpagodas and fanams. Tipu continued to strike boththese, retaining the initial " he " of Haidar 's name, butadding a mint name on the obverse or reverse(PI. VI, 10). In addition, he coined muhars and halfmuhars, in silver the double and full rupee, with its half,quarter, eighth, sixteenth and thirty-second parts, andin copper pieces of 40, 20, 1 10, 5 and 2\ cash. The 40-cash piece weighed 340 grains. To each of these coins,following perhaps the example of Jahangir, he gave aspecial name. The pagoda, equal to the quarter of amuhar, he called, for instance, Faruql ; the double rupee,ffaidarl ; the rupee, Ahmadl ; the 20-cash piece, Zohra ;and so on. The Persian inscriptions on gold and silverare religious in character, that on the rupee runs asfollows: obverse, The religion of Ahmad (i.e. Isldm) isillumined in the world by the victory of Haidar, struck atNagar, the cyclic year Dalv, the Hijrl year 1200 ; reverse,He is the Sultan, the unique, the just; the third of Bah&rl,the year Dalv, the regnal year 4-. For his copper coinsTipu adopted the elephant device of the Wodeyar kingsof Mysore (1578-1733), and the animal appears in variousattitudes on the obverse, sometimes to right, sometimesto left, with trunk raised, and with trunk lowered. Onthe 40-cash pieces he carries a flag. The reverse givesthe mint and, later in the reign, the distinctive name ofthe coin also (PI. XII, 5).

At least thirteen mints were working under Tipu,the most important being Pattan (Seringapatam),Nagar (Bednur), and Bangalur ; for some mints merely1 The 20-cash piece had been struck by Haidar 'AH in thelast two years of his reign, A.H. 1195-96. Cf. J. R. Henderson,Th Coins of Haidar ' All and Tlpti Sultan, Madras, 1921, p. 5.9


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106 THE COINS OF INDIAhonorific titles appear, thus Nazarbar, "scatteringfavour," for Mysore.

The most remarkable and perplexing of Tipu'sinnovations was his method of dating the coins. Forthis purpose he used the Jovian cycle of sixty years,according to the Telugu reckoning, inventing specialnames for each of the sixteen years of his reign, inaccordance with their correspondence with that cycle,and composing the names at different periods from theletters supplied by the two systems of numerationknown as abjad and abtas. For the first four years ofhis reign, when he employed the abjad system, he alsodated his coins in the Hijri era ; in the fifth year he in-vented a new era, the Mauludi, reckoned from the dateof Muhammad's birth in A.D. 571; dates in this eraappear written from right to left. The execution ofmost of Tipu's coins is exceptionally good.Krishna Raja Udayar (1799-1868), the restoredRaja of Mysore, for a time continued the elephantcopper pieces of Tipu, but later changed thedevice for a lion. Kanarese inscriptions (Fig. 6) were,however, at once substituted for Persian.We must now turn to Hindustan proper. BothNadir Shah, in 1739, and Ahmad Shah Durrani (1748-67) and his successors struck rupees and muhars tothe Mughal standard for the districts they temporarilyoccupied. Nadir's issues are Persian in fabric, but theDurrani coins, struck at Shahjahanabad (PI. XII, 2),Farrukhabad, Lahor, Multan, Kabul, and several othermints, are largely Mughal in style. On the whole, theissues of these princes, especially those of Qandaharand Peshawar and the rare pieces of the pretenders,Sulaiman and Humayun, reach a much higher artisticlevel than the contemporary Mughal coins.

One of the most important results of Ahmad Shah'srepeated invasions of the Panjab was the formation of theSikh League, known as the Khalsa. After the seventhinvasion, in 1764, the League assumed the right of coinage ;and from that date till 1777, with a gap of two years,1766-67, for Ahmad Shah's last invasion, " Gobindshahi "


