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MANG7001 Research Methods 2011-12

Sohail Yunise-mail : mmsy1o07@soton.ac.uk

Collecting qualitative data

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You familiar with these terms??

• Population

• Sample

• Probability and Non-probability sampling

• Primary Data & Secondary Data

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Qualitative data collection methods

• Observation

• Interviews & Focus Groups

• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)

• Life Histories

• Narrative / story telling

• Secondary qualitative data

• Multiple Methods

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What will be your data collection method ?

• Purpose of your research• How much time you have• Your personal characteristics• Organisational access

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Who and how many?

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Who and how many?

• Non-probability sampling

– Purposive sampling– Snowball sampling– Convenience sampling– Quota sampling

Saunders et al (2009)

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Observation

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Observation

• Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather first hand data on events, processes, or behaviours.

• Observer can use senses and technology to recoded events , process or behaviours.

• Extended period of time

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Observation

Can be• Non-participatory • Semi-participatory• Participatory

Can be Structured and unstructured

Can beCovert and overt

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Advantages of observation

• Explains ‘what is going on here?’

• Heightens researcher awareness

• Useful in researcher’s own organisation

• Experience emotions ‘for real’

• Lots of useful data

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Disadvantages of observation

• ‘Observer effect’

• Very time consuming

• Ethical dilemmas

• Role conflict (researcher vs colleague)

• Observer bias (going native)

• Very demanding (physically and emotionally)

• Access issues

• Data recording difficulties

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Interviews & Focus Groups

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Interviews• Definition

– A purposeful discussion between two or more people

• Use in research:– Preliminary: helps to clarify issues when formulating

research proposals– Data gathering: provides rigorous data for subsequent

analysis– Validation: helps to explore whether research

conclusions are reasonable

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Forms of interview

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Structured Interviews• All questions (and most responses) are pre-determined

• Researcher is administering a questionnaire

• Approaches - Face-to-face, telephone, webcam

• Gathering structured data:– Higher response rate than postal questionnaires– Researcher has ability to clarify questions, not

possible with questionnaire– No unexpected issues can be explored

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Semi-structured Interviews• Based on list of themes & issues

– Used to focus discussion

• No rigid list is adhered to

• Approach - Face-to-face

• List of themes may be advised to interviewee

• Usually more emergent, less pre-defined, data

• Flexibility to explore particular and/or unexpected issues

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Unstructured Interviews

• Based on ideas of issues, but no list of questions or themes

• Mostly face-to-face

• Non-directive: researcher follows issues and themes as they emerge

• In-depth: research may concentrate on key emergent issues without feeling need to cover pre-determined list of questions/themes

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Focus Groups

• Also called “Group Interview”• Unstructured & Free flowing• Research = Facilitator

– Raise questions, let the group discuss• Multiple views• Group evaluation• Identify key themes• Potential problem of ‘group think’

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Types of questions…

•Closed vs. open

– Where do you live?– What time is it?– Are you happy with your current supplier? – Would you like to find a better supplier?

http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm

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Types of questions…

• Who, why, where, when, how and what

• Closed vs. open– What did you do on you holidays?– How do you keep focused on your work?– Why is that so important to you?– How have you been after your operation?

http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm

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Types of questions…

To Do•Probing… ‘can you tell me more about that?’

•Active listening… ‘so what you’re saying is…’

Avoid •Loaded/biased

•Double barrelled

Saunders et al (2009)

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Practical Issues

• Location

• Recording data– Tape/video recording

• Gives accurate account• Can concentrate on questioning & listening;• BUT… intrusive?

– Note taking• Difficulty of writing, listening, and questioning• Taking notes after the interview may be dangerous, as relying

on “accurate” memory

• Transcription

• Feeding back results

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How should you dress for data collection?…

1. Casual

2. Smart

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Some other tips for interviews

• Do a pilot study or interview a ‘critical friend’

• Allow plenty of travel time

• Take the respondent’s contact details with you

• Remember notes, pens, tape recorder, spare batteries, etc, etc.

• Remember… the interview doesn’t finish until you leave the premises

• Agree post-interview actions

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Reflexive diaries

• Daily record of actions, events, thoughts

• Quantitative (logs) or qualitative (diaries)

• Alternative to direct observation

• Issues of bias, motivation, misreporting

• Use as a basis for subsequent in-depth interviews

Hussey & Hussey (1997, pp.153-155)

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Photo/video diaries

Photos: Emma Lynch via http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/americas_harvest_in_caracas/html/1.stm.

Photo journal: Harvest in CaracasChanging the way Venezuelan city dwellersthink about food through the creation of organicurban gardens to promote self-sufficiency

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Life Histories

• Unstructured interviews combined with personal documents (diaries, letters, photos)

• Look back in detail over an entire life course

• Try to make sense of their organisational reality

Bryman and Bell (2003)

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Narrative in Research

• Originates in linguistics

• Used as research method & tool in various disciplines including:– Information Systems, Accounting,

Economics, Organisational Behaviour

• At the extreme end of qualitative research

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Aims of Narrative Research

• Gain insight into participant’s experience of an event and how they make sense of it (Organisational Sensemaking – Weick, 1995)– Imposes order on experiences, events, actions, and the relationship

between them

• Gather different perspectives about the same event

• Understanding interdependency between numerous social factors and the change that underpins the complexity

• Telling and analysis of stories

• Good for uncovering deep understanding of politics or culture

• Very subjective, requires understanding of context

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Online Narrative Resources…

• The Center for Narrative Studies– http://www.storywise.com/

• Organizational Storytelling– http://www.organizational-storytelling.org.uk/

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Secondary qualitative data• Data has already been collected

– Large surveys

– Commercial databases

– Qualidata, UK Data Archive, Economic and Social Data Service (www.qualidata.ac.uk)

– http://www.esds.ac.uk/search/allSearch.asp?ct=xmlAll&q1=&Submit1=GO&zoom_cat=-1&zoom_and=1

– http://www.soton.ac.uk/library/catalogues/index.shtml See Saunders et al (2009) Chapter 8, esp. pp.267-268.

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Other secondary sources

• Personal documents, letters, e-mails

• Historical diaries

• Autobiographies

• In-house publications

• Legal records

• Minutes of meetings

• Blogs / Social networking / Twitter... ???

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Secondary qualitative data

• Advantages

– Fewer resource requirements

– Allows for comparison over time & geographical locations

– Less effort/cost than primary data

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Secondary qualitative data• Disadvantages

– Purpose of original collection may not match research objective – context specific

– Access to this data may be restricted

– Type of data may not match research purpose exactly

– Quality of data (check for authenticity and credibility)

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Other considerations

•

• Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies

mono method (single data collection and analysis procedure)

multiple methods(more than one data collection and analysis procedure)

Vs.

Saunders et al (2009, pp.151-156)

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Remember!

Any one data collection methods not inherently better than any other method.

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