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Cybernetics andCryptography

ContentsArticles

User:Rajah2770 1Cybernetics 5Cryptography 14Pattern recognition 28Cupid 33Cupid and Psyche 35Holy Grail 41Nikah 48Poker 49

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 54Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 57

Article LicensesLicense 58

User:Rajah2770 1

User:Rajah2770

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika [[File:File:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his two kids.jpg||alt=]]

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter)

Born Azad Bin Rajib HazarikaJuly 2, 1970Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Residence Nagaon, Assam, India

Nationality Indian

Ethnicity AssameseMuslim

Citizenship India

Education PhD, PDF, FRAS

Alma mater University of JodhpurJai Narayan Vyas UniversityInstitute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology[1]

Kendriya Vidyalaya[2]

Poona College of Arts, Science &Commerce[3]

Occupation Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India

Years active 2004- onwards

Employer Diphu Government CollegeGovernment of Assam,Assam Education Service

Known for Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy

Home town Nagaon, Assam, India

Salary Rs 40000 per month

Height 6 feet and 2 inches

Weight 100 kg

Title Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES

Boardmember of

Member of Scientific and Technical committee & Editorial review board of Natuaral and Applied sciences World Academy ofScience ,Engineering & Technology[4]

Religion Sunni Islam,

Spouse Helmin Begum Hazarika

Children Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter)

Parents Rosmat Ali Hazarika@Rostam Ali Hazarika@Roufat Ali Hazarika and Anjena Begum Hazarika

Call-sign Drabrh or Raja

Website

[5][6] [7] [8] [9]

User:Rajah2770 2

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika (born July 02, 1970, in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India) is AssistantProfessor(Lecturer) Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district , Government of Assam [10] , [11] ,Karbi Anglong,Assam's largest conglomerate by Government of Assam . He is also the Fellow of RoyalAstronomical Society[12] ,London ,Member of International Association of Mathematical Physics, World Academyof Science ,Engineering & Technology, Focus Fusion Society, Dense Plasma Focus, Plasma Science Society ofIndia, Assam Science Society, Assam academy of mathematics,International Atomic Energy Agency,Nuclear andPlasma Sciences Society,Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics,German Academy of Mathematics andMechanics,Fusion Science & Technology Society,Indian National Science Academy,Indian Science CongressAssociation,Advisory Committee of Mathematical Education,Royal Society,International Biographical Centre.

Early lifeDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was born into the famous Hazarika family, a prominent family belonging to Dhing's wealthyMuslim Assamese community of Nagaon district. He was born to Anjena Begum Hazarika and Rusmat AliHazarika. He is eldest of two childrens of his parents younger one is a Shamim Ara Rahman(nee Hazarika)daughter .

Early careerDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika completed his PhD degree in Mathematics from J N Vyas University of Jodhpur in 1995 withspecialization in Plasma instability, the thesis was awarded “best thesis” by Association of Indian Universities in1998 and the Post-Doctoral Fellow Program from Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [13] inGuwahati Assam in 1998 as Research Associate in Plasma Physics Division in theory group studying the Sheathphenomenon. As a Part-time Lecturer in Nowgong college, Assam before joining the present position in DiphuGovernment College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district[14] ,[15] He is a member of the wikipedia[16] , [17] . He isFellow of Royal Astronomical Society[18] ,member of International Association Mathematical Physics[19] , memberof World Academy of Science,Engineering & Technology [20] ,[21] , member of Plasma science Society of India [22] ,[23] ,member of Focus Fusion Society forum [24] ,member of Dense Plasma Focus [25] , Member of Assam ScienceSociety [26] , Member of Assam Academy of Mathematics [27]

User:Rajah2770 3

He joined the Diphu Government College in July2004 as Lecturer in Mathematics (Gazetted officer), through AssamPublic Service commission [28] in Assam Education Service [29] , AES-I. [30] now redesignated as AssistantProfessor.

CareerIn May 1993, Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was awarded Junior Research Fellowship,University Grants Commission,National Eligibility Test and eligibility for Lecturership ,Govt. of India and worked as JRF(UGC,NET) inDepartment of Mathematics and Statistics of J N Vyas University in Jodhpur. Later on in May 1995 got SeniorResearch Fellowship(UGC,NET) and continued research for completion of PhD on 27th Dec 1995 .From 1993onwards taught in Kamala Nehru College for women, Jodhpur and in Faculty of Science in J N Vyas University inJodhpur up to the completion of PhD .In 1998 May joined Plasma Physics Division of Institute of Advanced Studyin Science & Technology in Guwahati as Research Associate for PDF in theory group to study the sheathphenomena of National Fusion Programme [31] of Govt. of India . Then joined Nowgong College as a part-timeLecturer after which in 2004, July joined the present position of Lecturer in Diphu Government College which isredesignated as Assistant Professor.

ResearchDuring PhD [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]

The research was based on Astronomy,Astrophysics, Geophysics , for plasma instability with the title of thesis as“Some Problems of instabilities in partially ionized and fully ionized plasmas” which later on in 1998 was assessedas best thesis of the year by Association of Indian Universities in New Delhi. He is known for Bhatia-HazarikalimitResearch at Diphu Govt. College [37] , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Applied for patent in US patent andtrademarks office [45] [46]

Research guidance is given to students in Mathematics for MPhil. He has written six books entitled Inventions ofDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika on future devices and Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's Pattern recognition on fusion,Application of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's conceptual devices , Green tecnology for next genration , Invention ofDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's devices ,VASIMR DANISHA:A Hall Thruster Space Odyssey ,[47] , [48] , [49]

He has derived a formula Hazarika's constant for VASIMR DANISHA as Hazarika constant Ch=1+4sin3φ sin θ-2sinφ-2sin θ the value is 2.646

Personal lifeDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika has a metallic Scarlet red Tata Indigo CS of Tata motors make and loves to drive himself.Heis married to Helmin Begum Hazarika and have two chidrens Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter).

Quotes• "Fakir(saint) and lakir(line) stops at nothing but at destination"• "Expert criticizes the wrong but demonstrates the right thing"• “Intellectuals are measured by their brain not by their age and experience”• “Two type of persons are happy in life one who knows everything another who doesn’t know anything”• “Implosion in device to prove every notion wrong for fusion”• “Meditation gives fakir(saint) long life and fusion devices the long lasting confinement”

User:Rajah2770 4

Awards and recognitionDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika got Junior Research Fellowship,Government of IndiaSenior Research Fellowship,Government of IndiaResearch AssociateshipDSTGovernment of IndiaFellowof Royal Astronomical Society [50]

Member of Advisory committee of Mathematical Education Royal Society LondonMember of Scientific and Technical committee & editorial review board on Natural and applied sciences of WorldAcademy of Science ,Engineering &Technology [51]

Leading professional of the world-2010 as noted and eminent professional from International Biographical CentreCambridge

References[1] http:/ / www. iasst. in[2] http:/ / www. kvafsdigaru. org[3] http:/ / www. akipoonacollege. com[4] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45[5] http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib[6] http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/ 506/ 549[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh[8] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org[9] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege. org/ teaching. html[10] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html[11] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf[12] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid==5531[13] http:/ / www. iasst. in[14] {{cite web|url=http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf[15] http:/ / karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html[16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ User:Drabrh[17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh[18] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid=5531,[19] http:/ / www. iamp. org/ bulletins/ old-bulletins/ 201001. pdf[20] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45[21] http:/ / www. waset. org/ Search. php?page=68& search=[22] http:/ / www. plasma. ernet. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssi_new04. doc[23] http:/ / www. ipr. res. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssidir_new-04. doc[24] http:/ / www. focusfusion. org/ index. php/ forums/ member/ 4165[25] http:/ / www. denseplasmafocus. org/ index. php/ forum/ member/ 4165[26] http:/ / www. assamsciencesociety. org/ member[27] http:/ / www. aam. org. in/ member/ 982004[28] http:/ / apsc. nic. in[29] http:/ / aasc. nic. in/ . . . / Education%20Department/ The%20Assam%20Education%20Service%20Rules%201982. pdf[30] (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC prospests 08-09. pdf)[31] http:/ / nfp. pssi. in[32] http:/ / www. iopscience. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 51/ 6/ 012/ pdf/ physcr_51_6_012. pdf[33] http:/ / www. iopsciences. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 53/ 1/ 011/ pdf/ 1402-4896_53_1_011. pdf,[34] http:/ / www. niscair. res. in/ sciencecommunication/ abstractingjournals/ isa_1jul08. asp[35] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ Wikitionary%3ASandbox[36] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996PhyS. . 53. . . 578[37] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh/ File:Drabrhdouble_trios_saiph_star01. pdf[38] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_bayer_rti. pdf[39] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Columb_drabrh. pdf[40] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_double_trios. pdf[41] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrhiterparabolic2007. pdf[42] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_mctc_feedbackloop. pdf[43] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_tasso_07. pdf

User:Rajah2770 5

[44] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2[45] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ 5/ 50/ EfilingAck5530228. pdf[46] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ c/ c4/ EfilingAck3442787. pdf[47] http:/ / www. pothi. com[48] http:/ / i-proclaimbookstore. com[49] http:/ / ipppserver. homelinux. org:8080/ view/ creators/ Hazarika=3ADr=2EA=2EB=2ERajib=3A=3A. html[50] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ members?recid=5531[51] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=46

External links• (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ )• Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's profile on the Linkedin Website (http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/

506/ 549=)• (http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib)Rajah2770 (talk) 18:12, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

CyberneticsCybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems. Cybernetics is closely related tocontrol theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its evolution in the second-half of the 20th century,cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and social (that is, language-based) systems.

Example of cybernetic thinking. On the one hand a company is approached as a system inan environment. On the other hand cybernetic factory can be modeled as a control system.

Overview

Cybernetics is most applicable whenthe system being analysed is involvedin a closed signal loop; that is, whereaction by the system causes somechange in its environment and thatchange is fed to the system viainformation (feedback) that causes thesystem to adapt to these newconditions: the system's changes affectits behavior. This "circular causal"relationship is necessary and sufficientfor a cybernetic perspective. SystemDynamics, a related field, originatedwith applications of electricalengineering control theory to otherkinds of simulation models (especially business systems) by Jay Forrester at MIT in the 1950s. Convenient GUIsystem dynamics software developed into user friendly versions by the 1990s and have been applied to diversesystems. SD models solve the problem of simultaneity (mutual causation) by updating all variables in small timeincrements with positive and negative feedbacks and time delays structuring the interactions and control. The bestknown SD model is probably the 1972 The Limits to Growth. This model forecast that exponential growth wouldlead to economic collapse during the 21st century under a wide variety of growth scenarios.

Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, anthropology, and

Cybernetics 6

psychology in the 1940s, often attributed to the Macy Conferences.Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include game theory, system theory (amathematical counterpart to cybernetics), perceptual control theory, sociology, psychology (especiallyneuropsychology, behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology), philosophy, and architecture and organizationaltheory.[1]

Definition

The term cybernetics stems from the Greek κυβερνήτης (kybernētēs, steersman, governor,pilot, or rudder — the same root as government). Cybernetics is a broad field of study, butthe essential goal of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes ofsystems that have goals and that participate in circular, causal chains that move from actionto sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Studies in cyberneticsprovide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including socialsystems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the

purpose of making them more efficient and effective.

Cybernetics was defined by Norbert Wiener, in his book of that title, as the study of control and communication inthe animal and the machine. Stafford Beer called it the science of effective organization and Gordon Pask extended itto include information flows "in all media" from stars to brains. It includes the study of feedback, black boxes andderived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organizations includingself-organization. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts toinformation, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks [2] . A more philosophicaldefinition, suggested in 1956 by Louis Couffignal, one of the pioneers of cybernetics, characterizes cybernetics as"the art of ensuring the efficacy of action" [3] . The most recent definition has been proposed by Louis Kauffman,President of the American Society for Cybernetics, "Cybernetics is the study of systems and processes that interactwith themselves and produce themselves from themselves" [4] .Concepts studied by cyberneticists (or, as some prefer, cyberneticians) include, but are not limited to: learning,cognition, adaption, social control, emergence, communication, efficiency, efficacy and interconnectivity. Theseconcepts are studied by other subjects such as engineering and biology, but in cybernetics these are removed fromthe context of the individual organism or device.Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include game theory; system theory (amathematical counterpart to cybernetics); psychology, especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology andcognitive psychology; philosophy; anthropology; and even theology,[5] telematic art, and architecture.[6]

Cybernetics 7

History

The roots of cybernetic theoryThe word cybernetics was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by Plato in The Laws to signifythe governance of people. The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist André-Marie Ampère(1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge.

James Watt

The first artificial automatic regulatory system, a water clock, was inventedby the mechanician Ktesibios. In his water clocks, water flowed from a sourcesuch as a holding tank into a reservoir, then from the reservoir to themechanisms of the clock. Ktesibios's device used a cone-shaped float tomonitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of thewater accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir, sothat it neither overflowed nor was allowed to run dry. This was the firstartificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outsideintervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism.Although they did not refer to this concept by the name of Cybernetics (theyconsidered it a field of engineering), Ktesibios and others such as Heron andSu Song are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles.

The study of teleological mechanisms (from the Greek τέλος or telos for end,goal, or purpose) in machines with corrective feedback dates from as far backas the late 18th century when James Watt's steam engine was equipped with agovernor, a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. Alfred Russel Wallace identified thisas the principle of evolution in his famous 1858 paper. In 1868 James Clerk Maxwell published a theoretical articleon governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. Jakob von Uexküllapplied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (Funktionskreis) in order to explain animalbehaviour and the origins of meaning in general.

The early 20th centuryContemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electricalnetwork theory, mechanical engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary biology and neuroscience in the 1940s.Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Blackon using negative feedback to control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work of Ludwig vonBertalanffy in General Systems Theory.Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antennaduring WWII. Jay Forrester, a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT during WWII workingwith Gordon S. Brown to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy, later applied these ideas to socialorganizations such as corporations and cities as an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management atthe MIT Sloan School of Management. Forrester is known as the founder of System Dynamics.W. Edwards Deming, the Total Quality Management guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial prize,was an intern at Bell Telephone Labs in 1927 and may have been influenced by network theory. Deming made"Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book "TheNew Economics."Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist P.K. Anokhin published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943. These papers

Cybernetics 8

were "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener, and Julian Bigelow; and the paper"A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts.Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by Wiener, McCulloch and others, such as W. Ross Ashby and W.Grey Walter.Walter was one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour. Together with theUS and UK, an important geographical locus of early cybernetics was France.In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in Nancy, France. The event wasorganized by the Bourbaki, a French scientific society, and mathematician Szolem Mandelbrojt (1899–1983), uncleof the world-famous mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot.

John von Neumann

During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write amanuscript on the unifying character of this part of appliedmathematics, which is found in the study of Brownian motion and intelecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in theUnited States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism cyberneticsinto his scientific theory. The name cybernetics was coined to denotethe study of "teleological mechanisms" and was popularized throughhis book Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animaland Machine (Hermann & Cie, Paris, 1948). In the UK this became thefocus for the Ratio Club.

In the early 1940s John von Neumann, although better known for hiswork in mathematics and computer science, did contribute a uniqueand unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: Von Neumanncellular automata, and their logical follow up the Von NeumannUniversal Constructor. The result of these deceptively simplethought-experiments was the concept of self replication whichcybernetics adopted as a core concept. The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to socialmemes, living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cyberneticstudy.

Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as aregulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling The Human Use of Human Beings : Cyberneticsand Society (Houghton-Mifflin, 1950).While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab [7] at theUniversity of Illinois, Urbana/Champaign, under the direction of Heinz von Foerster, was a major center ofcybernetic research [8] for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.

The fall and rebirth of cyberneticsFor a time during the past 30 years, the field of cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle of becoming more and moredominated by the subfields of artificial intelligence and machine-biological interfaces (i.e. cyborgs) and when thisresearch fell out of favor, the field as a whole fell from grace.In the 1970s new cyberneticians emerged in multiple fields, but especially in biology. The ideas of Maturana, Varelaand Atlan, according to Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecularbiology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, thesethinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers innature - organizations he has not himself invented"[9] . However, during the 1980s the question of whether thefeatures of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.[9]

Cybernetics 9

In political science, Project Cybersyn attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early1970s. In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itselfwith the interaction of autonomous political actors and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness ofthe subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that ofrecursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness andwith the ways in which systems build upon themselves".[10]

One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by Geyer and van der Zouwen, accordingto Bailey (1994), was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting withthe environment. This provides an epistemological foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent.Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the "micro-macro gap". That is, itlinks the individual with the society"[11] Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics tothe new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinkinginvolve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, andthe factor which guides the steering decisions.; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systemswhich are trying to steer each other"[11] . The work of Gregory Bateson was also strongly influenced by cybernetics.Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fieldsas game theory (the analysis of group interaction), systems of feedback in evolution, and metamaterials (the study ofmaterials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interestin this increasingly relevant field.[2]

Subdivisions of the fieldCybernetics is an earlier but still-used generic term for many types of subject matter. These subjects also extend intomany others areas of science, but are united in their study of control of systems.

Basic cyberneticsCybernetics studies systems of control as a concept, attempting to discover the basic principles underlying suchthings as

ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms toavoid obstacles and navigate stairs.

• Artificial intelligence• Robotics• Computer Vision• Control systems• Emergence• Learning organization• New Cybernetics• Second-order cybernetics• Interactions of Actors Theory• Conversation Theory

Cybernetics 10

In biologyCybernetics in biology is the study of cybernetic systems present in biological organisms, primarily focusing on howanimals adapt to their environment, and how information in the form of genes is passed from generation togeneration[12] . There is also a secondary focus on combining artificial systems with biological systems.

Thermal image of a cold-blooded tarantula on awarm-blooded human hand

• Bioengineering• Biocybernetics• Bionics• Homeostasis• Medical cybernetics• Synthetic Biology• Systems Biology

In computer science

Computer science directly applies the concepts of cybernetics to the control of devices and the analysis ofinformation.• Robotics• Decision support system• Cellular automaton• Simulation• Technology

In engineeringCybernetics in engineering is used to analyze cascading failures and System Accidents, in which the small errors andimperfections in a system can generate disasters. Other topics studied include:

An artificial heart, a product of biomedicalengineering.