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SUCCESSORS OF THE MUGHALS 107rupees were struck at Labor, so called from the nameof the Guru Gobind being included in the Persian couplet,which formed the inscription. Amritsar, Ambratsar onthe coins, became a mint in 1777. Its earliest rupees,known as " Nanakshahl, " bore a different couplet (PI.XII, 10). A few coins were also struck at Anandgarh.All Sikh coins are dated in the Samvat era. 1 The coinsof Ranjit Singh (1799-1839) are of two distinct kinds,those with Persian (often very faulty) and those withGurmukhi2 inscriptions. Rupees of the Persian couplettype appear regularly from the mints of Lahor andAmritsar throughout his reign, from Multan after1818, from Kashmir after 1819 ; and a few rupeesare known from Peshawar, Jhang and Pind DadanKhan. The king's name was never inscribed on thecoinage; but the characteristic Sikh "leaf" markmakes its appearance upon his earliest rupee, datedS. 1857 (=A.D. 1800). During the Samvat years1861-63, first a peacock's tail and then a thumb-mirror appears on the Amritsar rupees ; these aresaid to bear reference to Rarijit's favourite dancing-girl, Mora. A curious rupee of Lahor of S. 1885displays the figures of Guru Nanak and his Muham-madan follower, Mardana. Ranjit Singh also coinedmuhars similar in style to the rupees.About the year S. 1885, apparently, the Gurmukhicoins were introduced. A few gold and silver coins areknown, but most are copper, some weighing as muchas 600 grains. The inscriptions are generally religiousin character ; the commonest is Akal Sahai, GuruNanakji, " O, Eternal one help us! Guru Nanakji! " 3The reverse gives the date and mint, generallyAmbratsar. The script is usually very crude, and the" leaf " mark is almost invariably present. Some coins,like those of Kashmir, have bilingual legends in Persian

1 The Samvat, which corresponds with the Vikrama era,begins in 58 B.C.a Gurmukhi is a Panjab provincial form of the Nagarl script(cf.Fig.10).1 The two parts of this legend are quite separate in sense.


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108 THE COINS OF INDIAand Gurmukhi. Rupees of the Persian couplet typecontinued to be struck after Ranjit's death, in S. 1896,till S. 1905 (= A.D. 1848). The chiefs of the Sikhstates, Patiala, Jhind, Nabha and Kaital, and the DograRajas of Kashmir, after A.D. 1846, also coined rupeesof this type. On some of these last was inscribed, onaccount of its supposed talismanic power, the Christianmonogram I.H.S.In conclusion, we must consider the coins ofthe Nawab-wazirs and kings of Oudh or Awadh. Theexistence of this province as a separate principalitybegan in 1720, when the wazir, S'adat EJhan, was createdSubahdar. From 1754 to 1775 the Mughal mint ofMuhammadabad-Banaras was under the control of thethird Nawab-wazir Shuja'u-d-daula. From 1784 till1818 succeeding nawabs continued to mint in Lakhnau(Lucknow) the famous "Machhlidar " rupees, so calledfrom the fish (Fig. 9, 5), the royal badge of Awadh,appearing on the reverse. All of these bear the regnaldate 26, and continue the mint name Banaras. Othermints worked by the nawabs from time to time wereBareli, after 1784, Ilahabad, 1776-1780, and Asafnagar.In 1818 Lord Hastings persuaded Ghaziu-d-dinHaidar to assume the title of king, and from that timethe regal series of coins begins. The royal arms ofAwadh, in various forms, appear on the obverse of gold,silver and copper of Ghaziu-d-din and his four succes-sors, until the forced abdication of the last king, Wajid'AH Shah, in 1856. On the reverse, the inscription,following the Mughal example, takes the form ofa couplet ; and silver and gold are struck to theMughal standard (PI. XII, 3). Fractional pieces of therupee and muhar were struck in all reigns. Thoughbetter executed and finer in metal than those of mostother successors of the Mughals, these coins display acertain monotony, all denominations in the three metalsfollowing the prescribed pattern for the reign. Certainmodifications in the inscription, however, take placefrom time to time. The coins of Wajid 'All Shah'sseventh and eighth years, of which five denominations


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SUCCESSORS OF THE MUGHALS 109in each metal are known, are probably the finest of theseries.

Two large silver medals are associated with theAwadh dynasty, the first commemorating: Shuja'u-d-daula's victory over the Rohillas at Miran Katra, in 1774,the second struck by GJiaziu-d-din IJaidar, in honour ofhis coronation on 1st Muharram A.H. 1235. On theobverse of the latter is an ornate and very realisticportrait of the king, and on the reverse the arms ofAwadh. Certain " Machhlidar " rupees and muhars,bearing the date A.H. 1229, on which the mint name$ubah Awadh occurs, are believed to have been mintedby the Lucknow mutineers. It is not unfitting that thisshort history of Indian coins should close with a des-cription of the money of the Awadh kings; for this latestscion of the great Mughal currency not only received itssanction from an English Governor-General, but mani-fested, in the adoption of armorial bearings of a Westerntype for its obverse, the beginning of that Europeaninfluence, which, later on in the nineteenth century,was to revolutionise the coin types of the few Indianstates, Haidarabad, Travancore, Gwaliar, Alwar,Baroda, etc., which retained the right of minting afterthe introduction of the British Imperial currency.