• Adaptive systems• Engineering cybernetics• Ergonomics• Biomedical engineering• Systems engineering

In management

• Entrepreneurial cybernetics• Management cybernetics• Organizational cybernetics

• Operations research• Systems engineering

Cybernetics 11

In mathematicsMathematical Cybernetics focuses on the factors of information, interaction of parts in systems, and the structure ofsystems.• Dynamical system• Information theory• Systems theory

In psychology• Homunculus• Psycho-Cybernetics• Systems psychology• Perceptual Control Theory

In sociologyBy examining group behavior through the lens of cybernetics, sociology seeks the reasons for such spontaneousevents as smart mobs and riots, as well as how communities develop rules, such as etiquette, by consensus withoutformal discussion. Affect Control Theory explains role behavior, emotions, and labeling theory in terms ofhomeostatic maintenance of sentiments associated with cultural categories. The most comprehensive attempt evermade in the social sciences to increase cybernetics in a generalized theory of society was made by Talcott Parsons.In this way, cybernetics establish the basic hierarchy in Parsons' AGIL paradigm, which is the ordingsystem-dimension of his action theory. These and other cybernetic models in sociology are reviewed in a book editedby McClelland and Fararo[13] .• Affect Control Theory• Memetics• Sociocybernetics

In ArtThe artist Roy Ascott theorised the cybernetics of art in "Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision". Cybernetica,Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), 1967.• Telematic art• Interactive Art• Systems art

Cybernetics 12

Related fields

Complexity scienceComplexity science attempts to understand the nature of complex systems.• Complex Adaptive System• Complex systems• Complexity theory

References[1] Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol".[2] Kelly, Kevin (1994). Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world. Boston: Addison-Wesley.

ISBN 0-201-48340-8. OCLC 221860672 32208523 40868076 56082721 57396750.[3] Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", The First International Congress on Cybernetics, Namur, Belgium,

June 26–29, 1956, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1958, pp. 46-54[4] CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15[5] Granfield, Patrick (1973). Ecclesial Cybernetics: A Study of Democracy in the Church. New York: MacMillan. pp. 280.[6] Hight, Christopher (2007). Architectural Principles in the age of Cybernetics. Routledge. pp. 248. ISBN 978-0415384827.[7] http:/ / www. ece. uiuc. edu/ pubs/ bcl/ mueller/ index. htm[8] http:/ / www. ece. uiuc. edu/ pubs/ bcl/ hutchinson/ index. htm[9] Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil &

Kenneth E. Boulding eds., Evolution, Order and Complexity, 1986.[10] Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in:

Canadian Journal of Political Science (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.[11] Kenneth D. Bailey (1994), Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis, p.163.[12] Note: this does not refer to the concept of Racial Memory but to the concept of cumulative adaptation to a particular niche, such as the case

of the pepper moth having genes for both light and dark environments.[13] McClelland, Kent A., and Thomas J. Fararo (Eds.). 2006. Purpose, Meaning, and Action: Control Systems Theories in Sociology. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Further reading• Roy Ascott (1967). Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision. Cybernetica, Journal of the International

Association for Cybernetics (Namur), 10, pp. 25–56• Andrew Pickering (2010) The Cybernetic Brain: Sketches of Another Future (http:/ / www. amazon. com/

Cybernetic-Brain-Sketches-Another-Future/ dp/ 0226667898) University Of Chicago Press.• Slava Gerovitch (2002) From Newspeak to Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics (http:/ / web. mit. edu/

slava/ homepage/ newspeak. htm) MIT Press.• John Johnston, (2008) "The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI", MIT Press• Heikki Hyötyniemi (2006). Neocybernetics in Biological Systems (http:/ / neocybernetics. com/ report151/ ).

Espoo: Helsinki University of Technology, Control Engineering Laboratory.• Eden Medina, "Designing Freedom, Regulating a Nation: Socialist Cybernetics in Allende's Chile." Journal of

Latin American Studies 38 (2006):571-606.• Lars Bluma, (2005), Norbert Wiener und die Entstehung der Kybernetik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Münster.• Francis Heylighen, and Cliff Joslyn (2001). " Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics (http:/ / pespmc1. vub.

ac. be/ Papers/ Cybernetics-EPST. pdf)", in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology(3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, New York), p. 155-170.

• Charles François (1999). " Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective (http:/ / www. uni-klu. ac. at/~gossimit/ ifsr/ francois/ papers/ systemics_and_cybernetics_in_a_historical_perspective. pdf)". In: SystemsResearch and Behavioral Science. Vol 16, pp. 203–219 (1999)

Cybernetics 13

• Heinz von Foerster, (1995), Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics (http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ group/ SHR/ 4-2/text/ foerster. html).

• Steve J. Heims (1993), Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America. The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953,Cambridge University Press, London, UK.

• Paul Pangaro (1990), "Cybernetics — A Definition", Eprint (http:/ / pangaro. com/ published/ cyber-macmillan.html).

• Stuart Umpleby (1989), "The science of cybernetics and the cybernetics of science" (ftp:/ / ftp. vub. ac. be/ pub/projects/ Principia_Cybernetica/ Papers_Umpleby/ Science-Cybernetics. txt), in: Cybernetics and Systems", Vol.21, No. 1, (1990), pp. 109–121.

• Michael A. Arbib (1987, 1964) Brains, Machines, and Mathematics (http:/ / www. amazon. com/Brains-Machines-Mathematics-Michael-Arbib/ dp/ 0387965394) Springer.

• B.C. Patten, and E.P. Odum (1981), "The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems", The American Naturalist 118,886-895.

• Hans Joachim Ilgauds (1980), Norbert Wiener, Leipzig.• Steve J. Heims (1980), John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life

and Death, 3. Aufl., Cambridge.• Stafford Beer (1974), Designing Freedom, John Wiley, London and New York, 1975.• Gordon Pask (1972), " Cybernetics (http:/ / www. cybsoc. org/ gcyb. htm)", entry in Encyclopædia Britannica

1972.• Helvey, T.C. The Age of Information: An Interdisciplinary Survey of Cybernetics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

Educational Technology Publications, 1971.• W. Ross Ashby (1956), Introduction to Cybernetics. Methuen, London, UK. PDF text (http:/ / pespmc1. vub. ac.

be/ books/ IntroCyb. pdf).• Norbert Wiener (1948), Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, (Hermann &

Cie Editeurs, Paris, The Technology Press, Cambridge, Mass., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1948).

External linksGeneral• Norbert Wiener and Stefan Odobleja - A Comparative Analysis (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ wcp/ Papers/ Comp/

CompJurc. htm)• Reading List for Cybernetics (http:/ / www. cscs. umich. edu/ ~crshalizi/ notabene/ cybernetics. html)• Principia Cybernetica Web (http:/ / pespmc1. vub. ac. be/ DEFAULT. html)• Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems (http:/ / pespmc1. vub. ac. be/ ASC/ indexASC. html)• Glossary Slideshow (136 slides) (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~asc/ slide/ s1. html)• Basics of Cybernetics (http:/ / www. smithsrisca. demon. co. uk/ cybernetics. html)• What is Cybernetics? (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=_hjAXkNbPfk) Livas short introductory videos on

YouTube• A History of Systemic and Cybernetic Thought. From Homeostasis to the Teardrop (http:/ / www. pclibya. com/

cybernetic_teardrop. pdf)Societies• American Society for Cybernetics (http:/ / www. asc-cybernetics. org/ )• IEEE Systems, Man, & Cybernetics Society (http:/ / www. ieeesmc. org/ )• The Cybernetics Society (http:/ / www. cybsoc. org)

Cryptography 14

Cryptography

Simple explanation of encryption and decryption methods

German Lorenz cipher machine, used in World War II to encryptvery-high-level general staff messages

Cryptography (or cryptology; fromGreek κρυπτός, kryptos, "hidden,secret"; and γράφειν, gráphin,"writing", or -λογία, -logia, , "study",respectively)[1] is the practice andstudy of hiding information. Moderncryptography intersects the disciplinesof mathematics, computer science, andelectrical engineering. Applications ofcryptography include ATM cards,computer passwords, and electroniccommerce.

Cryptology prior to the modern agewas almost synonymous withencryption, the conversion ofinformation from a readable state toapparent nonsense. The sender retainedthe ability to decrypt the informationand therefore avoid unwanted personsbeing able to read it. Since WWI andthe advent of the computer, themethods used to carry out cryptologyhave become increasingly complex andits application more widespread.

Modern cryptography follows astrongly scientific approach, anddesigns cryptographic algorithmsaround computational hardnessassumptions that are assumed hard tobreak by an adversary. Such systemsare not unbreakable in theory but it is infeasible to do so for any practical adversary. Information-theoretically secureschemes that provably cannot be broken exist but they are less practical than computationally-secure mechanisms.An example of such systems is the one-time pad.

Alongside the advancement in cryptology-related technology, the practice has raised a number of legal issues, someof which remain unresolved.

TerminologyUntil modern times cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the process of converting ordinary information (called plaintext) into unintelligible gibberish (called ciphertext).[2] Decryption is the reverse, in other words, moving from the unintelligible ciphertext back to plaintext. A cipher (or cypher) is a pair of algorithms that create the encryption and the reversing decryption. The detailed operation of a cipher is controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance by a key. This is a secret parameter (ideally known only to the communicants) for a specific message exchange context. A "cryptosystem" is the ordered list of elements of finite

Cryptography 15

possible plaintexts, finite possible cyphertexts, finite possible keys, and the encryption and decryption algorithmswhich correspond to each key. Keys are important, as ciphers without variable keys can be trivially broken with onlythe knowledge of the cipher used and are therefore useless (or even counter-productive) for most purposes.Historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such asauthentication or integrity checks.In colloquial use, the term "code" is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning.However, in cryptography, code has a more specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext (i.e., ameaningful word or phrase) with a code word (for example, wallaby replaces attack at dawn). Codes are nolonger used in serious cryptography—except incidentally for such things as unit designations (e.g., Bronco Flight orOperation Overlord)—since properly chosen ciphers are both more practical and more secure than even the bestcodes and also are better adapted to computers.Cryptanalysis is the term used for the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information withoutaccess to the key normally required to do so; i.e., it is the study of how to crack encryption algorithms or theirimplementations.Some use the terms cryptography and cryptology interchangeably in English, while others (including US militarypractice generally) use cryptography to refer specifically to the use and practice of cryptographic techniques andcryptology to refer to the combined study of cryptography and cryptanalysis.[3] [4] English is more flexible thanseveral other languages in which cryptology (done by cryptologists) is always used in the second sense above. In theEnglish Wikipedia the general term used for the entire field is cryptography (done by cryptographers).The study of characteristics of languages which have some application in cryptography (or cryptology), i.e.frequency data, letter combinations, universal patterns, etc., is called cryptolinguistics.

History of cryptography and cryptanalysisBefore the modern era, cryptography was concerned solely with message confidentiality (i.e.,encryption)—conversion of messages from a comprehensible form into an incomprehensible one and back again atthe other end, rendering it unreadable by interceptors or eavesdroppers without secret knowledge (namely the keyneeded for decryption of that message). Encryption was used to (attempt to) ensure secrecy in communications, suchas those of spies, military leaders, and diplomats. In recent decades, the field has expanded beyond confidentialityconcerns to include techniques for message integrity checking, sender/receiver identity authentication, digitalsignatures, interactive proofs and secure computation, among others.

Classic cryptography

Reconstructed ancient Greek scytale(rhymes with "Italy"), an early cipher

device

The earliest forms of secret writing required little more than local pen andpaper analogs, as most people could not read. More literacy, or literateopponents, required actual cryptography. The main classical cipher types aretransposition ciphers, which rearrange the order of letters in a message (e.g.,'hello world' becomes 'ehlol owrdl' in a trivially simple rearrangementscheme), and substitution ciphers, which systematically replace letters orgroups of letters with other letters or groups of letters (e.g., 'fly at once'becomes 'gmz bu podf' by replacing each letter with the one following it inthe Latin alphabet). Simple versions of either have never offered muchconfidentiality from enterprising opponents. An early substitution cipher wasthe Caesar cipher, in which each letter in the plaintext was replaced by a letter

some fixed number of positions further down the alphabet. It was named after Julius Caesar who is reported to have used it, with a shift of 3, to communicate with his generals during his military campaigns, just like EXCESS-3 code

Cryptography 16

in boolean algebra. There is record of several early Hebrew ciphers as well. The earliest known use of cryptographyis some carved ciphertext on stone in Egypt (ca 1900 BC), but this may have been done for the amusement of literateobservers. The next oldest is bakery recipes from Mesopotamia. Cryptography is recommended in the Kama Sutra asa way for lovers to communicate without inconvenient discovery.[5]

The Greeks of Classical times are said to have known of ciphers (e.g., the scytale transposition cipher claimed tohave been used by the Spartan military).[6] Steganography (i.e., hiding even the existence of a message so as to keepit confidential) was also first developed in ancient times. An early example, from Herodotus, concealed amessage—a tattoo on a slave's shaved head—under the regrown hair.[2] Another Greek method was developed byPolybius (now called the "Polybius Square").[7] More modern examples of steganography include the use of invisibleink, microdots, and digital watermarks to conceal information.Ciphertexts produced by a classical cipher (and some modern ciphers) always reveal statistical information about theplaintext, which can often be used to break them. After the discovery of frequency analysis perhaps by the Arabmathematician and polymath, Al-Kindi (also known as Alkindus), in the 9th century, nearly all such ciphers becamemore or less readily breakable by any informed attacker. Such classical ciphers still enjoy popularity today, thoughmostly as puzzles (see cryptogram). Al-Kindi wrote a book on cryptography entitled Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma(Manuscript for the Deciphering Cryptographic Messages), in which described the first cryptanalysis techniques,including some for polyalphabetic ciphers.[8] [9]

16th-century book-shaped French ciphermachine, with arms of Henri II of France

Enciphered letter from Gabriel de Luetzd'Aramon, French Ambassador to the

Ottoman Empire, after 1546, with partialdecipherment

Essentially all ciphers remained vulnerable to cryptanalysis using thefrequency analysis technique until the development of the polyalphabeticcipher, most clearly by Leon Battista Alberti around the year 1467, thoughthere is some indication that it was already known to Al-Kindi.[9] Alberti'sinnovation was to use different ciphers (i.e., substitution alphabets) forvarious parts of a message (perhaps for each successive plaintext letter at thelimit). He also invented what was probably the first automatic cipher device, awheel which implemented a partial realization of his invention. In thepolyalphabetic Vigenère cipher, encryption uses a key word, which controlsletter substitution depending on which letter of the key word is used. In themid-19th century Charles Babbage showed that polyalphabetic ciphers of thistype remained partially vulnerable to extended frequency analysistechniques.[2]

Although frequency analysis is a powerful and general technique againstmany ciphers, encryption has still been often effective in practice; many awould-be cryptanalyst was unaware of the technique. Breaking a messagewithout using frequency analysis essentially required knowledge of the cipherused and perhaps of the key involved, thus making espionage, bribery,burglary, defection, etc., more attractive approaches to the cryptanalyticallyuninformed. It was finally explicitly recognized in the 19th century thatsecrecy of a cipher's algorithm is not a sensible nor practical safeguard of message security; in fact, it was furtherrealized that any adequate cryptographic scheme (including ciphers) should remain secure even if the adversary fullyunderstands the cipher algorithm itself. Security of the key used should alone be sufficient for a good cipher tomaintain confidentiality under an attack. This fundamental principle was first explicitly stated in 1883 by AugusteKerckhoffs and is generally called Kerckhoffs' principle; alternatively and more bluntly, it was restated by ClaudeShannon, the inventor of information theory and the fundamentals of theoretical cryptography, as Shannon'sMaxim—'the enemy knows the system'.

Different physical devices and aids have been used to assist with ciphers. One of the earliest may have been the scytale of ancient Greece, a rod supposedly used by the Spartans as an aid for a transposition cipher (see image

Cryptography 17

above). In medieval times, other aids were invented such as the cipher grille, which was also used for a kind ofsteganography. With the invention of polyalphabetic ciphers came more sophisticated aids such as Alberti's owncipher disk, Johannes Trithemius' tabula recta scheme, and Thomas Jefferson's multi-cylinder (not publicly known,and reinvented independently by Bazeries around 1900). Many mechanical encryption/decryption devices wereinvented early in the 20th century, and several patented, among them rotor machines—famously including theEnigma machine used by the German government and military from the late '20s and during World War II.[10] Theciphers implemented by better quality examples of these machine designs brought about a substantial increase incryptanalytic difficulty after WWI.[11]

The computer eraThe development of digital computers and electronics after WWII made possible much more complex ciphers.Furthermore, computers allowed for the encryption of any kind of data representable in any binary format, unlikeclassical ciphers which only encrypted written language texts; this was new and significant. Computer use has thussupplanted linguistic cryptography, both for cipher design and cryptanalysis. Many computer ciphers can becharacterized by their operation on binary bit sequences (sometimes in groups or blocks), unlike classical andmechanical schemes, which generally manipulate traditional characters (i.e., letters and digits) directly. However,computers have also assisted cryptanalysis, which has compensated to some extent for increased cipher complexity.Nonetheless, good modern ciphers have stayed ahead of cryptanalysis; it is typically the case that use of a qualitycipher is very efficient (i.e., fast and requiring few resources, such as memory or CPU capability), while breaking itrequires an effort many orders of magnitude larger, and vastly larger than that required for any classical cipher,making cryptanalysis so inefficient and impractical as to be effectively impossible. Alternate methods of attack(bribery, burglary, threat, torture, ...) have become more attractive in consequence.

Credit card with smart-card capabilities. The3-by-5-mm chip embedded in the card is shown,

enlarged. Smart cards combine low cost and portabilitywith the power to compute cryptographic algorithms.

Extensive open academic research into cryptography is relativelyrecent; it began only in the mid-1970s. In recent times, IBMpersonnel designed the algorithm that became the Federal (i.e.,US) Data Encryption Standard; Whitfield Diffie and MartinHellman published their key agreement algorithm,;[12] and theRSA algorithm was published in Martin Gardner's ScientificAmerican column. Since then, cryptography has become a widelyused tool in communications, computer networks, and computersecurity generally. Some modern cryptographic techniques canonly keep their keys secret if certain mathematical problems areintractable, such as the integer factorization or the discretelogarithm problems, so there are deep connections with abstractmathematics. There are no absolute proofs that a cryptographictechnique is secure (but see one-time pad); at best, there are proofsthat some techniques are secure if some computational problem isdifficult to solve, or this or that assumption about implementation or practical use is met.

As well as being aware of cryptographic history, cryptographic algorithm and system designers must also sensiblyconsider probable future developments while working on their designs. For instance, continuous improvements incomputer processing power have increased the scope of brute-force attacks, thus when specifying key lengths, therequired key lengths are similarly advancing. The potential effects of quantum computing are already beingconsidered by some cryptographic system designers; the announced imminence of small implementations of thesemachines may be making the need for this preemptive caution rather more than merely speculative.[13]

Essentially, prior to the early 20th century, cryptography was chiefly concerned with linguistic and lexicographic patterns. Since then the emphasis has shifted, and cryptography now makes extensive use of mathematics, including

Cryptography 18

aspects of information theory, computational complexity, statistics, combinatorics, abstract algebra, number theory,and finite mathematics generally. Cryptography is, also, a branch of engineering, but an unusual one as it deals withactive, intelligent, and malevolent opposition (see cryptographic engineering and security engineering); other kindsof engineering (e.g., civil or chemical engineering) need deal only with neutral natural forces. There is also activeresearch examining the relationship between cryptographic problems and quantum physics (see quantumcryptography and quantum computing).

Modern cryptographyThe modern field of cryptography can be divided into several areas of study. The chief ones are discussed here; seeTopics in Cryptography for more.

Symmetric-key cryptographySymmetric-key cryptography refers to encryption methods in which both the sender and receiver share the same key(or, less commonly, in which their keys are different, but related in an easily computable way). This was the onlykind of encryption publicly known until June 1976.[12]

One round (out of 8.5) of the patented IDEAcipher, used in some versions of PGP for

high-speed encryption of, for instance, e-mail

The modern study of symmetric-key ciphers relates mainly to the studyof block ciphers and stream ciphers and to their applications. A blockcipher is, in a sense, a modern embodiment of Alberti's polyalphabeticcipher: block ciphers take as input a block of plaintext and a key, andoutput a block of ciphertext of the same size. Since messages arealmost always longer than a single block, some method of knittingtogether successive blocks is required. Several have been developed,some with better security in one aspect or another than others. They arethe modes of operation and must be carefully considered when using ablock cipher in a cryptosystem.

The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and the Advanced EncryptionStandard (AES) are block cipher designs which have been designatedcryptography standards by the US government (though DES'sdesignation was finally withdrawn after the AES was adopted).[14]

Despite its deprecation as an official standard, DES (especially itsstill-approved and much more secure triple-DES variant) remains quite popular; it is used across a wide range ofapplications, from ATM encryption[15] to e-mail privacy[16] and secure remote access.[17] Many other block ciphershave been designed and released, with considerable variation in quality. Many have been thoroughly broken; seeCategory:Block ciphers.[13] [18]

Stream ciphers, in contrast to the 'block' type, create an arbitrarily long stream of key material, which is combinedwith the plaintext bit-by-bit or character-by-character, somewhat like the one-time pad. In a stream cipher, the outputstream is created based on a hidden internal state which changes as the cipher operates. That internal state is initiallyset up using the secret key material. RC4 is a widely used stream cipher; see Category:Stream ciphers.[13] Blockciphers can be used as stream ciphers; see Block cipher modes of operation.

Cryptographic hash functions are a third type of cryptographic algorithm. They take a message of any length as input, and output a short, fixed length hash which can be used in (for example) a digital signature. For good hash functions, an attacker cannot find two messages that produce the same hash. MD4 is a long-used hash function which is now broken; MD5, a strengthened variant of MD4, is also widely used but broken in practice. The U.S. National Security Agency developed the Secure Hash Algorithm series of MD5-like hash functions: SHA-0 was a flawed algorithm that the agency withdrew; SHA-1 is widely deployed and more secure than MD5, but cryptanalysts

Cryptography 19

have identified attacks against it; the SHA-2 family improves on SHA-1, but it isn't yet widely deployed, and theU.S. standards authority thought it "prudent" from a security perspective to develop a new standard to "significantlyimprove the robustness of NIST's overall hash algorithm toolkit."[19] Thus, a hash function design competition isunderway and meant to select a new U.S. national standard, to be called SHA-3, by 2012.Message authentication codes (MACs) are much like cryptographic hash functions, except that a secret key can beused to authenticate the hash value[13] upon receipt.

Public-key cryptographySymmetric-key cryptosystems use the same key for encryption and decryption of a message, though a message orgroup of messages may have a different key than others. A significant disadvantage of symmetric ciphers is the keymanagement necessary to use them securely. Each distinct pair of communicating parties must, ideally, share adifferent key, and perhaps each ciphertext exchanged as well. The number of keys required increases as the square ofthe number of network members, which very quickly requires complex key management schemes to keep them allstraight and secret. The difficulty of securely establishing a secret key between two communicating parties, when asecure channel does not already exist between them, also presents a chicken-and-egg problem which is aconsiderable practical obstacle for cryptography users in the real world.

Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, authors ofthe first published paper on public-key

cryptography

In a groundbreaking 1976 paper, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellmanproposed the notion of public-key (also, more generally, calledasymmetric key) cryptography in which two different butmathematically related keys are used—a public key and a privatekey.[20] A public key system is so constructed that calculation of onekey (the 'private key') is computationally infeasible from the other (the'public key'), even though they are necessarily related. Instead, bothkeys are generated secretly, as an interrelated pair.[21] The historianDavid Kahn described public-key cryptography as "the mostrevolutionary new concept in the field since polyalphabetic substitutionemerged in the Renaissance".[22]

In public-key cryptosystems, the public key may be freely distributed, while its paired private key must remainsecret. The public key is typically used for encryption, while the private or secret key is used for decryption. Diffieand Hellman showed that public-key cryptography was possible by presenting the Diffie–Hellman key exchangeprotocol.[12]

In 1978, Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman invented RSA, another public-key system.[23]

In 1997, it finally became publicly known that asymmetric key cryptography had been invented by James H. Ellis atGCHQ, a British intelligence organization, and that, in the early 1970s, both the Diffie–Hellman and RSAalgorithms had been previously developed (by Malcolm J. Williamson and Clifford Cocks, respectively).[24]

The Diffie–Hellman and RSA algorithms, in addition to being the first publicly known examples of high qualitypublic-key algorithms, have been among the most widely used. Others include the Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem,ElGamal encryption, and various elliptic curve techniques. See Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems.

Cryptography 20

Padlock icon from the Firefox Web browser,meant to indicate a page has been sent inSSL or TLS-encrypted protected form.

However, such an icon is not a guarantee ofsecurity; any subverted browser might

mislead a user by displaying such an iconwhen a transmission is not actually being

protected by SSL or TLS.

In addition to encryption, public-key cryptography can be used toimplement digital signature schemes. A digital signature is reminiscent ofan ordinary signature; they both have the characteristic that they are easyfor a user to produce, but difficult for anyone else to forge. Digitalsignatures can also be permanently tied to the content of the message beingsigned; they cannot then be 'moved' from one document to another, for anyattempt will be detectable. In digital signature schemes, there are twoalgorithms: one for signing, in which a secret key is used to process themessage (or a hash of the message, or both), and one for verification, inwhich the matching public key is used with the message to check thevalidity of the signature. RSA and DSA are two of the most popular digital signature schemes. Digital signatures arecentral to the operation of public key infrastructures and many network security schemes (e.g., SSL/TLS, manyVPNs, etc.).[18]

Public-key algorithms are most often based on the computational complexity of "hard" problems, often from numbertheory. For example, the hardness of RSA is related to the integer factorization problem, while Diffie–Hellman andDSA are related to the discrete logarithm problem. More recently, elliptic curve cryptography has developed inwhich security is based on number theoretic problems involving elliptic curves. Because of the difficulty of theunderlying problems, most public-key algorithms involve operations such as modular multiplication andexponentiation, which are much more computationally expensive than the techniques used in most block ciphers,especially with typical key sizes. As a result, public-key cryptosystems are commonly hybrid cryptosystems, inwhich a fast high-quality symmetric-key encryption algorithm is used for the message itself, while the relevantsymmetric key is sent with the message, but encrypted using a public-key algorithm. Similarly, hybrid signatureschemes are often used, in which a cryptographic hash function is computed, and only the resulting hash is digitallysigned.[13]

Cryptography 21

Cryptanalysis

Variants of the Enigma machine, used by Germany's military andcivil authorities from the late 1920s through World War II,

implemented a complex electro-mechanical polyalphabetic cipher.Breaking and reading of the Enigma cipher at Poland's Cipher

Bureau, for 7 years before the war, and subsequent decryption atBletchley Park, was important to Allied victory.[2]

The goal of cryptanalysis is to find some weakness orinsecurity in a cryptographic scheme, thus permitting itssubversion or evasion.It is a common misconception that every encryptionmethod can be broken. In connection with his WWIIwork at Bell Labs, Claude Shannon proved that theone-time pad cipher is unbreakable, provided the keymaterial is truly random, never reused, kept secret fromall possible attackers, and of equal or greater length thanthe message.[25] Most ciphers, apart from the one-timepad, can be broken with enough computational effort bybrute force attack, but the amount of effort needed may beexponentially dependent on the key size, as compared tothe effort needed to use the cipher. In such cases,effective security could be achieved if it is proven that theeffort required (i.e., "work factor", in Shannon's terms) isbeyond the ability of any adversary. This means it mustbe shown that no efficient method (as opposed to thetime-consuming brute force method) can be found tobreak the cipher. Since no such showing can be madecurrently, as of today, the one-time-pad remains the onlytheoretically unbreakable cipher.

There are a wide variety of cryptanalytic attacks, and theycan be classified in any of several ways. A commondistinction turns on what an attacker knows and what

capabilities are available. In a ciphertext-only attack, the cryptanalyst has access only to the ciphertext (good moderncryptosystems are usually effectively immune to ciphertext-only attacks). In a known-plaintext attack, thecryptanalyst has access to a ciphertext and its corresponding plaintext (or to many such pairs). In a chosen-plaintextattack, the cryptanalyst may choose a plaintext and learn its corresponding ciphertext (perhaps many times); anexample is gardening, used by the British during WWII. Finally, in a chosen-ciphertext attack, the cryptanalyst maybe able to choose ciphertexts and learn their corresponding plaintexts.[13] Also important, often overwhelmingly so,are mistakes (generally in the design or use of one of the protocols involved; see Cryptanalysis of the Enigma forsome historical examples of this).

Cryptography 22

Poznań monument (center) to Polish cryptologists whose breaking ofGermany's Enigma machine ciphers, beginning in 1932, altered the

course of World War II

Cryptanalysis of symmetric-key ciphers typicallyinvolves looking for attacks against the block ciphers orstream ciphers that are more efficient than any attackthat could be against a perfect cipher. For example, asimple brute force attack against DES requires oneknown plaintext and 255 decryptions, tryingapproximately half of the possible keys, to reach apoint at which chances are better than even the keysought will have been found. But this may not beenough assurance; a linear cryptanalysis attack againstDES requires 243 known plaintexts and approximately243 DES operations.[26] This is a considerableimprovement on brute force attacks.

Public-key algorithms are based on the computationaldifficulty of various problems. The most famous of these is integer factorization (e.g., the RSA algorithm is based ona problem related to integer factoring), but the discrete logarithm problem is also important. Much public-keycryptanalysis concerns numerical algorithms for solving these computational problems, or some of them, efficiently(i.e., in a practical time). For instance, the best known algorithms for solving the elliptic curve-based version ofdiscrete logarithm are much more time-consuming than the best known algorithms for factoring, at least forproblems of more or less equivalent size. Thus, other things being equal, to achieve an equivalent strength of attackresistance, factoring-based encryption techniques must use larger keys than elliptic curve techniques. For this reason,public-key cryptosystems based on elliptic curves have become popular since their invention in the mid-1990s.

While pure cryptanalysis uses weaknesses in the algorithms themselves, other attacks on cryptosystems are based onactual use of the algorithms in real devices, and are called side-channel attacks. If a cryptanalyst has access to, forexample, the amount of time the device took to encrypt a number of plaintexts or report an error in a password orPIN character, he may be able to use a timing attack to break a cipher that is otherwise resistant to analysis. Anattacker might also study the pattern and length of messages to derive valuable information; this is known as trafficanalysis,[27] and can be quite useful to an alert adversary. Poor administration of a cryptosystem, such as permittingtoo short keys, will make any system vulnerable, regardless of other virtues. And, of course, social engineering, andother attacks against the personnel who work with cryptosystems or the messages they handle (e.g., bribery,extortion, blackmail, espionage, torture, ...) may be the most productive attacks of all.

Cryptographic primitivesMuch of the theoretical work in cryptography concerns cryptographic primitives—algorithms with basiccryptographic properties—and their relationship to other cryptographic problems. More complicated cryptographictools are then built from these basic primitives. These primitives provide fundamental properties, which are used todevelop more complex tools called cryptosystems or cryptographic protocols, which guarantee one or morehigh-level security properties. Note however, that the distinction between cryptographic primitives andcryptosystems, is quite arbitrary; for example, the RSA algorithm is sometimes considered a cryptosystem, andsometimes a primitive. Typical examples of cryptographic primitives include pseudorandom functions, one-wayfunctions, etc.

Cryptography 23

CryptosystemsOne or more cryptographic primitives are often used to develop a more complex algorithm, called a cryptographicsystem, or cryptosystem. Cryptosystems (e.g. El-Gamal encryption) are designed to provide particular functionality(e.g. public key encryption) while guaranteeing certain security properties (e.g. chosen-plaintext attack (CPA)security in the random oracle model). Cryptosystems use the properties of the underlying cryptographic primitives tosupport the system's security properties. Of course, as the distinction between primitives and cryptosystems issomewhat arbitrary, a sophisticated cryptosystem can be derived from a combination of several more primitivecryptosystems. In many cases, the cryptosystem's structure involves back and forth communication among two ormore parties in space (e.g., between the sender of a secure message and its receiver) or across time (e.g.,cryptographically protected backup data). Such cryptosystems are sometimes called cryptographic protocols.Some widely known cryptosystems include RSA encryption, Schnorr signature, El-Gamal encryption, PGP, etc.More complex cryptosystems include electronic cash[28] systems, signcryption systems, etc. Some more 'theoretical'cryptosystems include interactive proof systems,[29] (like zero-knowledge proofs,[30] ), systems for secret sharing,[31]

[32] etc.Until recently, most security properties of most cryptosystems were demonstrated using empirical techniques, orusing ad hoc reasoning. Recently, there has been considerable effort to develop formal techniques for establishingthe security of cryptosystems; this has been generally called provable security. The general idea of provable securityis to give arguments about the computational difficulty needed to compromise some security aspect of thecryptosystem (i.e., to any adversary).The study of how best to implement and integrate cryptography in software applications is itself a distinct field; see:Cryptographic engineering and Security engineering.

Legal issues

ProhibitionsCryptography has long been of interest to intelligence gathering and law enforcement agencies. Actually secretcommunications may be criminal or even treasonous; those whose communications are open to inspection may beless likely to be either. Because of its facilitation of privacy, and the diminution of privacy attendant on itsprohibition, cryptography is also of considerable interest to civil rights supporters. Accordingly, there has been ahistory of controversial legal issues surrounding cryptography, especially since the advent of inexpensive computershas made widespread access to high quality cryptography possible.In some countries, even the domestic use of cryptography is, or has been, restricted. Until 1999, France significantlyrestricted the use of cryptography domestically, though it has relaxed many of these. In China, a license is stillrequired to use cryptography. Many countries have tight restrictions on the use of cryptography. Among the morerestrictive are laws in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Singapore, Tunisia, and Vietnam.[33]

In the United States, cryptography is legal for domestic use, but there has been much conflict over legal issuesrelated to cryptography. One particularly important issue has been the export of cryptography and cryptographicsoftware and hardware. Probably because of the importance of cryptanalysis in World War II and an expectation thatcryptography would continue to be important for national security, many Western governments have, at some point,strictly regulated export of cryptography. After World War II, it was illegal in the US to sell or distribute encryptiontechnology overseas; in fact, encryption was designated as auxiliary military equipment and put on the United StatesMunitions List.[34] Until the development of the personal computer, asymmetric key algorithms (i.e., public keytechniques), and the Internet, this was not especially problematic. However, as the Internet grew and computersbecame more widely available, high quality encryption techniques became well-known around the globe. As a result,export controls came to be seen to be an impediment to commerce and to research.

Cryptography 24

Export controlsIn the 1990s, there were several challenges to US export regulations of cryptography. One involved PhilipZimmermann's Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) encryption program; it was released in the US, together with its sourcecode, and found its way onto the Internet in June 1991. After a complaint by RSA Security (then called RSA DataSecurity, Inc., or RSADSI), Zimmermann was criminally investigated by the Customs Service and the FBI forseveral years. No charges were ever filed, however.[35] [36] Also, Daniel Bernstein, then a graduate student at UCBerkeley, brought a lawsuit against the US government challenging some aspects of the restrictions based on freespeech grounds. The 1995 case Bernstein v. United States ultimately resulted in a 1999 decision that printed sourcecode for cryptographic algorithms and systems was protected as free speech by the United States Constitution.[37]

In 1996, thirty-nine countries signed the Wassenaar Arrangement, an arms control treaty that deals with the export ofarms and "dual-use" technologies such as cryptography. The treaty stipulated that the use of cryptography with shortkey-lengths (56-bit for symmetric encryption, 512-bit for RSA) would no longer be export-controlled.[38]

Cryptography exports from the US are now much less strictly regulated than in the past as a consequence of a majorrelaxation in 2000;[33] there are no longer very many restrictions on key sizes in US-exported mass-market software.In practice today, since the relaxation in US export restrictions, and because almost every personal computerconnected to the Internet, everywhere in the world, includes US-sourced web browsers such as Mozilla Firefox orMicrosoft Internet Explorer, almost every Internet user worldwide has access to quality cryptography (i.e., whenusing sufficiently long keys with properly operating and unsubverted software, etc.) in their browsers; examples areTransport Layer Security or SSL stack. The Mozilla Thunderbird and Microsoft Outlook E-mail client programssimilarly can connect to IMAP or POP servers via TLS, and can send and receive email encrypted with S/MIME.Many Internet users don't realize that their basic application software contains such extensive cryptosystems. Thesebrowsers and email programs are so ubiquitous that even governments whose intent is to regulate civilian use ofcryptography generally don't find it practical to do much to control distribution or use of cryptography of this quality,so even when such laws are in force, actual enforcement is often effectively impossible.

NSA involvementAnother contentious issue connected to cryptography in the United States is the influence of the National SecurityAgency on cipher development and policy. NSA was involved with the design of DES during its development atIBM and its consideration by the National Bureau of Standards as a possible Federal Standard for cryptography.[39]

DES was designed to be resistant to differential cryptanalysis,[40] a powerful and general cryptanalytic techniqueknown to NSA and IBM, that became publicly known only when it was rediscovered in the late 1980s.[41] Accordingto Steven Levy, IBM rediscovered differential cryptanalysis,[42] but kept the technique secret at NSA's request. Thetechnique became publicly known only when Biham and Shamir re-rediscovered and announced it some years later.The entire affair illustrates the difficulty of determining what resources and knowledge an attacker might actuallyhave.Another instance of NSA's involvement was the 1993 Clipper chip affair, an encryption microchip intended to bepart of the Capstone cryptography-control initiative. Clipper was widely criticized by cryptographers for tworeasons. The cipher algorithm was then classified (the cipher, called Skipjack, though it was declassified in 1998long after the Clipper initiative lapsed). The secret cipher caused concerns that NSA had deliberately made thecipher weak in order to assist its intelligence efforts. The whole initiative was also criticized based on its violation ofKerckhoffs' principle, as the scheme included a special escrow key held by the government for use by lawenforcement, for example in wiretaps.[36]

Cryptography 25

Digital rights managementCryptography is central to digital rights management (DRM), a group of techniques for technologically controllinguse of copyrighted material, being widely implemented and deployed at the behest of some copyright holders. In1998, American President Bill Clinton signed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which criminalizedall production, dissemination, and use of certain cryptanalytic techniques and technology (now known or laterdiscovered); specifically, those that could be used to circumvent DRM technological schemes.[43] This had anoticeable impact on the cryptography research community since an argument can be made that any cryptanalyticresearch violated, or might violate, the DMCA. Similar statutes have since been enacted in several countries andregions, including the implementation in the EU Copyright Directive. Similar restrictions are called for by treatiessigned by World Intellectual Property Organization member-states.The United States Department of Justice and FBI have not enforced the DMCA as rigorously as had been feared bysome, but the law, nonetheless, remains a controversial one. Niels Ferguson, a well-respected cryptographyresearcher, has publicly stated[44] that he will not release some of his research into an Intel security design for fear ofprosecution under the DMCA. Both Alan Cox (longtime number 2 in Linux kernel development) and ProfessorEdward Felten (and some of his students at Princeton) have encountered problems related to the Act. DmitrySklyarov was arrested during a visit to the US from Russia, and jailed for five months pending trial for allegedviolations of the DMCA arising from work he had done in Russia, where the work was legal. In 2007, thecryptographic keys responsible for Blu-ray and HD DVD content scrambling were discovered and released onto theInternet. In both cases, the MPAA sent out numerous DMCA takedown notices, and there was a massive internetbacklash triggered by the perceived impact of such notices on fair use and free speech.