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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHYGENERAL

J. PRINSEP : Essays in Indian Aniquities, Ed. E. THOMAS,London, 1858 ; E. J. RAPSON : Indian Coins (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Alterturnskunde) , Strassburg, 1897 ;C. J. RODGERS : Coin Collecting in Northern India, Allahabad,1894 ; V. A. SMITH : Catalogue of the Coins in the IndianMuseum, Calcutta, Vol. I, Oxford, 1906 (for Chaps. I VI and X) ;E. THOMAS: " Ancient Indian Weights "(= International Numis-mata Orientalia, I, Part i), 1865.SPECIAL

CHAP. I. A. CUNNINGHAM : Coins of Ancient India, 1891 ;E. J. RAPSON : Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, theWestern Ksatrapas, etc., in the British Museum, London, 1908 ;W. THEOBALD : "Notes on Some of the Symbols found on thePunch-marked Coins of Hindustan,"/.A.SB., 1890, p. 181 ; E. H.WALSH : " An Examination of a Find of Punch-marked Coins inPatna City," Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society,1919, p. 16, p. 463.

CHAPS. II-III. A. CUNNINGHAM: "Coins of Alexander'sSuccessors in the East," 1873 (= Num. Chron., 1868-1873) ; id. :" Coins of the Indo-Scythians," 1892 ( Num. Chron., 1888-1892);P. GARDNER : Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum :Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India, London,1886 ; E. J. RAPSON : Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Chaps.XXII, XXIII ; R. B. WHITKHEAD : Catalogue of Coins in thePanjdb Museum, Lahore, Vol. I, Oxford, 1914.

CHAP. IV. J. ALLAN : Catalogue of the Coins of the GuptaDynasties in the British Museum, London, 1914.

CHAP. V. R. BURN: "Some Coins of the Maukharis andof the Thanesar Line," J.R.A.S., 1906, p. 843 ; A. CUNNINGHAM:" Coins of the Later Indo-Scythians," 1894 (= Num. Chron., 1893-1894) ; id.: " Coins of Mediaeval India," 1894 ; C. J. RODGERS :"Coins of the Maharajahs of Kashmir," J.A.S.B., 1897, p. 277 ;id.: " Coins of the Maharajahs of Kangra," J.A.S.B., 1880, p. 10.

CHAP. VI. G. BIDIE: "The Pagoda or Varaha Coins ofSouthern India," J.A.S.B., 1883, p. 33 ; W. ELLIOT : " Coins ofSouthern India," 1886 (= International Numismata Orientalia


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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 111III, Part 2) ; E. HULTZCH : " The Coins of the Kings of Vijaya-nagar," /.A., 1891, p. 301; id.: " South Indian Copper Coins, "LA. t1892, p. 321 ; id.: " Miscellaneous South Indian Coins," LA., 1896,p. 317 ; R. P. JACKSON : " The Dominions, Emblems and Coinsof the South Indian Dynasties," 1913 ( British NumismaticJournal, 1913); E. LOVENTHAL : The Coins of Tinnevelly,Madras, 1888; T. W. RHYS-DAVIDS: "Ancient Coins andMeasures of Ceylon," 1877 (= International Numismatia Orien-talia, I, Part 6); R. H. C. TUFNELL : Hints to Coin Collectorsin Southern India, Madras, 1889.

CHAP. VII. S. LANE POOLE : Catalogtie of Coins in theBritish Museum, Sultans of Dehli, London, 1884 ; E. THOMAS :Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Dehli, London, 1871 ; C. J.RODGERS : " Coins Supplementary to Thomas, Chronicles of thePathan Kings," Nos. I VI., J.A.S.B., 1880-1896 ; H. N. WRIGHT :Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Vol. II,Oxford, 1907 ; id.: " Addenda to the Series of Coins of the PathanSultans of Dehli," J.R.A.S., p. 481, p. 769.CHAP. VIII. S. LANE POOLE : Catalogue of Coins of theMuhammiidan States of India in the British Museum, London,1885 ; H. N. WRIGHT : Catalogue of the Coins in the IndianMuseum, Calcutta, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907. Bengal. E. THOMAS :

"The Initial Coinage of Bengal," J.A.S.., 1867, p. 1, 1873, p.343 ; A.F. R. HOERNLE : " A New Find of Muhammadan Coins ofBengal" (2 papers), J.A.S.B., 1881, p. 53, 1883, p. 211. Kashmir.C. J. RODGERS : "The Square Coins of the Muhammadan Kingsof Kashmir," J.A.S.B., 1885, p. 92. Bahmanis. O. CODRINGTON :"Coins of the Bahmani Dynasty," Num. Chron., 1898, p. 259;J. GIBBS: "Gold and Silver Coins of the Bahmani Dynasty,"Num. Chron., 1881. Gujarat. G. P. TAYLOR : " Coins of theGujarat Saltanat," J.B.B.R.A.S., 1904, p. _278. Malwa. L.WHITE KING: "History and Coinage of Malwa," Num. Chron.,1903, p. 356, 1904, p. 62. Ma'bar. E. HULTZCH : " Coinage of theSultans of Madura," J.R.A.S., 1909, p. 667.

CHAP. IX. C. J. BROWN : Catalogue of the Mughal Coins inthe Provincial Museum, Lucknow, 2 Vols., Oxford, 1920 ; S. LANEPOOLE : Catalogue of the Coins of the Moghul Emperors in theBritish Museum, London, 1892; R. B. WHITEHEAD : Catalogueof the Coins of the Mughal Emperors in the Panjdb Museum,Lahore, Oxford, 1914; id.: "The Mint Towns of the MughalEmperors of India," J.A.S.B., 1912, p. 425; H. N. WRIGHT:Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Vol. Ill,Oxford, 1908. [Also a large number of articles scattered throughthe J.R.A.S.,LA.,J.A.S.B., especially the Numismatic Supple-ments to the last, starting from 1904.]

CHAP. X. J. ALLAN: "The Coinage of Assam," Num.Chron., 1909, p. 300; C. J. BROWN: "The Coins of the Kings ofAwadh," Num. Supp., XVIII, J.A.S.B., 1912 ; M. LONGWORTH


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112 THE COINS OF INDIADAMES: "Coins of the DurranTs," Num. Chron., Vol. VIII, 3rdseries, p. 325 ; C. J. RODGERS : "On the Coins of the Sikhs,"J.A.S.B., 1881, p. 71. East India Company. E. THURSTON :"History of the East India Company Coinage," J.A.S.&., 1893,p. 52 ; id. : History of the Coinage of the Territories of the E.LC.in the Indian Peninsula and Catalogue of the Coins in the MadrasMuseum, Madras, 1890. Marathas. A. MASTER : " The Post-Mughal Coins of Ahmadabad, Num. Supp., XXll,J.A.S.B., 1914;M. G. RANADE : "Currencies and Mints Under Mahratta Rule,J...tf.A.S.,1902, p. 191 ; G. P. TAYLOR : " On the Baroda Coinsof the Last Six Gaikwars," Num. Supp., XVIII, J.A.S.B., 1912.Rajputana. A. F. R. HOERNLE : " Notes on Coins of Native

States, J.A.S.B., 1897, p 261 ; W. W. WEBB : The Currencies ofthe Hindu States of Rajputana, London, 1893. Tipu Sultan.R. P.JACKSON : " Coin Collecting in Mysore," British NumismaticJournal, 1909; G. P. TAYLOR: "The Coins of Tipu Sultan"{Occasional Memoirs of the Numismatic Society of India) , 1914.

CHAP. VII-X. W. H. VALENTINE: The Copper Coins ofIndia, I, II, London, 1914.

PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIANCOINSIndia. Indian Museum, Calcutta (all classes) ; Dehli Museum

of Archasology (Sultans of Dehli, Mughals) ; Panjab Museum,Lahore (Indo-Greeks, S~akas, Pahlavas, Sultans of Dehll, Mughals.Sikhs); Provincial Museum, Lucknow (Ancient Indian, Guptas,Sultans of Dehll, Mughals, Awadh) ; Government Central Museum,Madras (South Indian, Ceylon, Mysore, East India Company,Mughals, Sultans of Dehll, Indo-Portuguese) ; Prince of Wales'Museum, Bombay (Gujarat, Mughals, Marathas); ProvincialMuseum, Shillong (Sultans of Bengal, Assam, Koch, Jaintia) ;Central Museum, Nagpur (Sultans of Dehli, Mughals, Marathas,Bahmanis) ; Dacca Museum (Sultans of Bengal); PatnaMuseum (Punch-marked series, Mughals, Sultans of JDehli,Bengal Sultans); Peshawar Museum (Indo-Greeks, Sakas,Pahlavas, Mughals, Durranls), Macmahon Museum, Quetta(Durranis, Mughals, Barakzais).

London. British Museum (all classes).Continent. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris ; Kaiser FriedrichMuseum, Berlin.America. American Numismatic Society's Collection, NewYork,


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