References[1] Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford University Press. (1984)[2] David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.[3] Oded Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography, Volume 1: Basic Tools, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-79172-3[4] "Cryptology (definition)" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ cryptology). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th

edition ed.). Merriam-Webster. . Retrieved 2008-02-01.[5] Kama Sutra, Sir Richard F. Burton, translator, Part I, Chapter III, 44th and 45th arts.[6] V. V. I︠A︡shchenko (2002). " Cryptography: an introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cH-NGrpcIMcC& pg=PA6& dq&

hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". AMS Bookstore. p.6. ISBN 0-8218-2986-6[7] A Short History of Cryptography, Fred Cohen 1995, retrieved 8 June 2010 (http:/ / all. net/ books/ ip/ Chap2-1. html)[8] Simon Singh, The Code Book, pp. 14-20[9] Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi (April 1992), "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions”, Cryptologia 16 (2): 97–126[10] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.[11] James Gannon, Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century, Washington, D.C.,

Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4.[12] Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, "New Directions in Cryptography", IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-22, Nov. 1976,

pp: 644–654. ( pdf (http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ rd/ 86197922,340126,1,0. 25,Download/ http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ cache/ papers/ cs/16749/ http:zSzzSzwww. cs. rutgers. eduzSz~tdnguyenzSzclasseszSzcs671zSzpresentationszSzArvind-NEWDIRS. pdf/ diffie76new. pdf))

[13] AJ Menezes, PC van Oorschot, and SA Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050307081354/www. cacr. math. uwaterloo. ca/ hac/ ) ISBN 0-8493-8523-7.

[14] FIPS PUB 197: The official Advanced Encryption Standard (http:/ / www. csrc. nist. gov/ publications/ fips/ fips197/ fips-197. pdf).[15] NCUA letter to credit unions (http:/ / www. ncua. gov/ letters/ 2004/ 04-CU-09. pdf), July 2004[16] RFC 2440 - Open PGP Message Format[17] SSH at windowsecurity.com (http:/ / www. windowsecurity. com/ articles/ SSH. html) by Pawel Golen, July 2004[18] Bruce Schneier, Applied Cryptography, 2nd edition, Wiley, 1996, ISBN 0-471-11709-9.[19] National Institute of Standards and Technology (http:/ / csrc. nist. gov/ groups/ ST/ hash/ documents/ FR_Notice_Nov07. pdf)[20] Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, "Multi-user cryptographic techniques" [Diffie and Hellman, AFIPS Proceedings 45, pp109–112, June

8, 1976].[21] Ralph Merkle was working on similar ideas at the time and encountered publication delays, and Hellman has suggested that the term used

should be Diffie–Hellman–Merkle aysmmetric key cryptography.[22] David Kahn, "Cryptology Goes Public", 58 Foreign Affairs 141, 151 (fall 1979), p. 153.

Cryptography 26

[23] R. Rivest, A. Shamir, L. Adleman. A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems (http:/ / theory. lcs. mit. edu/~rivest/ rsapaper. pdf). Communications of the ACM, Vol. 21 (2), pp.120–126. 1978. Previously released as an MIT "Technical Memo" inApril 1977, and published in Martin Gardner's Scientific American Mathematical recreations column

[24] Clifford Cocks. A Note on 'Non-Secret Encryption', CESG Research Report, 20 November 1973 (http:/ / www. fi. muni. cz/ usr/ matyas/lecture/ paper2. pdf).

[25] "Shannon": Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, University of Illinois Press, 1963, ISBN0-252-72548-4

[26] Pascal Junod, "On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack" (http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ cache/ papers/ cs/ 22094/ http:zSzzSzeprint. iacr.orgzSz2001zSz056. pdf/ junod01complexity. pdf), SAC 2001.

[27] Dawn Song, David Wagner, and Xuqing Tian, "Timing Analysis of Keystrokes and Timing Attacks on SSH" (http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/cache/ papers/ cs/ 22094/ http:zSzzSzeprint. iacr. orgzSz2001zSz056. pdf/ junod01complexity. pdf), In Tenth USENIX Security Symposium,2001.

[28] S. Brands, "Untraceable Off-line Cash in Wallets with Observers" (http:/ / scholar. google. com/ url?sa=U& q=http:/ / ftp. se. kde. org/ pub/security/ docs/ ecash/ crypto93. ps. gz), In Advances in Cryptology—Proceedings of CRYPTO, Springer-Verlag, 1994.

[29] László Babai. "Trading group theory for randomness" (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=22192). Proceedings of the SeventeenthAnnual Symposium on the Theory of Computing, ACM, 1985.

[30] S. Goldwasser, S. Micali, and C. Rackoff, "The Knowledge Complexity of Interactive Proof Systems", SIAM J. Computing, vol. 18, num. 1,pp. 186–208, 1989.

[31] G. Blakley. "Safeguarding cryptographic keys." In Proceedings of AFIPS 1979, volume 48, pp. 313–317, June 1979.[32] A. Shamir. "How to share a secret." In Communications of the ACM, volume 22, pp. 612–613, ACM, 1979.[33] RSA Laboratories' Frequently Asked Questions About Today's Cryptography (http:/ / www. rsasecurity. com/ rsalabs/ node. asp?id=2152)[34] Cryptography & Speech (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051201184530/ http:/ / www. cyberlaw. com/ cylw1095. html) from Cyberlaw[35] "Case Closed on Zimmermann PGP Investigation" (http:/ / www. ieee-security. org/ Cipher/ Newsbriefs/ 1996/ 960214. zimmerman. html),

press note from the IEEE.[36] Levy, Steven (2001). Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government—Saving Privacy in the Digital Age. Penguin Books. p. 56.

ISBN 0-14-024432-8. OCLC 244148644 48066852 48846639.[37] Bernstein v USDOJ (http:/ / www. epic. org/ crypto/ export_controls/ bernstein_decision_9_cir. html), 9th Circuit court of appeals decision.[38] The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies (http:/ / www. wassenaar.

org/ guidelines/ index. html)[39] "The Data Encryption Standard (DES)" (http:/ / www. schneier. com/ crypto-gram-0006. html#DES) from Bruce Schneier's CryptoGram

newsletter, June 15, 2000[40] Coppersmith, D. (May 1994). "The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and its strength against attacks" (http:/ / www. research. ibm. com/

journal/ rd/ 383/ coppersmith. pdf) (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development 38 (3): 243. doi:10.1147/rd.383.0243. .[41] E. Biham and A. Shamir, "Differential cryptanalysis of DES-like cryptosystems" (http:/ / scholar. google. com/ url?sa=U& q=http:/ / www.

springerlink. com/ index/ K54H077NP8714058. pdf), Journal of Cryptology, vol. 4 num. 1, pp. 3–72, Springer-Verlag, 1991.[42] Levy, pg. 56[43] Digital Millennium Copyright Act (http:/ / www. copyright. gov/ legislation/ dmca. pdf)[44] http:/ / www. macfergus. com/ niels/ dmca/ cia. html

Further reading• Richard J. Aldrich, GCHQ: The Uncensored Story of Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency, HarperCollins,

July 2010.• Becket, B (1988). Introduction to Cryptology. Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0-632-01836-4.

OCLC 16832704. Excellent coverage of many classical ciphers and cryptography concepts and of the "modern"DES and RSA systems.

• Cryptography and Mathematics by Bernhard Esslinger, 200 pages, part of the free open-source packageCrypTool, PDF download (https:/ / www. cryptool. org/ download/ CrypToolScript-en. pdf).

• In Code: A Mathematical Journey by Sarah Flannery (with David Flannery). Popular account of Sarah'saward-winning project on public-key cryptography, co-written with her father.

• James Gannon, Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century,Washington, D.C., Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4.

• Oded Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography (http:/ / www. wisdom. weizmann. ac. il/ ~oded/ foc-book. html),in two volumes, Cambridge University Press, 2001 and 2004.

Cryptography 27

• Introduction to Modern Cryptography (http:/ / www. cs. umd. edu/ ~jkatz/ imc. html) by Jonathan Katz andYehuda Lindell.

• Alvin's Secret Code by Clifford B. Hicks (children's novel that introduces some basic cryptography andcryptanalysis).

• Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, "The Origins of Cryptology: the Arab Contributions," Cryptologia, vol. 16, no. 2 (April1992), pp. 97–126.

• Handbook of Applied Cryptography (http:/ / www. cacr. math. uwaterloo. ca/ hac/ ) by A. J. Menezes, P. C. vanOorschot, and S. A. Vanstone CRC Press, (PDF download available), somewhat more mathematical thanSchneier's Applied Cryptography.

• Christof Paar (http:/ / www. crypto. rub. de/ en_paar. html), Jan Pelzl, Understanding Cryptography, A Textbookfor Students and Practitioners. (http:/ / www. cryptography-textbook. com) Springer, 2009. (Slides, video lecturesand other information are available on the web site.) Very accessible introduction to practical cryptography fornon-mathematicians.

• Introduction to Modern Cryptography by Phillip Rogaway and Mihir Bellare, a mathematical introduction totheoretical cryptography including reduction-based security proofs. PDF download (http:/ / www. cs. ucdavis.edu/ ~rogaway/ classes/ 227/ spring05/ book/ main. pdf).

• Cryptonomicon by Neal Stephenson (novel, WW2 Enigma cryptanalysis figures into the story, though not alwaysrealistically).

• Johann-Christoph Woltag, 'Coded Communications (Encryption)' in Rüdiger Wolfrum (ed) Max PlanckEncyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2009). * "Max Planck Encyclopedia of PublicInternational Law" (http:/ / www. mpepil. com)., giving an overview of international law issues regardingcryptography.

• Jonathan Arbib & John Dwyer, Discrete Mathematics for Cryptography, 1st Edition ISBN 978-1-907934-01-8.

External links• Free on-line course in cryptography (http:/ / www. cryptography-textbook. com) by Christof Paar, two semesters

in English and German (klick on "On-line course"), site also contains a comprehensive set of cryptography slides• Cryptography (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ programmes/ p004y272) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:/

/ www. bbc. co. uk/ iplayer/ console/ p004y272/ In_Our_Time_Cryptography))• "DNA computing and cryptology: the future for Basel in Switzerland?" (http:/ / www. basel-research. eu. com)• Crypto Glossary and Dictionary of Technical Cryptography (http:/ / ciphersbyritter. com/ GLOSSARY. HTM)• Attack/Prevention (http:/ / www. attackprevention. com/ Cryptology/ ) Resource for Cryptography Whitepapers,

Tools, Videos, and Podcasts.• Cryptography: The Ancient Art of Secret Messages (http:/ / www. pawlan. com/ Monica/ crypto/ ) by Monica

Pawlan - February 1998• Handbook of Applied Cryptography (http:/ / www. cacr. math. uwaterloo. ca/ hac/ ) by A. J. Menezes, P. C. van

Oorschot, and S. A. Vanstone (PDF download available), somewhat more mathematical than Schneier's book.• NSA's CryptoKids (http:/ / www. nsa. gov/ kids/ ).• Overview and Applications of Cryptology (http:/ / www. cryptool. org/ download/ CrypToolPresentation-en. pdf)

by the CrypTool Team; PDF; 3.8 MB—July 2008• RSA Laboratories' frequently asked questions about today's cryptography (http:/ / www. rsasecurity. com/

rsalabs/ node. asp?id=2152)• sci.crypt mini-FAQ (http:/ / www. spinstop. com/ schlafly/ crypto/ faq. htm)• GCHQ: Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency (http:/ / www2. warwick. ac. uk/ fac/ soc/ pais/ staff/ aldrich/

vigilant/ lectures/ gchq)• A Course in Cryptography (http:/ / www. cs. cornell. edu/ courses/ cs4830/ 2010fa/ lecnotes. pdf) by Raphael

Pass and Abhi Shelat. A complete course in cryptography offered at Cornell in the form of lecture notes.

Pattern recognition 28

Pattern recognitionIn machine learning, pattern recognition is the assignment of some sort of output value (or label) to a given inputvalue (or instance), according to some specific algorithm. An example of pattern recognition is classification, whichattempts to assign each input value to one of a given set of classes (for example, determine whether a given email is"spam" or "non-spam"). However, pattern recognition is a more general problem that encompasses other types ofoutput as well. Other examples are regression, which assigns a real-valued output to each input; sequence labeling,which assigns a class to each member of a sequence of values (for example, part of speech tagging, which assigns apart of speech to each word in an input sentence); and parsing, which assigns a parse tree to an input sentence,describing the syntactic structure of the sentence.Pattern recognition algorithms generally aim to provide a reasonable answer for all possible inputs and to do "fuzzy"matching of inputs. This is opposed to pattern matching algorithms, which look for exact matches in the input withpre-existing patterns. A common example of a pattern-matching algorithm is regular expression matching, whichlooks for patterns of a given sort in textual data and is included in the search capabilities of many text editors andword processors. In contrast to pattern recognition, pattern matching is generally not considered a type of machinelearning, although pattern-matching algorithms (especially with fairly general, carefully tailored patterns) cansometimes succeed in providing similar-quality output to the sort provided by pattern-recognition algorithms.Pattern recognition is studied in many fields, including psychology, psychiatry, ethology, cognitive science andcomputer science.

OverviewPattern recognition is generally categorized according to the type of learning procedure used to generate the outputvalue. Supervised learning assumes that a set of training data (the training set) has been provided, consisting of a setof instances that have been properly labeled by hand with the correct output. A learning procedure then generates amodel that attempts to meet two sometimes conflicting objectives: Perform as well as possible on the training data,and generalize as well as possible to new data (usually, this means being as simple as possible, for some technicaldefinition of "simple", in accordance with Occam's Razor). Unsupervised learning, on the other hand, assumestraining data that has not been hand-labeled, and attempts to find inherent patterns in the data that can then be used todetermine the correct output value for new data instances. A combination of the two that has recently been exploredis semi-supervised learning, which uses a combination of labeled and unlabeled data (typically a small set of labeleddata combined with a large amount of unlabeled data). Note that in cases of unsupervised learning, there may be notraining data at all to speak of; in other words, the data to be labeled is the training data.Note that sometimes different terms are used to describe the corresponding supervised and unsupervised learningprocedures for the same type of output. For example, the unsupervised equivalent of classification is normallyknown as clustering, based on the common perception of the task as involving no training data to speak of, and ofgrouping the input data into clusters based on some inherent similarity measure (e.g. the distance between instances,considered as vectors in a multi-dimensional vector space), rather than assigning each input instance into one of a setof pre-defined classes. Note also that in some fields, the terminology is different: For example, in communityecology, the term "classification" is used to refer to what is commonly known as "clustering".The piece of input data for which an output value is generated is formally termed an instance. The instance is formally described by a vector of features, which together constitute a description of all known characteristics of the instance. (These feature vectors can be seen as defining points in an appropriate multidimensional space, and methods for manipulating vectors in vector spaces can be correspondingly applied to them, such as computing the dot product or the angle between two vectors.) Typically, features are either categorical (also known as nominal, i.e. consisting of one of a set of unordered items, such as a gender of "male" or "female", or a blood type of "A", "B",

Pattern recognition 29

"AB" or "O"), ordinal (consisting of one of a set of ordered items, e.g. "large", "medium" or "small"), integer-valued(e.g. a count of the number of occurrences of a particular word in an email) or real-valued (e.g. a measurement ofblood pressure). Often, categorical and ordinal data are grouped together; likewise for integer-valued and real-valueddata. Furthermore, many algorithms work only in terms of categorical data and require that real-valued orinteger-valued data be discretized into groups (e.g. less than 5, between 5 and 10, or greater than 10).Many common pattern recognition algorithms are probabilistic in nature, in that they use statistical inference to findthe best label for a given instance. Unlike other algorithms, which simply output a "best" label, often timesprobabilistic algorithms also output a probability of the instance being described by the given label. In addition,many probabilistic algorithms output a list of the N-best labels with associated probabilities, for some value of N,instead of simply a single best label. When the number of possible labels is fairly small (e.g. in the case ofclassification), N may be set so that the probability of all possible labels is output. Probabilistic algorithms havemany advantages over non-probabilistic algorithms:• They output a confidence value associated with their choice. (Note that some other algorithms may also output

confidence values, but in general, only for probabilistic algorithms is this value mathematically grounded inprobability theory. Non-probabilistic confidence values can in general not be given any specific meaning, andonly used to compare against other confidence values output by the same algorithm.)

• Correspondingly, they can abstain when the confidence of choosing any particular output is too low.• Because of the probabilities output, probabilistic pattern-recognition algorithms can be more effectively

incorporated into larger machine-learning tasks, in a way that partially or completely avoids the problem of errorpropagation.

Techniques to transform the raw feature vectors are sometimes used prior to application of the pattern-matchingalgorithm. For example, feature extraction algorithms attempt to reduce a large-dimensionality feature vector into asmaller-dimensionality vector that is easier to work with and encodes less redundancy, using mathematicaltechniques such as principal components analysis (PCA). Feature selection algorithms, attempt to directly prune outredundant or irrelevant features. The distinction between the two is that the resulting features after feature extractionhas taken place are of a different sort than the original features and may not easily be interpretable, while the featuresleft after feature selection are simply a subset of the original features.

Problem statement (supervised version)Formally, the problem of supervised pattern recognition can be stated as follows: Given an unknown function

(the ground truth) that maps input instances to output labels , along with trainingdata assumed to represent accurate examples of the mapping, produce a function

that approximates as closely as possible the correct mapping . (For example, if the problem isfiltering spam, then is some representation of an email and is either "spam" or "non-spam"). In order for thisto be a well-defined problem, "approximates as closely as possible" needs to be defined rigorously. In decisiontheory, this is defined by specifying a loss function that assigns a specific value to "loss" resulting from producing anincorrect label. The goal then is to minimize the expected loss, with the expectation taken over the probabilitydistribution of . In practice, neither the distribution of nor the ground truth function are knownexactly, but can be computed only empirically by collecting a large number of samples of and hand-labelingthem using the correct value of (a time-consuming process, which is typically the limiting factor in the amount ofdata of this sort that can be collected). The particular loss function depends on the type of label being predicted. Forexample, in the case of classification, the simple zero-one loss function is often sufficient. This corresponds simplyto assigning a loss of 1 to any incorrect labeling and is equivalent to computing the accuracy of the classificationprocedure over the set of test data (i.e. counting up the fraction of instances that the learned function labels correctly. The goal of the learning procedure is to maximize this test accuracy on a "typical" test set.

Pattern recognition 30

For a probabilistic pattern recognizer, the problem is instead to estimate the probability of each possible output labelgiven a particular input instance, i.e. to estimate a function of the form

where the feature vector input is , and the function f is typically parameterized by some parameters . In adiscriminative approach to the problem, f is estimated directly. In a generative approach, however, the inverseprobability is instead estimated and combined with the prior probability using Bayes'rule, as follows:

When the labels are continuously distributed (e.g. in regression analysis), the denominator involves integration ratherthan summation:

The value of is typically learned using maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation. This finds the best value thatsimultaneously meets two conflicting objects: To perform as well as possible on the training data and to find thesimplest possible model. Essentially, this combines maximum likelihood estimation with a regularization procedurethat favors simpler models over more complex models. In a Bayesian context, the regularization procedure can beviewed as placing a prior probability on different values of . Mathematically:

where is the value used for in the subsequent evaluation procedure, and , the posterior probabilityof , is given by

In the Bayesian approach to this problem, instead of choosing a single parameter vector , the probability of agiven label for a new instance is computed by integrating over all possible values of , weighted according tothe posterior probability:

Uses

The face was automatically detected by specialsoftware.

Within medical science, pattern recognition is the basis forcomputer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems. CAD describes aprocedure that supports the doctor's interpretations and findings.

Typical applications are automatic speech recognition,classification of text into several categories (e.g. spam/non-spamemail messages), the automatic recognition of handwritten postalcodes on postal envelopes, or the automatic recognition of imagesof human faces. The last two examples form the subtopic imageanalysis of pattern recognition that deals with digital images asinput to pattern recognition systems.[1] [2]

Pattern recognition 31

The method of signing one's name was captured with stylus and overlay starting 1990. The strokes, speed, relativemin, relative max, acceleration and pressure is used to uniquely identify and confirm identity. Banks were firstoffered this technology, however, were content to collect from FDIC for any bank fraud and didnt want toinconvience customers.

AlgorithmsAlgorithms for pattern recognition depend on the type of label output, on whether learning is supervised orunsupervised, and on whether the algorithm is statistical or non-statistical in nature. Statistical algorithms can furtherbe categorized as generative or discriminative.

Classification algorithms (supervised algorithms predicting categorical labels)• Maximum entropy classifier (aka logistic regression, multinomial logistic regression): Note that logistic

regression is an algorithm for classification, despite its name. (The name comes from the fact that logisticregression uses an extension of a linear regression model to model the probability of an input being in a particularclass.)

• Naive Bayes classifier• Decision trees, decision lists• Support vector machines• Kernel estimation and K-nearest-neighbor algorithms• Perceptrons• Neural networks (multi-level perceptrons)

Clustering algorithms (unsupervised algorithms predicting categorical labels)• Categorical mixture models• K-means clustering• Hierarchical clustering (agglomerative or divisive)• Kernel principal component analysis (Kernel PCA)

Regression algorithms (predicting real-valued labels)Supervised:• Linear regression and extensions• Neural networks• Gaussian process regression (kriging)Unsupervised:• Principal components analysis (PCA)• Independent component analysis (ICA)

Pattern recognition 32

Categorical sequence labeling algorithms (predicting sequences of categorical labels)Supervised:• Hidden Markov models (HMMs)• Maximum entropy Markov models (MEMMs)• Conditional random fields (CRFs)Unsupervised:• Hidden Markov models (HMMs)

Real-valued sequence labeling algorithms (predicting sequences of real-valued labels)Supervised (?):• Kalman filters• Particle filtersUnsupervised:• ???

Parsing algorithms (predicting tree structured labels)Supervised and unsupervised:• Probabilistic context free grammars (PCFGs)

General algorithms for predicting arbitrarily-structured labels• Bayesian networks• Markov random fields

Ensemble learning algorithms (supervised meta-algorithms for combining multiplelearning algorithms together)• Bootstrap aggregating ("bagging")• Boosting• Ensemble averaging• Mixture of experts, hierarchical mixture of experts

ReferencesThis article was originally based on material from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, which is licensedunder the GFDL.[1] Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3[2] R. Brunelli, Template Matching Techniques in Computer Vision: Theory and Practice, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-51706-2, 2009 ( (http:/ / eu.

wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/ productCd-0470517069. html) TM book)

Further reading• Fukunaga, Keinosuke (1990). Introduction to Statistical Pattern Recognition (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press.

ISBN 0-12-269851-7.• Bishop, Christopher (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 0-387-31073-8.• Koutroumbas, Konstantinos; Theodoridis, Sergios (2008). Pattern Recognition (4th ed.). Boston: Academic Press.

ISBN 1-59749-272-8.• Bhagat, Phiroz (2005). Pattern Recognition in Industry. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044538-1.

Pattern recognition 33

• Hornegger, Joachim; Paulus, Dietrich W. R. (1999). Applied Pattern Recognition: A Practical Introduction toImage and Speech Processing in C++ (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.ISBN 3-528-15558-2.

• Schuermann, Juergen (1996). Pattern Classification: A Unified View of Statistical and Neural Approaches. NewYork: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-13534-8.

• Godfried T. Toussaint, ed (1988). Computational Morphology. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.• Kulikowski, Casimir A.; Weiss, Sholom M. (1991). Computer Systems That Learn: Classification and Prediction

Methods from Statistics, Neural Nets, Machine Learning, and Expert Systems. Machine Learning. San Francisco:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN 1-55860-065-5.

External links• The International Association for Pattern Recognition (http:/ / www. iapr. org)• List of Pattern Recognition web sites (http:/ / cgm. cs. mcgill. ca/ ~godfried/ teaching/ pr-web. html)• Journal of Pattern Recognition Research (http:/ / www. jprr. org)• Pattern Recognition Info (http:/ / www. docentes. unal. edu. co/ morozcoa/ docs/ pr. php)• Pattern Recognition (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ journal/ 00313203) (Journal of the Pattern

Recognition Society)• International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence (http:/ / www. worldscinet. com/ ijprai/

mkt/ archive. shtml)

Cupid

Classical statue of Cupid with his bow

In Roman mythology, Cupid (Latin cupido, meaning "desire") isthe god of desire, affection and erotic love. He is the son ofgoddess Venus and god Mars.

In popular culture, Cupid is frequently shown shooting his bow toinspire romantic love, often as an icon of Valentine's Day. He isnow in the current culture the personification of love and courtshipin general.

For the equivalent deity in Greek mythology, see Eros.

Legend

In the Roman version, Cupid was the son of Venus (goddess oflove) and Mars.[1] [2] In the Greek version he was named Eros andseen as one of the primordial gods (though other myths exist aswell). Cupid was often depicted with wings, a bow, and a quiver ofarrows. The following story is almost identical in both cultures;the most familiar version is found in Ovid's Metamorphoses. When Cupid's mother Venus became jealous of theprincess Psyche, who was so beloved by her subjects that they forgot to worship Venus, she ordered Cupid to makePsyche fall in love with the vilest thing in the world. While Cupid was sneaking into her room to shoot Psyche with agolden arrow, he accidentally scratched himself with his own arrow and fell deeply in love with her.

Following that, Cupid visited Psyche every night while she slept. Speaking to her so that she could not see him, he told her never to try to see him. Psyche, though, incited by her two older sisters who told her Cupid was a monster, tried to look at him and angered Cupid. When he left, she looked all over the known world for him until at last the

Cupid 34

leader of the gods, Jupiter, gave Psyche the gift of immortality so that she could be with him. Together they had adaughter, Voluptas, or Hedone, (meaning pleasure) and Psyche became a goddess. Her name "Psyche" means "soul."

Portrayal

Caravaggio's Amor Vincit Omnia

In painting and sculpture, Cupid is often portrayed as a nude (orsometimes diapered) winged boy or baby (a putto) armed with abow and a quiver of arrows.

The Hindu Kāma also has a very similar description. On gems andother surviving pieces, he is usually shown amusing himself withchildhood play, sometimes driving a hoop, throwing darts,catching a butterfly, or flirting with a nymph. He is often depictedwith his mother (in graphic arts, this is nearly always Venus),playing a horn. In other images, his mother is depicted scolding oreven spanking him due to his mischievous nature. He is alsoshown wearing a helmet and carrying a buckler, perhaps inreference to Virgil's Omnia vincit amor or as political satire onwars for love or love as war.

Cupid figures prominently in ariel poetry, lyrics and, of course,elegiac love and metamorphic poetry. In epic poetry, he is lessoften invoked, but he does appear in Virgil's Aeneid changed intothe shape of Ascanius inspiring Dido's love. In later literature,Cupid is frequently invoked as fickle, playful, and perverse. He isoften depicted as carrying two sets of arrows: one set gold-headed, which inspire love; and the other lead-headed,which inspire hatred.

The best-known story involving Cupid is the tale of Cupid and Psyche.

Notes[1] Cotterell, Arthur. Cupid: A Dictionary of World Mythology (http:/ / www. oxfordreference. com/ views/ ENTRY. html?subview=Main&

entry=t73. e198) Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed 26 April 2010[2] John Lemprière, A classical dictionary; containing a copious account of all the proper names mentioned in ancient authors:: with the value

of coins, weights, and measures, used among the Greeks and Romans; and a chronological table (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=s6cTAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA225& dq=cupid+ father+ mother+ venus& lr=& as_brr=1& cd=4#v=onepage& q=cupid father mothervenus& f=false) (1820)

References• Cotterell, Arthur & Storm, Rachel (2008). The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology. Annes Publishing Ltd..• Arthur Cotterell & Rachel Storm, The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology, 2008 Annes Publishing Ltd.• Fabio Silva Vallejo, Mitos y leyendas del mundo (Spanish), 2004 Panamericana Editorial.

Cupid and Psyche 35

Cupid and Psyche

Cupid and Psyche, by Antonio Canova, c. 1808.

The legend of Cupid and Psyche (also known as The Tale of Amourand Psyche and The Tale of Eros and Psyche) first appeared as adigressionary story told by an old woman in Lucius Apuleius' novel,The Golden Ass, written in the 2nd century AD. Apuleius likely usedan earlier tale as the basis for his story, modifying it to suit thethematic needs of his novel.

It has since been interpreted as a Märchen, an allegory and a myth.Considered as a fairy tale, it is either an allegory or a myth, but thefolkloric tradition tends to blend these.[1]

Legend

Envious and jealous of the beauty of a mortal girl named Psyche,Venus asks her son Cupid (known to the Greeks as Eros) to use hisgolden arrows while Psyche sleeps, so that when she awakens, Venus(Aphrodite in the Greek tradition) would have already placed a vilecreature for her to fall in love with. Cupid finally agrees to hercommands after a long (and failed) debate. As he flies to Psyche's room at night, he turns himself invisible so no onecan see him fly in through her window. He takes pity on her, for she was born too beautiful for her own safety. As heslowly approaches, careful not to make a sound, he readies one of his golden arrows. He leans over Psyche while sheis asleep and before he can scratch her shoulder with the arrow, she awakens, startling him, for she looks right intohis eyes, despite his invisibility. This causes him to scratch himself with his arrow, falling deeply in love with her.He cannot continue his mission, for every passing second he finds her more appealing. He reports back to Venusshortly after and the news enrages her. Venus places a curse on Psyche that keeps her from meeting a suitablehusband, or any husband at that. As she does this, it upsets Cupid greatly, and he decides as long as the curse stayson Psyche, he will no longer shoot arrows, which will cause the temple of Venus to fall.

Michelangelo Palloni, fresco Sleeping Psyche, c.1688, Wilanów Palace.

After months of no one — man or animal — falling in love, marrying,or mating, the Earth starts to grow old, which causes concern to Venus,for nobody praises her for Cupid's actions. Finally, she agrees to listento Cupid's demands, according him one thing to have his own way.Cupid desires Psyche. Venus, upset, agrees to his demands only if hebegins work immediately. He accepts the offer and takes off, shootinghis golden arrows as fast as he can, restoring everything to the way itshould be. People again fall in love and marry, animals far and widemate, and the Earth begins to look young once again.

When all continue to admire and praise Psyche's beauty, but nonedesire her as a wife, Psyche's parents consult an oracle, which tellsthem to leave Psyche on the nearest mountain, for her beauty is sogreat that she is not meant for (mortal) man. Terrified, they have no

choice but to follow the oracle's instructions. But then Zephyrus, the west wind, carries Psyche away, to a fair valleyand a magnificent palace where she is attended by invisible servants until nightfall, and in the darkness of night thepromised bridegroom arrives and the marriage is consummated. Cupid visits her every night to sleep with her, butdemands that she never light any lamps, since he does not want her to know who he is until the time is right.

Cupid and Psyche 36

Statue of Cupido and Psyche kissing, 2nd century AD. Room E of the House ofCupid and Psyche. Ostia Antica, Latium, Italy

Cupid allows Zephyrus to take Psyche backto her sisters and bring all three down to thepalace during the day, but warns that Psycheshould not listen to any argument that sheshould try to discover his true form. The twojealous sisters tell Psyche, then pregnantwith Cupid's child, that rumor is that she hadmarried a great and terrible serpent whowould devour her and her unborn childwhen the time came for it to be fed. Theyurge Psyche to conceal a knife and oil lampin the bedchamber, to wait till her husbandis asleep, and then to light the lamp and slayhim at once if it is as they said. Psyche sadlyfollows their advice. In the light of the lampPsyche recognizes the fair form on the bed as the god Cupid himself. However, she accidentally pricks herself withone of his arrows, and is consumed with desire for her husband. She begins to kiss him, but as she does, a drop of oilfalls from her lamp onto Cupid's shoulder and wakes him. He flies away, and she falls from the window to theground, sick at heart.

Psyche then finds herself in the city where one of her jealous elder sisters live. She tells her what had happened, thentricks her sister into believing that Cupid has chosen her as a wife on the mountaintop. Psyche later meets her othersister and deceives her likewise. Each sister goes to the top of the peak and jumps down eagerly, but Zephyrus doesnot bear them and they fall to their deaths at the base of the mountain.Psyche searches far and wide for her lover, finally stumbling into a temple where everything is in slovenly disarray.As Psyche is sorting and clearing the mess, Ceres (Demeter to the Greeks) appears, but refuses any help beyondadvising Psyche that she must call directly on Venus, who caused all the problems in the first place. Psyche nextcalls on Juno in her temple, but Juno gives her the same advice. So Psyche finds a temple to Venus and enters it.Venus then orders Psyche to separate all the grains in a large basket of mixed kinds before nightfall. An ant takespity on Psyche, and with its ant companions, separates the grains for her.

L'Amour et Psyché,by François-Édouard Picot,1819

Venus is outraged at her success and tells her to go to a field wheregolden sheep graze and to retrieve some golden wool. A river-god tellsPsyche that the sheep are vicious and strong and will kill her, but if shewaits until noontime, the sheep will go to the shade on the other side ofthe field and sleep; she can then pick the wool that sticks to thebranches and bark of the trees. Venus next asks for water flowing froma cleft that is impossible for a mortal to attain and is also guarded bygreat serpents. This time an eagle performs the task for Psyche.

Cupid and Psyche 37

Psyché aux enfers by Eugène ErnestHillemacher, 1865

Venus, furious at Psyche's survival, claims that the stress of caring for her son,made depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's lack of faith, has caused her to losesome of her beauty. Psyche is to go to the Underworld and ask the queen of theUnderworld, Proserpina (Persephone to the Greeks), to place a bit of her beautyin a box that Venus had given to Psyche. Psyche decides that the quickest way tothe Underworld is to throw herself off some high place and die, and so sheclimbs to the top of a tower. But the tower itself speaks to Psyche and tells herthe route that will allow her to enter the Underworld alive and return again, aswell as telling her how to get past Cerberus (by giving the three-headed dog asmall cake); how to avoid other dangers on the way there and back; and mostimportantly, to eat nothing but coarse bread in the underworld, as eating anythingelse would trap her there forever. Psyche follows the orders precisely, rejectingall but bread while beneath the Earth.

However, once Psyche has left the Underworld, she decides to open the box andtake a little bit of the beauty for herself. Inside, she can see no beauty; instead an infernal sleep arises from the boxand overcomes her. Cupid (Eros), who had forgiven Psyche, flies to her, wipes the sleep from her face, puts it backin the box, and sends her back on her way. Then Cupid flies to Mount Olympus and begs Jupiter (Zeus) to aid them.Jupiter calls a full and formal council of the gods and declares that it is his will that Cupid marry Psyche. Jupiter thenhas Psyche fetched to Mount Olympus, and gives her a drink made from ambrosia, granting her immortality.Begrudgingly, Venus and Psyche forgive each other.

Psyche and Cupid have a daughter, called Voluptas (Hedone in Greek mythology), the goddess of "sensualpleasures", whose Latin name means "pleasure" or "bliss".

Relations and originIn Greek mythology, Psyche was the deification of the human soul. She was portrayed in ancient mosaics as agoddess with butterfly wings (because psyche is also the Greek word for 'butterfly'). The Greek word psyche literallymeans "spirit, breath, life or animating force".

Cupid and Psyche 38

Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss in the Louvre,Paris.

Psyche was originally the youngest daughter of the king and queen ofSicily, and the most beautiful person on the island. Suitors flocked toask for her hand. She eventually boasted that she was more beautifulthan Aphrodite (Venus) herself, and Aphrodite sent Eros to transfix herwith an arrow of desire, to make her fall in love with the nearest personor thing available. But even Eros (Cupid) fell in love with her, and tookher to a secret place, eventually marrying her and having her made agoddess by Zeus (Jupiter).

Though concerning gods and goddesses, Apuleius' Cupid and Psychewas generally relegated to the status of a "mere" folktale (in English afairy tale). However, through Perrault's Mother Goose Tales and withthe popularity of other such collections in 17th century France, folktales become recognized in Europe as a legitimate literary genre.

Later adaptations

William Adlington translated the tale into English in 1566.[2]

At the conclusion of Comus (1634), the poet John Milton alluded to thestory of Cupid and Psyche.

Psyche, by William Adolphe Bouguereau

"Celestial Cupid, her famed son, advanced,Holds his dear Psyche sweet entranced,After her wandering labours long,Till free consent the gods amongMake her his eternal bride;And from her fair unspotted sideTwo blissful twins are to be born,Youth and Joy; so Jove hath sworn."

The poet T. K. Harvey wrote:"They wove bright fables in the days of old,When reason borrowed fancy's painted wings;When truth's clear river flowed o'er sands of gold,And told in song its high and mystic things!And such the sweet and solemn tale of herThe pilgrim heart, to whom a dream was given,That led her through the world,– Love's worshipper,–To seek on earth for him whose home was heaven!"In the full city,– by the haunted fount,–Through the dim grotto's tracery of spars,–'Mid the pine temples, on the moonlit mount,Where silence sits to listen to the stars;In the deep glade where dwells the brooding dove,The painted valley, and the scented air,

Cupid and Psyche 39

She heard far echoes of the voice of Love,And found his footsteps' traces everywhere."But nevermore they met! since doubts and fears,Those phantom shapes that haunt and blight the earth,Had come 'twixt her, a child of sin and tears,And that bright spirit of immortal birth;Until her pining soul and weeping eyesHad learned to seek him only in the skies;Till wings unto the weary heart were given,And she became Love's angel bride in heaven!"

Shackerley Marmion wrote a verse version of the Apuleius story called Cupid and Psyche which was published in1637.Mary Tighe in her poem Cupid and Psyche first published in 1805 explains the origin of Cupid's love for Psyche.She adds two springs in Venus' garden, one with sweet water and one with bitter. When Cupid starts to obey hismother's command, he brings some of both to a sleeping Psyche but places only some of the bitter water on Psyche'slips and prepares also to pierce her with an arrow:

Roman marble Cupid and Psyche after aHellenistic original of the 2nd century BC

Nor yet content, he from his quiver drew,Sharpened with skill divine, a shining dart:No need had he for bow, since thus too trueHis hand might wound her all-exposed heart;Yet her fair side he touched with gentlest art,And half relenting on her beauties gazed;Just then awaking with a sudden startHer opening eye in humid lustre blazed,Unseen he still remained, enchanted and amazed.The dart which in his hand now trembling stood,As o'er the couch he bent with ravished eye,Drew with its daring point celestial bloodFrom his smooth neck's unblemished ivory:Heedless of this, but with a pitying sighThe evil done now anxious to repair,He shed in haste the balmy drops of joyO'er all the silky ringlets of her hair;Then stretched his plumes divine, and breathed celestial air.

In the later part of her tale, Tighe's Venus only asks one task of Psyche, to bring her the forbidden water, but inperforming this task Tighe's Psyche wanders into a country bordering on Spenser's Fairie Queene as Psyche is aidedby a mysterious visored knight and his squire Constance and must escape various traps set by Vanity, Flattery,Ambition, Credulity, Disfida (who lives in a "Gothic castle"), Varia and Geloso. Spenser's Blatant Beast also makesan appearance.Tighe's work was appreciated by William Wordsworth and also an early influence on John Keats, whose short Odeto Psyche appeared in 1820.

Cupid and Psyche 40

William Morris retold the story in verse in The Earthly Paradise (1868–70). Robert Bridges wrote Eros and Psyche:A Narrative Poem in Twelve Measures (1885; 1894). A full prose adaptation was included as part of Walter Pater'snovel Marius the Epicurean in 1885. Josephine Preston Peabody wrote a version for children in her Old Greek FolkStories Told Anew (1897). Thomas Bulfinch wrote a short adaptation for his Age of Fable which borrowed Tighe'saccount of Cupid's self-wounding. C.S. Lewis retold the story in his 1956 book Till We Have Faces.

Fairy tale variantsAs Bruno Bettelheim notes in The Uses of Enchantment, Beauty and the Beast is a variant of Cupid and Psyche.

References[1] Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Cupid and Psyche," reprinted in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), pp. 84–92 online. (http:/ /

books. google. com/ books?id=xWaOxU28Nn4C& pg=PA84& dq="Cupid+ and+ Psyche"+ inauthor:Wagenvoort& lr=& as_brr=0)[2] Under the title The XI Bookes of the Golden Asse, Conteininge the Metamorphosie of Lucius Apuleius (London 1566).

External links• Readers Theatre version of the Cupid and Psyche Tale (http:/ / trickledownolympus. blogspot. com) Play version

of Cupid and Psyche, suitable for use in any 6th-12th grade classroom.• Tales Similar to Beauty and the Beast (http:/ / www. surlalunefairytales. com/ beautybeast/ other. html) (Texts of

Cupid and Psyche and similar monster or beast as bridegroom tales, mostly of AT-425C form, with hyperlinkedcommentary).

• Robert Bridge's Eros and Psyche at archive.org (http:/ / www. archive. org/ search. php?query=creator:"Bridges,Robert Seymour, 1844-1930" eros): pdf (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ cu31924013439025) or read online(http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ cu31924013439025#page/ n81/ mode/ 2up)

• Mary Tighe, Psyche or, the Legend of Love (1820) HTML (http:/ / web. nmsu. edu/ ~hlinkin) or PDF (http:/ /web. nmsu. edu/ ~hlinkin/ Psyche)

• Voluptas

• Ode to Voluptas (http:/ / www. voluptas. info/ ) (Information about Voluptas, Daughter of Cupid & Psyche)• Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, chapter 5 (1885)

• Gutenberg Project: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, Vol. 1 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. net/ etext/ 4057)(Plain text.)

• Blackmask: Walter Pater, "Marius the Epicurean": chapter 5 (http:/ / www. blackmask. com/ books57c/7mrs1dex. htm)

• Victorian Prose: Walter Pater, Marius the Epicurean, Vol. 1 (http:/ / www. victorianprose. org/ texts/ Pater/Works/ mar_85_1. pdf) (PDF)

• Josephine Preston Peabody, Old Greek Folk Stories Told Anew (1897)• The Baldwin Project: The Enchanted Palace (http:/ / www. mainlesson. com/ display. php?author=peabody&

book=greek& story=cupid) and The Trial of Psyche (http:/ / www. mainlesson. com/ display.php?author=peabody& book=greek& story=psyche)

• Rick Walton's Online Library: Cupid and Psyche (http:/ / www. rickwalton. com/ folktale/ holid020. htm)• Blackmask: Cupid and Psyche (http:/ / www. blackmask. com/ thatway/ books130c/ 7ogrkdex. htm)

• Thomas Bulfinch, The Age of Fable (1913)• D. L Ashliman: Folktexts: Cupid and Psyche (http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~dash/ cupid. html)• Hermetic Philosophy: Cupid and Psyche (http:/ / www. plotinus. com/ myth_cupid_psyche. htm) (Illustrated

with painting and sculpture.)• Andrew Staniland

Cupid and Psyche 41

• Beauty Of Psyche (http:/ / www. andrewstaniland. co. uk/ index. htm#beauty''The)• Art

• Art Renewal Center: "Cupid & Psyche" by Sharrell E. Gibson (http:/ / www. artrenewal. org/ articles/ 2001/Cupid_and_Psyche/ cupidpsyche1. asp) (Examples and discussion of Cupid and Psyche in painting.)

• Material on the Musical by Sean Hartley and Jihwan Kim (2000)

• Theatrescene.net: Cupid and Psyche (http:/ / www. theatrescene. net/ ts\articles. nsf/ 0/19AA3EDED1068A1A85256DBA004FBE2C?OpenDocument)

• Talkin Broadway: Cupid and Psyche (http:/ / www. talkinbroadway. com/ ob/ 09_24_03. html)• Holly Woodward, Archipelago: Volume 4, Number 4

• & Psyche (http:/ / www. archipelago. org/ vol4-4/ woodward. htm''Eros) (A short story based on the myth.)• Acting Manitou in Maine produced a new musical version of Cupid and Psyche

• (http:/ / www. actingmanitou. com) Link to the drama camp

Holy Grail

How at the Castle of Corbin a Maiden Bare in theSangreal and Foretold the Achievements of

Galahad: illustration by Arthur Rackham, 1917

The Holy Grail is a sacred object figuring in literature and certainChristian traditions, most often identified with the dish, plate, or cupused by Jesus at the Last Supper and said to possess miraculouspowers. The connection of Joseph of Arimathea with the Grail legenddates from Robert de Boron's Joseph d'Arimathie (late 12th century) inwhich Joseph receives the Grail from an apparition of Jesus and sendsit with his followers to Great Britain; building upon this theme, laterwriters recounted how Joseph used the Grail to catch Christ's bloodwhile interring him and that in Britain he founded a line of guardians tokeep it safe. The quest for the Holy Grail makes up an importantsegment of the Arthurian cycle, appearing first in works by Chrétien deTroyes.[1] The legend may combine Christian lore with a Celtic mythof a cauldron endowed with special powers.

The Grail legend's development has been traced in detail by culturalhistorians: It is a legend which first came together in the form ofwritten romances, deriving perhaps from some pre-Christian folklorehints, in the later 12th and early 13th centuries. The early Grailromances centered on Percival and were woven into the more generalArthurian fabric. Some of the Grail legend is interwoven with legendsof the Holy Chalice.[2]

Origins

GrailThe Grail plays a different role everywhere it appears, but in most versions of the legend the hero must prove himselfworthy to be in its presence. In the early tales, Percival's immaturity prevents him from fulfilling his destiny when hefirst encounters the Grail, and he must grow spiritually and mentally before he can locate it again. In later tellings theGrail is a symbol of God's grace, available to all but only fully realized by those who prepare themselves spiritually,like the saintly Galahad.

Holy Grail 42

Early formsThere are two veins of thought concerning the Grail's origin. The first, championed by Roger Sherman Loomis,Alfred Nutt, and Jessie Weston, holds that it derived from early Celtic myth and folklore. Loomis traced a number ofparallels between Medieval Welsh literature and Irish material and the Grail romances, including similaritiesbetween the Mabinogion's Bran the Blessed and the Arthurian Fisher King, and between Bran's life-restoringcauldron and the Grail. On the other hand, some scholars believe the Grail began as a purely Christian symbol. Forexample, Joseph Goering of the University of Toronto has identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th century wallpaintings from churches in the Catalan Pyrenees (now mostly removed to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya,Barcelona), which present unique iconic images of the Virgin Mary holding a bowl that radiates tongues of fire,images that predate the first literary account by Chrétien de Troyes. Goering argues that they were the originalinspiration for the Grail legend.[3] [4]

Another recent theory holds that the earliest stories that cast the Grail in a Christian light were meant to promote theRoman Catholic sacrament of the Holy Communion. Although the practice of Holy Communion was first alluded toin the Christian Bible and defined by theologians in the 1st centuries AD, it was around the time of the appearance ofthe first Christianized Grail literature that the Roman church was beginning to add more ceremony and mysticismaround this particular sacrament. Thus, the first Grail stories may have been celebrations of a renewal in thistraditional sacrament.[5] This theory has some basis in the fact that the Grail legends are a phenomenon of theWestern church (see below).In several articles, Daniel Scavone, professor Emeritus of history at the University of Southern Indiana, puts forwarda hypothesis which identifies the Shroud of Turin as the real object that inspires the romances of the Holy Grail.[6]

Most scholars today accept that both Christian and Celtic traditions contributed to the legend's development, thoughmany of the early Celtic-based arguments are largely discredited (Loomis himself came to reject much of Westonand Nutt's work). The general view is that the central theme of the Grail is Christian, even when not explicitlyreligious, but that much of the setting and imagery of the early romances is drawn from Celtic material.

EtymologyThe word graal, as it is earliest spelled, comes from Old French graal or greal, cognate with Old Provençal grazaland Old Catalan gresal, meaning "a cup or bowl of earth, wood, or metal" (or other various types of vessels inSouthern French dialects).[7] The most commonly accepted etymology derives it from Latin gradalis or gradale viaan earlier form, cratalis, a derivative of crater or cratus which was, in turn, borrowed from Greek krater (atwo-handed shallow cup).[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] Alternate suggestions include a derivative of cratis, a name for a type ofwoven basket that came to refer to a dish,[12] or a derivative of Latin gradus meaning "'by degree', 'by stages',applied to a dish brought to the table in different stages or services during a meal".[13]

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, after the cycle of Grail romances was well established, late medievalwriters came up with a false etymology for sangréal, an alternative name for "Holy Grail." In Old French, san graalor san gréal means "Holy Grail" and sang réal means "royal blood"; later writers played on this pun. Since then,"Sang real" is sometimes employed to lend a medievalizing air in referring to the Holy Grail. This connection withroyal blood bore fruit in a modern bestseller linking many historical conspiracy theories (see below).

Holy Grail 43

Beginnings in literature

Chrétien de TroyesThe Grail is first featured in Perceval, le Conte du Graal (The Story of the Grail) by Chrétien de Troyes, who claimshe was working from a source book given to him by his patron, Count Philip of Flanders. In this incomplete poem,dated sometime between 1180 and 1191, the object has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have inlater works. While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King, Perceval witnesses a wondrous procession inwhich youths carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at each course of the meal.First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabras. Finally, a beautiful younggirl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated graal, or "grail."Chrétien refers to his object not as "The Grail" but as un graal, showing the word was used, in its earliest literarycontext, as a common noun. For Chrétien the grail was a wide, somewhat deep dish or bowl, interesting because itcontained not a pike, salmon or lamprey, as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single Masswafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King’s crippled father. Perceval, who had been warned againsttalking too much, remains silent through all of this, and wakes up the next morning alone. He later learns that if hehad asked the appropriate questions about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his honor.The story of the Wounded King's mystical fasting is not unique; several saints were said to have lived without foodbesides communion, for instance Saint Catherine of Genoa. This may imply that Chrétien intended the Mass wafer tobe the significant part of the ritual, and the Grail to be a mere prop.

Robert de BoronThough Chrétien’s account is the earliest and most influential of all Grail texts, it was in the work of Robert deBoron that the Grail truly became the "Holy Grail" and assumed the form most familiar to modern readers. In hisverse romance Joseph d’Arimathie, composed between 1191 and 1202, Robert tells the story of Joseph of Arimatheaacquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ’s blood upon his removal from the cross. Joseph is thrownin prison, where Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup. Upon his release Joseph gathers hisin-laws and other followers and travels to the west, and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually includesPerceval.

Other early literatureAfter this point, Grail literature divides into two classes. The first concerns King Arthur’s knights visiting the Grailcastle or questing after the object; the second concerns the Grail’s history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea.The nine most important works from the first group are:• The Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes.• Four continuations of Chrétien’s poem, by authors of differing vision and talent, designed to bring the story to a

close.• The German Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach, which adapted at least the holiness of Robert’s Grail into the

framework of Chrétien’s story.• The Didot Perceval, named after the manuscript’s former owner, and purportedly a prosification of Robert de

Boron’s sequel to Joseph d’Arimathie.• The Welsh romance Peredur, generally included in the Mabinogion, likely at least indirectly founded on

Chrétien's poem but including very striking differences from it, preserving as it does elements of pre-Christiantraditions such as the Celtic cult of the head.

• Perlesvaus, called the "least canonical" Grail romance because of its very different character.• The German Diu Crône (The Crown), in which Gawain, rather than Perceval, achieves the Grail.• The Lancelot section of the vast Vulgate Cycle, which introduces the new Grail hero, Galahad.

Holy Grail 44

• The Queste del Saint Graal, another part of the Vulgate Cycle, concerning the adventures of Galahad and hisachievement of the Grail.

Of the second class there are:• Robert de Boron’s Joseph d’Arimathie,• The Estoire del Saint Graal, the first part of the Vulgate Cycle (but written after Lancelot and the Queste), based

on Robert’s tale but expanding it greatly with many new details.• Verses by Rigaut de Barbezieux, a late 12th or early 13th century[14] Provençal troubador, where mention is made

of Perceval, the lance, and the Grail ("Like Perceval when he lived, who stood amazed in contemplation, so thathe was quite unable to ask what purpose the lance and grail served" - "Attressi con Persavaus el temps que vivia,que s'esbait d'esgarder tant qu'anc non saup demandar de que servia la lansa ni-l grazaus"[15] ).

Though all these works have their roots in Chrétien, several contain pieces of tradition not found in Chrétien whichare possibly derived from earlier sources.

Conceptions of the Grail

Galahad, Bors, and Percival achieve the Grail

The Grail was considered a bowl ordish when first described by Chrétiende Troyes. Hélinand of Froidmontdescribed a grail as a "wide and deepsaucer" (scutella lata et aliquantulumprofunda). Other authors had their ownideas: Robert de Boron portrayed it asthe vessel of the Last Supper; andPeredur had no Grail per se, presentingthe hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody, severed head. In Parzival, Wolfram von Eschenbach,citing the authority of a certain (probably fictional) Kyot the Provençal, claimed the Grail was a stone that fell fromHeaven (called lapsit exillis), and had been the sanctuary of the Neutral Angels who took neither side duringLucifer's rebellion. The authors of the Vulgate Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of divine grace. Galahad,illegitimate son of Lancelot and Elaine, the world's greatest knight and the Grail Bearer at the castle of Corbenic, isdestined to achieve the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a greater warrior than even his illustrious father.Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail involving him were picked up in the 15th century by Sir Thomas Maloryin Le Morte d'Arthur, and remain popular today.

Holy Grail 45

Later legend

One of the supposed Holy Grails in Valencia,Spain

Belief in the Grail and interest in its potential whereabouts has neverceased. Ownership has been attributed to various groups (including theKnights Templar, probably because they were at the peak of theirinfluence around the time that Grail stories started circulating in the12th and 13th centuries).

There are cups claimed to be the Grail in several churches, for instancethe Saint Mary of Valencia Cathedral, which contains an artifact, theHoly Chalice, supposedly taken by Saint Peter to Rome in the 1stcentury, and then to Huesca in Spain by Saint Lawrence in the 3rdcentury. According to legend, the monastery of San Juan de la Peña,located at the south-west of Jaca, in the province of Huesca, Spain,protected the chalice of the Last Supper from the Islamic invaders ofthe Iberian Peninsula. Archaeologists say the artifact is a 1st centuryMiddle Eastern stone vessel, possibly from Antioch, Syria (nowTurkey); its history can be traced to the 11th century, and it now restsatop an ornate stem and base, made in the Medieval era of alabaster,gold, and gemstones. It was the official papal chalice for many popes,and has been used by many others, most recently by Pope Benedict

XVI, on July 9, 2006.[16] The emerald chalice at Genoa,[17] which was obtained during the Crusades at CaesareaMaritima at great cost, has been less championed as the Holy Grail since an accident on the road, while it was beingreturned from Paris after the fall of Napoleon, revealed that the emerald was green glass.

In Wolfram von Eschenbach's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the castle of Munsalvaesche (mons salvationis),entrusted to Titurel, the first Grail King. Some, not least the monks of Montserrat, have identified the castle with thereal sanctuary of Montserrat in Catalonia, Spain. Other stories claim that the Grail is buried beneath Rosslyn Chapelor lies deep in the spring at Glastonbury Tor. Still other stories claim that a secret line of hereditary protectors keepthe Grail, or that it was hidden by the Templars in Oak Island, Nova Scotia's famous "Money Pit", while localfolklore in Accokeek, Maryland says that it was brought to the town by a closeted priest aboard Captain John Smith'sship. Turn of the century accounts state that Irish partisans of the Clan Dhuir (O'Dwyer, Dwyer) transported the Grailto the United States during the 19th Century and the Grail was kept by their descendents in secrecy in a small abbeyin the upper-Northwest (now believed to be Southern Minnesota).[18]

Holy Grail 46

Modern interpretations

The Damsel of the Sanct Grael by Dante GabrielRossetti

The story of the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasinglypopular in the 19th century, referred to in literature such as AlfredTennyson's Arthurian cycle the Idylls of the King. The combination ofhushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualized imagery inRichard Wagner's late opera Parsifal gave new significance to the grailtheme, for the first time associating the grail – now periodicallyproducing blood – directly with female fertility.[19] The highseriousness of the subject was also epitomized in Dante GabrielRossetti's painting (illustrated), in which a woman modelled by JaneMorris holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a gesture ofblessing with the other. Other artists, including George Frederic Wattsand William Dyce also portrayed grail subjects.

The Grail later turned up in movies; it debuted in a silent Parsifal. InThe Light of Faith (1922), Lon Chaney attempted to steal it. The SilverChalice, a novel about the Grail by Thomas B. Costain was made intoa 1954 movie. Lancelot du Lac (1974) was made by Robert Bresson.Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) (adapted in 2004 as the stageproduction Spamalot) was a comedic adaptation. Excalibur attemptedto restore a more traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale,in which the Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthurhimself, and of the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected. Indiana Jones and the Last Crusadeand The Fisher King are more recent adoptions.

The Grail has been used as a theme in fantasy, historical fiction and science fiction; a quest for the Grail appears inBernard Cornwell's series of books The Grail Quest, set during The Hundred Years War. Michael Moorcock'sfantasy novel The War Hound and the World's Pain depicts a supernatural Grail quest set in the era of the ThirtyYears' War, and science fiction has taken the Quest into interstellar space, figuratively in Samuel R. Delany's 1968novel Nova, and literally on the television shows Babylon 5 and Stargate SG-1 (as the "Sangraal"). Marion ZimmerBradley's The Mists of Avalon has the grail as one of four objects symbolizing the four Elements: the Grail itself(water), the sword Excalibur (fire), a dish (earth), and a spear or wand (air). The grail features heavily in the novelsof Peter David's Knight trilogy, which depict King Arthur reappearing in modern-day New York City, in particularthe second and third novels, One Knight Only and Fall of Knight. The grail is central in many modern Arthurianworks, including Charles Williams's novel War in Heaven and his two collections of poems about Taliessin,Taliessin Through Logres and Region of the Summer Stars, and in feminist author Rosalind Miles' Child of the HolyGrail. The Grail also features heavily in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel Baudolino.The Grail has also been treated in works of non-fiction, which generally seek to interpret its meaning in novel ways.Such a tack was taken by psychologists Emma Jung and Marie-Louise von Franz, who utilized analytical psychologyto interpret the Grail as a series of symbols in their book The Grail Legend.[20] This type of interpretation hadpreviously been utilized, in less detail, by Carl Jung, and was later invoked by Joseph Campbell.[20]

Other works attempt to connect the Grail to conspiracy theories and esoteric traditions. In The Sign and the Seal,Graham Hancock asserts that the Grail story is a coded description of the stone tablets stored in the Ark of theCovenant. For the authors of Holy Blood, Holy Grail, who assert that their research ultimately reveals that Jesus maynot have died on the cross, but lived to wed Mary Magdalene and father children whose Merovingian lineagecontinues today, the Grail is a mere sideshow: they say it is a reference to Mary Magdalene as the receptacle ofJesus' bloodline.[21] [22]

Holy Grail 47

Such works have been the inspiration for a number of popular modern fiction novels. The best known is DanBrown's bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code, which, like Holy Blood, Holy Grail, is based on the idea that the realGrail is not a cup but the womb and later the earthly remains of Mary Magdalene (again cast as Jesus' wife), plus aset of ancient documents claimed to tell the true story of Jesus, his teachings and descendants. In Brown's novel, it ishinted that Jesus was merely a mortal man with strong ideals, and that the Grail was long buried beneath RosslynChapel in Scotland, but that in recent decades its guardians had it relocated to a secret chamber embedded in thefloor beneath the Inverted Pyramid near the Louvre Museum. The latter location, like Rosslyn Chapel, has neverbeen mentioned in real Grail lore.

References[1] Loomis, Roger Sherman (1991). The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-02075-2 (http:/ / print. google.

com/ print?id=DGQcsXGYII4C)[2] BBC History Gallery, Holy Grail (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ british/ hg_gallery_03. shtml)[3] Goering, Joseph (2005). The Virgin and the Grail: Origins of a Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10661-0. (http:/ / yalepress. yale.

edu/ yupbooks/ book. asp?isbn=0300106610)[4] Rynor, Micah (October 20, 2005). "Holy Grail legend may be tied to paintings" (http:/ / www. news. utoronto. ca/ bin6/ 051020-1720. asp).

www.news.utoronto.ca.[5] Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01390-5. (http:/ / www. holygrail.

ws)[6] D. Scavone: "Joseph of Arimathea, the Holy Grail, and the Edessa Icon," Arthuriana vol. 9, no. 4, 3-31 (Winter 1999) ( Article (http:/ / www.

shroud. it/ SCAVONE1. PDF) and abstract (http:/ / www. shroud. com/ scavone2. htm)) ;Scavone, “British King Lucius, the Grail, and Josephof Arimathea: The Question of Byzantine Origins.”, Publications of the Medieval Association of the Midwest 10 (2003): 101-42, vol. 10,101-142 (2003).

[7] Diez, Friedrich. An etymological dictionary of the Romance languages, Williams and Norgate, 1864, p. 236.[8] Nitze, William A. Concerning the Word Graal, Greal, Modern Philology, Vol. 13, No. 11 (Mar., 1916), pp. 681-684 .[9] Jung, Emma and von Franz, Marie-Louise. The Grail Legend, Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 116-117.[10] Skeat, Walter William. Joseph of Arimathie, Pub. for the Early English Text Society, by N. Trübner & Co., 1871, pp. xxxvi-xxxvii[11] Mueller, Eduard. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der englischen Sprache: A-K, chettler, 1865, p. 461.[12] Barber, Richard. The Holy Grail: imagination and belief, Harvard University Press, 2004, p. 93.[13] Richard O'Gorman , "Grail" in Norris J. Lacy, The Arthurian Encyclopedia, 1986[14] Barber, Richard. The Holy Grail: imagination and belief, Harvard University Press, 2004, p 418[15] Sayce, Olive. Exemplary comparison from Homer to Petrarch, DS Brewer, 2008, p. 143.[16] Glatz, Carol (July 10, 2006). "At Mass in Valencia, pope uses what tradition says is Holy Grail" (http:/ / www. catholicnews. com/ data/

stories/ cns/ 0603899. htm). Catholic News.[17] "The great church is called San Lorenzo, and it is very remarkable, particularly the porch. They keep in it the Holy Grai1, which is made of a

single emerald and is indeed a marvellous relic," observed Pedro Tafur, who was there in 1436 Pedro Tafur, Andanças e viajes (http:/ / depts.washington. edu/ silkroad/ texts/ tafur. html#ch1).

[18] Wagner, Wilhelm, Romance and Epics of Our Northern Ancestors, Norse, Celt and Teuton, Norroena Society Publisher, New York, 1906.[19] Donington, Robert (1963). Wagner's "Ring" and its Symbols: the Music and the Myth. Faber[20] Barber, 248–252.[21] Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1983). Holy Blood, Holy Grail. New York: Dell. ISBN 0-440-13648-2[22] Juliette Wood, "The Holy Grail: From Romance Motif to Modern Genre", Folklore, Vol. 111, No. 2. (October 2000), pp. 169-190.

Holy Grail 48

External links• The Holy Grail at the Camelot Project (http:/ / www. lib. rochester. edu/ camelot/ grlmenu. htm)• The Holy Grail (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 06719a. htm) at the Catholic Encyclopedia• The Holy Grail today in Valencia Cathedral (http:/ / www. valenciavalencia. com/ sights-guide/

holy-grail-valencia. htm)• The Holy Grail (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ history/ inourtime/ inourtime_20030515. shtml), an episode of

In Our Time (BBC Radio 4), a 45 minute discussion is available for listening at the page.• (French) XVth century Old French Estoire del saint Graal manuscript BNF fr. 113 (http:/ / expositions. bnf. fr/

arthur/ livres/ estoire/ index. htm) Bibliothèque Nationale de France, selection of illuminated folios, ModernFrench Translation, Commentaries.

NikahNikah, or nikkah, (Arabic: حاكنلا ‎), is the matrimonial contract between a bride and bridegroom within Islamicmarriage.

Conditions

A Muslim bride signing the nikkah nama(marriage certificate)

Nikah is based on several conditions. When these conditions arefulfilled, then a man and a woman are proclaimed as husband and wifeand can live together and carry on their marital duties. These are someof the conditions that must be fulfilled:• Giving free consent to the marriage personally or through a close

relative such as a father (called a wali). A man and woman each sayin clear voice three times that they accept (name of the person,including patronymic) as their husband/wife.

• The amount of Haq-e-Mahr is agreed upon, announced, and paid tothe bride on the spot or paid in the near future. Haq-e-Mahr ismoney given to the bride from the groom as a form of insuranceshould unfortunate circumstances arise.

• Two adult free Muslim men or one Muslim male adult and twoMuslim female adults witness the ceremony.

• The nikah is publicised or advertised widely.

Societal roleThe nikah contract requires the consent of both parties very strictly if they are adults. There is a tradition in someMuslim countries, to pre-arrange a marriage for young children. However, the marriage still requires consent of theconcerned man and woman when they reach adulthood when the wedding actually goes ahead. Islam does allowdivorce (talaq) so this contract is revocable. Marriage is seen as a necessity in Islam and is seen as helpful inavoiding zina (extramarital sex/adultery) or cruelty. A marriage which is carried out unofficially without informingthe public is called nikah urfi.

Nikah 49

External links• QuranicPath | Marriage of Believers [1]

References[1] http:/ / www. quranicpath. com/ quranicpath/ marriage. html

Poker

A game of Texas hold 'em in progress. "Hold 'em" is currently the most popularform of poker.

Poker is a family of card games that sharebetting rules and usually (but not always)hand rankings. Poker games differ in howthe cards are dealt, how hands may beformed, whether the high or low hand winsthe pot in a showdown (in some games, thepot is split between the high and low hands),limits on bet sizes, and how many rounds ofbetting are allowed.

In most modern poker games, the first roundof betting begins with some form of forcedbet by one of the players. In standard poker,each player is betting that the hand he haswill be the highest ranked. The action thenproceeds clockwise around the table andeach player in turn must either match themaximum previous bet or fold, losing the amount bet so far and all further interest in the hand. A player whomatches a bet may also "raise", or increase the bet. The betting round ends when all players have either matched thelast bet or have folded. If all but one player fold on any round, then the remaining player collects the pot and maychoose to show or conceal their hand. If more than one player remains in contention after the final betting round,then the hands are revealed and the player with the winning hand takes the pot. With the exception of initial forcedbets, money is only placed into the pot voluntarily by a player who, at least in theory, rationally believes the bet haspositive expected value. Thus, while the outcome of any particular hand significantly involves chance, the long-runexpectations of the players are determined by their actions chosen based on probability, psychology and gametheory.

Poker has gained in popularity since the beginning of the 20th Century, and has gone from being primarily arecreational activity confined to small groups of mostly male enthusiasts, to a widely popular spectator activity withinternational audiences and multi-million dollar tournament prizes, with women being a constantly growing part ofthat audience.

HistoryThe history of poker is the subject of some debate. One of the earliest known games to incorporate betting, hand rankings, and bluffing was the 15th century German game Pochspiel. Poker closely resembles the Persian game of Âs Nas, though there is no specific description of Nas prior to 1890.[1] In the 1937 edition of Foster's Complete Hoyle, R. F. Foster wrote: "the game of poker, as first played in the United States, five cards to each player from a twenty-card pack, is undoubtedly the Persian game of as nas."[2] [3] By the 1990s some gaming historians including

Poker 50

David Parlett started to challenge the notion that poker is a direct derivative of As Nas.[2] There is evidence that agame called poque, a French game similar to poker, was played around the region where poker is said to haveoriginated. The name of the game likely descended from the Irish Poca (Pron. Pokah) ('Pocket') or even the Frenchpoque, which descended from the German pochen ('to brag as a bluff' lit. 'to knock').[4] Yet it is not clear whether theorigins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names. It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with theRenaissance game of primero and the French brelan. The English game brag (earlier bragg) clearly descended frombrelan and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).[3] It is quite possiblethat all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now.A modern school of thought rejects these ancestries,[5] as they focus on the card play in poker, which is trivial andcould have been derived from any number of games or made up on general cardplay principles.[6] The uniquefeatures of poker have to do with the betting, and do not appear in any known older game.[5] In this view pokeroriginated much later, in the early or mid-18th century, and spread throughout the Mississippi River region by 1800.It was played in a variety of forms, with 52 cards, and included both straight poker and stud. 20 card poker was avariant for two players (it is a common English practice to reduce the deck in card games when there are fewerplayers).[7] The development of poker is linked to the historical movement that also saw the invention of commercialgambling.[8] [9]

English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards,and four players betting on which player's hand was the most valuable. Jonathan H. Green's book, An Exposure ofthe Arts and Miseries of Gambling (G. B. Zieber, Philadelphia, 1843), described the spread of the game from there tothe rest of the country by Mississippi riverboats, on which gambling was a common pastime. As it spread northalong the Mississippi River and to the West during the gold rush, it is thought to have become a part of the frontierpioneer ethos.Soon after this spread, the full 52-card English deck was used and the flush was introduced. The draw was addedprior to 1850 (when it was first mentioned in print in a handbook of games).[10] During the American Civil War,many additions were made including stud poker (the five-card variant), and the straight. Further Americandevelopments followed, such as the wild card (around 1875), lowball and split-pot poker (around 1900), andcommunity card poker games (around 1925).The game and jargon of poker have become important parts of American culture and English culture. Such phrasesand clichés as ace in the hole, ace up one's sleeve, beats me, blue chip, call one's bluff, cash in, high roller, pass thebuck, poker face, stack up, up the ante, when the chips are down, wild card, and others are used in everydayconversation, even by those unaware of their origins at the poker table.

Poker Room at the Trump Taj Mahal, AtlanticCity, New Jersey

Beginning in 1970 a series of developments led to poker becoming farmore popular than it was previously:• Modern tournament play became popular in American casinos after

the World Series of Poker began, in 1970.[11] Notable championsfrom these early WSOP tournaments include Johnny Moss,Amarillo Slim, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson, and PuggyPearson.

• Later in the 1970s, the first serious poker strategy books appeared,notably Super/System by Doyle Brunson (ISBN 1-58042-081-8) andCaro's Book of Poker Tells by Mike Caro (ISBN 0-89746-100-2),followed later by The Theory of Poker by David Sklansky (ISBN1-880685-00-0).

• By the 1980s, poker was being depicted in popular culture as acommonplace recreational activity. For example, it was featured in at least 10 episodes of Star Trek: The NextGeneration as a weekly event of the senior staff of the fictional ship's crew.[12]

Poker 51

• In the 1990s, poker and casino gambling spread across the United States, most notably to Atlantic City, NewJersey.[13]

• In 1998, Planet Poker dealt the first real money online poker game.• In 1999, Late Night Poker debuted on British television, introducing poker for the first time to many

Europeans.[14]

Poker's popularity experienced an unprecedented spike at the beginning of the 21st century, largely because of theintroduction of online poker and hole-card cameras, which turned the game into a spectator sport. Not only couldviewers now follow the action and drama of the game on television, they could also play the game in the comfort oftheir own home. Broadcasts of poker tournaments such as the World Series of Poker and World Poker Tour broughtin huge audiences for cable and satellite TV distributors. Because of the increased coverage of poker events, pokerpros became celebrities, with poker fans all over the world entering into tournaments for the chance to compete withthem. Television coverage also added an important new dimension to the poker professional's game, as any givenhand could now be aired later, revealing information not only to the other players at the table, but to anyone whocared to view the broadcast.Since 2003, major poker tournament fields have grown dramatically, in part because of the growing popularity ofonline satellite-qualifier tournaments where the prize is an entry into a major tournament. The 2003 and 2004 WorldSeries of Poker champions, Chris Moneymaker and Greg Raymer, respectively, won their seats to the main event bywinning online satellites.[15] After the passage of the UIGEA in October 2006, attendance at live tournaments as wellas participation in live and online cash games initially slowed, however they are still growing and far more populartoday than they were prior to 2003. The growth and popularity of poker can be seen in the WSOP which had a record7,319 entrants to the 2010 main event.[16]

GameplayIn casual play, the right to deal a hand typically rotates among the players and is marked by a token called a dealerbutton (or buck). In a casino, a house dealer handles the cards for each hand, but the button (typically a white plasticdisk) is rotated clockwise among the players to indicate a nominal dealer to determine the order of betting. The cardsare dealt clockwise around the table, one at a time.One or more players are usually required to make forced bets, usually either an ante or a blind bet (sometimes both).The dealer shuffles the cards, the player on the chair to their right cuts, and the dealer deals the appropriate numberof cards to the players one at a time, beginning with the player to their left. Cards may be dealt either face-up orface-down, depending on the variant of poker being played. After the initial deal, the first of what may be severalbetting rounds begins. Between rounds, the players' hands develop in some way, often by being dealt additionalcards or replacing cards previously dealt. At the end of each round, all bets are gathered into the central pot.At any time during a betting round, if one player bets and no opponents choose to call (match) the bet and allopponents instead fold, the hand ends immediately, the bettor is awarded the pot, no cards are required to be shown,and the next hand begins. This is what makes bluffing possible. Bluffing is a primary feature of poker, one thatdistinguishes it from other vying games and from other games that make use of poker hand rankings.At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a showdown, in which the playersreveal their previously hidden cards and evaluate their hands. The player with the best hand according to the pokervariant being played wins the pot. A poker hand comprises five cards; in variants where a player has more than fivecards, the best five cards play.

Poker 52

Variants

WSOP Main Event Table

Poker has many variations, all following a similar pattern of play andgenerally using the same hand ranking hierarchy. There are three mainfamilies of variants, largely grouped by the protocol of card-dealingand betting:

StraightA complete hand is dealt to each player, and players bet in oneround, with raising and re-raising allowed. This is the oldestpoker family; the root of the game as currently played was agame known as Primero, which evolved into the game three-cardbrag, a very popular gentleman's game around the time of theAmerican Revolutionary War and still enjoyed in the U.K.today. Straight hands of five cards are sometimes used as a finalshowdown, but poker is currently virtually always played in amore complex form to allow for additional strategy.

Stud pokerCards are dealt in a prearranged combination of face-down andface-up rounds, or streets, with a round of betting followingeach. This is the next-oldest family; as poker progressed fromthree to five-card hands, they were often dealt one card at a time, either face-down or face-up, with a bettinground between each. The most popular stud variant today, seven-card stud, deals two extra cards to eachplayer (three face-down, four face-up) from which they must make the best possible 5-card hand.

Draw pokerA complete hand is dealt to each player, face-down, and after betting, players are allowed to attempt to changetheir hand (with the object of improving it) by discarding unwanted cards and being dealt new ones. Five-carddraw is the most famous variation in this family.

Community card poker (also known as flop poker)A variation of Stud, players are dealt an incomplete hand of face-down cards, and then a number of face-upcommunity cards are dealt to the center of the table, each of which can be used by one or more of the playersto make a 5-card hand. Texas hold-em and Omaha are two well-known variants of the Community family.

Other games that use poker hand rankings may likewise be referred to as poker. Video poker is a single-playercomputer game that functions much like a slot machine; most video poker machines play draw poker, where theplayer bets, a hand is dealt, and the player can discard and replace cards. Payout is dependent on the hand resultingafter the draw and the player's initial bet.Strip poker is a traditional poker variation where players remove clothing when they lose bets. Since it depends onlyon the basic mechanic of betting in rounds, strip poker can be played with any form of poker; however, it is usuallybased on simple variants with few betting rounds, like five card draw.Another game with the poker name, but with a vastly different mode of play, is called Acey-Deucey or Red Dogpoker. This game is more similar to Blackjack in its layout and betting; each player bets against the house, and thenis dealt two cards. For the player to win, the third card dealt (after an opportunity to raise the bet) must have a valuein between the first two. Payout is based on the odds that this is possible, based on the difference in values of the firsttwo cards. Other poker-like games played at casinos against the house include three card poker and pai gow poker.

Poker 53

Notes[1] Pagat.com: A History of Poker (http:/ / www. pagat. com/ vying/ pokerhistory. html) by David Parlett[2] "History of Poker" (http:/ / www. cardplayer. com/ history_of_poker/ article/ 7-poque-or-poqas-to-pokuh). Cardplayer.com. 2009-03-06. .

Retrieved 2009-03-20.[3] "MSN Encarta: Poker" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ dictionary_1861738282/ poker. html). MSN Encarta: Poker. Encarta.msn.com. . Retrieved

2009-03-20.[4] "Online Etymology Dictionary — term: poker" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=poker). Douglas Harper. . Retrieved

2007-10-03.[5] Reuven and Gabrielle Brenner, and Aaron Brown, A World of Chance: Betting on Religion, Games, Wall Street, Cambridge University Press

(2008), ISBN 978-04701273152[6] Stephen Longstreet, Win or Lose: A Social History of Gambling in America , Bobbs-Merrill (1977), ISBN 978-0-672-52253-6[7] Aaron Brown, The Poker Face of Wall Street, John Wiley & Sons (2006), ISBN 978-0-470-12731-5[8] David G. Schwartz, Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling, Gotham (2007), ISBN 978-1-59240-316-5[9] Timothy O'Brien, Bad Bet : The Inside Story of the Glamour, Glitz, and Danger of America's Gambling Industry, Crown Business (1998),

ISBN 978-0-8129-2807-5[10] Henry G. Bond (ed.), Bohn's New Handbook of Games, Henry F. Anners (1850)[11] "World Series of Poker: A Retrospective" (http:/ / gaming. unlv. edu/ WSOP/ history. html). Gaming.unlv.edu. 2007-10-22. . Retrieved

2009-03-20.[12] Poker News article (http:/ / www. pokernews. com/ news/ 2009/ 05/ poker-pop-culture-star-trek-the-next-generation-6576. htm)[13] "United States of Poker: New Jersey" (http:/ / www. pokerplayernewspaper. com/ viewarticle. php?id=289). Pokerplayernewspaper.com. .

Retrieved 2009-03-20.[14] "Late Night Poker: About the Show" (http:/ / www. channel4. com/ entertainment/ tv/ microsites/ P/ poker/ about_the_show. html).

Channel4.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-20.[15] "Chris Moneymaker on" (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ chris-moneymaker). Answers.com. 1975-11-21. . Retrieved 2009-03-20.[16] "WSOP 2010 Results - World Series of Poker Champion Jonathan Duhamel" (http:/ / www. pokerstars. com/ wsop/ ). PokerStars.com.

2011-01-22. . Retrieved 2011-01-22.

External links• Poker (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Games/ Gambling/ Poker/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Poker (http:/ / dir. yahoo. com/ Recreation/ Games/ Card_Games/ Poker/ ) at the Yahoo! Directory

Article Sources and Contributors 54

Article Sources and ContributorsUser:Rajah2770  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416910398  Contributors: ArcAngel, JohnCD, MatthewVanitas, Rajah2770

Cybernetics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416038580  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 1exec1, AbsolutDan, Acroterion, AdiJapan, Aeternus, Alan Liefting, AllanG,AndrewHowse, AndriuZ, Andy Denis, Angela, Apeiron07, Argumzio, Arthena, Beland, Bhadani, Biŋhai, Bobby D. Bryant, Bookuser, Boris Krassi, Brandelf, Breinbaas, Brona, BrotherGeorge,Bryan Derksen, BryanD, Cbdorsett, Chaosdruid, Chriscf, Ciphergoth, CommonsDelinker, ConceptExp, Conversion script, Daileychwaliboy, Davehi1, Deathphoenix, Denis Diderot, Deodar,Dhcsoul, Djdoobwah, Doctahdrey, Donreed, Doradus, Drjheise, Duke Ganote, EWS23, Ed Poor, Ercolev, Erkan Yilmaz, Estranom, Fastfission, Fenice, FrancisTyers, Fred Bauder, Fynsnman,Gary Cziko, Giftlite, Goldorak, GraemeL, Grivalta, Guyonthesubway, Harriv, Hawdon15, HenkvD, Hithereimdan, Hmains, Howardjp, Hu, Hu12, IMSoP, IanManka, Ike9898, Impact49, J04n,JDspeeder1, Jayjg, Jefffire, Jheald, Jimmaths, Jleedev, Jm34harvey, Joel Russ, Joffeloff, Jon Awbrey, Jondel, JuJube, Junkfather, Jwdietrich2, Karol Langner, Kelisi, Kenneth M Burke,Kesaloma, Kevin Baas, LSmok3, Larry laptop, Lexor, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lolzolzolz, Loremaster, Lowellian, Luctor IV, M.e, Magnusr, ManuelGR, Marcdelm, Martarius, Martian, Matt B.,Maurice Carbonaro, MaxHund, MayaSimFan, Mdd, Metrax, Michael Hardy, MichaelWattam, Mmortal03, Mogadorien, Morenosastoque, Motters, Mr3641, MrOllie, Mschel, Mxn, NZUlysses,Nam H T Rae, Nave.notnilc, NawlinWiki, NeilN, Nejtan, Neuromancien, Nick Green, Nihiltres, Nile, Normxxx, NotQuiteEXPComplete, Oldekop, Omicron18, Orderud, Ortolan88, Ott, Paliku,Panoramix, Paul A, Paulpangaro, Pcontrop, Peterdjones, Pgk, Plasticup, Poccil, Quiddity, Raiph, Raven4x4x, Rbudegb, Rejimissac, Ricky81682, Robin klein, Ronz, Rsanz, Sam Hocevar, SanguisSanies, Schakelaar, Scorpion451, SeventyThree, Shizhao, Sholto Maud, Sietse Snel, Sigmundg, Slicky, Sm8900, Snowded, Spawn Man, Sten, Stephenchou0722, Stratocracy, Suryadas,Swedenborg, Tabor, TastyPoutine, Taxisfolder, Tha Masta, The Cunctator, The Noosphere, Tomsega, Trclark9, Verbum Veritas, Vlad, Vuo, Warrickball, Wikiborg, Will Beback, Wotnow,Xgeom, Zoniedude, Александър, 275 anonymous edits

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Article Sources and Contributors 55

Cupid and Psyche  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416472940  Contributors: 2D, Abyca, Acissej123, Ahoerstemeier, Alex lareau, Alex.tan, Andonic, Andy Marchbanks,Angie Y., Annielogue, Antiuser, Art LaPella, Astralplane, Avenged Eightfold, Bayye1, Biff2bad, BigDunc, Bloodofox, Bradloid07, Bsadowski1, BurgererSF, Bzero, CHSeattle, Cander0000,CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Catalographer, Ccson, Ceoil, Charles Matthews, Chinasaur, Chrylis, Chzz, Cloak3000, Corruptcopper, Courcelles, Cynwolfe, DJ Clayworth, Dan East, Das Baz,Demeter, Devolution, Didactohedron, Diomedea Exulans, Discospinster, Doomedtx, Dorvaq, Dou Gweler, Doulos Christos, Dratman, Drowthuit, Dsm, Dsp13, Dylan Lake, Długosz, ENeville,Eaefremov, Edward321, Erkan Yilmaz, Erud, Etaureau, EurekaLott, Everard Proudfoot, Ewlyahoocom, FinnWiki, Fox, Fraise, France3470, Froth, Gamaliel, Gawaxay, Ghirlandajo, Gire3pich2005, Goldfritha, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gregmce, Griffin&Sabine, Grifter tm, Gurch, Haham hanuka, Hall Monitor, Hephzibah86, Herbee, Hermitage17, Hotcrocodile, Hurricane111, IrishPearl, Irishjames2909, Iwfi, J.delanoy, JAKoulouris, JTConroy88, Jakegothic, Jeremybloom, Jevansen, JivaAtma, John K, Kalidasa 777, Kate, Kedi the tramp, Kerowyn, Khaosworks, Kingpin13,KnowledgeOfSelf, L Kensington, La Pianista, La goutte de pluie, Leovizza, Likethesky, Lily20, LittleOldMe old, Lowellian, Lupin, Makeemlighter, Mandarax, Martian.knight, MattGiuca,Mattis, MaxSem, Meh412, Modernist, Monkeyin around165, Mr.mythology, Naevus, Nahcihc, NatFern, Neddyseagoon, NeuroWikiTyk, Nsayer, Nuno Tavares, Omghgomg, Oreo Priest,Pachuco553, Panellet, Penguinwithaspear, PhantomS, Philip Trueman, Pmlineditor, Procrastinatrix, Reisio, Rich Farmbrough, Rigadoun, Rockstar7112, Romanm, Ruakh, SSSN, Sagaciousuk,SandyGeorgia, Satanael, Saxifrage, Schlemazl, Scottandrewhutchins, Seaking777, SeanDuggan, Shenme, Sidasta, Silentfox987, Silverthorn, Simtel, Sionus, Skarioffszky, Slowking Man,Sputnikcccp, Star reborn, Starry maiden Gazer, Steerpike, Stevertigo, Stwalkerster, TFriesen, TakuyaMurata, Tclphz, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thiagolb, ThinkEnemies, Thucydides411,Tim Q. Wells, Tink1bell, TreasuryTag, Truthkeeper88, Ugajin, Umper13, Vega2, Vegalabs, Velvetron, Vermondo, Versus22, VigilancePrime, Vp loreta, Waldir, Wetman, Wiki alf, WikiLeon,Wmahan, Xiru, Yworo, 481 anonymous edits

Holy Grail  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417146069  Contributors: (, (aeropagitica), 0207848m, 0XQ, 7, ABF, ARTMATRIX, Abaharaki, Adam Bishop, Addshore,Adrians executive, Advocate777, Ahoerstemeier, Aiken drum, Aitias, Ajraddatz, Al.locke, Alai, Alain08, Alan Liefting, Alan216, Alansohn, Aleenf1, AlexiusHoratius, Allstarecho, Alphachimp,Altairisfar, Alwayssoma, Amandajm, Amberrock, Amitkinger, Ammo111, Andreas Kaganov, Anfortas, AngelHelix300, Angr, Animeguy4eva, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Aranel, Arch dude,Arjuna909, Ashley Y, Atlant, Ave Caesar, Awiseman, B00P, BRUTE, BadWolf42, Bass fishing physicist, Bastin, Batmanand, BazookaJoe, Beetstra, Bejinhan, Bencabench, Benhoyt, Bento00,Betacommand, Bhadani, Bigbrisco, Bjmspangler, Blanchardb, Blazotron, Bob20102010, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, Bogdangiusca, Bongwarrior, Bonifacioval, Born2x, Braders1, Brandon,Brian0918, British Old Catholic Church, Brother Dave Thompson, BruceR, Bryan Derksen, BryanG, Bsroiaadn, Bud Mayfield, Budija, CL, Cagwinn, Caliwebman, CambridgeBayWeather,Cammack93, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CardinalDan, Cataclysm, Ccacsmss, Ccrazymann, Ceyockey, Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chell and the cake,Chitomcgee, Choicefresh, Chris k, Chwyatt, Cjkdc, Cliagood, Closedmouth, Clovis Sangrail, Cm8008, Codecdy37, Coffee, Coma28, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Computerjoe, ConCompS,Conversion script, Cpl Syx, Crazycomputers, Croner, Cronos2546, Cuchullain, Cunningartificer, Curps, Cyfal, D. Recorder, D0762, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBaba, DHN, DJ Clayworth, DVDR W, Da monster under your bed, DanielCD, Dannybu2001, Darth Panda, Darthblaze99, David Cohen, Dbdude99, Dc28, Dcs315, Deor, Digitalme, Dina, Discospinster, Doc glasgow,DonQuixote, Donbert, Dougweller, DropDeadGorgias, Duke, E2eamon, Eaefremov, Editor2020, Eilthireach, Ekwos, El C, Elf, Elonka, Emiwoo123, Epbr123, Eric Wester, EricTrans1993, Error,EscapingLife, Euchiasmus, Eulalio Eguia, Euswdwj, Everyking, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falkon3121, Fama Clamosa, Farkeld, Farosdaughter, Ferhatkanarya, FestivalOfSouls, Fishhook,Fissionfox, Fkanarya, FolkenFanel, Franey, Frazzydee, Fredil Yupigo, FreplySpang, Freyjaromero, Fromgermany, Furrykef, GLOSCurator, Gaardsdal, Gabbe, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Genie,Getdfre, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Glenn, Gnostic2008, Goblim, Gogo Dodo, GraemeL, Grailkeeper, Greggonzalezcomposer, Grutter, Guadian of the GraEl, Gunmetal, HRE, Hadal, HappyUR,Henrygb, Hit bull, win steak, Hmains, Hollywood Heartache, Hooha137, Howcheng, Husond, Hydrogen Iodide, Iacobaeus, IdoAlphaOmega, Ihcoyc, Illusi0n7, Imasud, Itai, J. Charles Taylor,J.delanoy, JFreeman, JONJONAUG, JQF, JadziaLover, Jannex, Jebus989, Jeff G., Jeff3000, Jeffq, Jennaiel, Jh51681, Jleedev, John Vandenberg, John1014, JohnCD, Johnbod, JohnnyRush10,Jojhutton, Jonathan F, Jonathunder, Joshua BishopRoby, Jossi, Julesd, Julia275, Juliancolton, JuniperFuse, Jusdafax, Kablammo, Kalogeropoulos, Karen Johnson, Kariteh, Karl2620, KarlFrei,Karlwilbur, Kcordina, Kenshinflyer, Killmalife, KindGoat, Kingturtle, KireiShojo, Klawani, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knucmo2, KojiDude, KrakatoaKatie, Krich, Kschneyer, Kukini, Kuralyov, Kuru,Kusma, Kyle1278, L., La Pianista, Ladypine, Laiiney, Lambiam, Ld100, LeaveSleaves, Leodmacleod, Leon7, Leovizza, Lesgles, Ligulem, LinguisticDemographer, Llywrch, Lord Voldemort,Lords Page, Loremaster, LostLeviathan, LovesMacs, Lowellian, LuYiSi, Lucanos, Lunar Dragoon, Luwilt, M, MER-C, MONGO, MPerel, MXXYIR, Madder, Magister Mathematicae,Magmagoblin2, Malerin, Mark O'Sullivan, Master Jay, Master Thief Garrett, Master of Puppets, Mathiastck, Maxwellsteer, Mayhawk, Mboverload, McCann51, McSly, Mdc81666, Mendel,Mentifisto, Mhking, Miami33139, Michael Hardy, Michel BUZE, MickWest, Mikefitzhistorian, Milkyface, Mirv, Miss Madeline, Mo0, Modemac, Monsterplatypus, Moonriddengirl, Morbiusx1,Moreschi, Mrh30, Mrmajinka, Mrwojo, MuZemike, Muchosucko, Myanw, Mysidia, N1cholson, Narwhal2, Natalie Erin, NawlinWiki, Nealkernohan, NellieBly, Neutrality, NewEnglandYankee,Nick, Nightscream, Nigredo9, Ningauble, Nishkid64, Njl2, Nk, Noosentaal, Not Diablo, NovakFreek, Nunquam Dormio, Nuttycoconut, Nyrox395, Offerdrama, Ojigiri, Old Moonraker,Omicronpersei8, OndrejSc, Onetruth10, Onorem, OttoTheFish, Oxtoby, Oxymoron83, Pablo X, Palica, ParticleMan, Paul A, Paul August, Paul Barlow, Pavel Vozenilek, Pdiffenderfer, Peacekeeper222, Pennycake, Penwhale, Perrypedista, Peter, Petrb, Pfold, Pgan002, Pharaoh of the Wizards, PhilHibbs, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Pictureuploader, Piecemealcranky, Pilotguy,Pinethicket, Pjacobi, Planet-man828, Pmetzger, Pmrobert49, Porges, Pouya, Pretzelpaws, Prof.Landau, Proxima Centauri, Pseudomonas, QuestBooks, Quinsareth, Qxz, R, R'n'B, RJFJR,RadiantRay, RadioKirk, RandomCritic, Raven in Orbit, Ray Dassen, Razorflame, Reaper Eternal, Recury, Red Director, Regrub the Viking, Rentier, RepublicanJacobite, Res2216firestar, Ressay,Retired username, Rettetast, RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richardmcfc, Rickysolar, RobyWayne, Rogerthat, Ronancoghlan, Rook543, Rosedeverite, RossF18, Rrburke, Rror, Rsm99833,Rtyq2, Rune.welsh, Rushwolf, Ryan Postlethwaite, SFH, Sam Spade, Sceptre, Schwnj, Scientizzle, Scix, Scott Burley, Scottpmc, Sdfffffffffff, Selket, Seraphim, Serminigo, Seth Ilys, Sfdan,Shadowlynk, Shalin wikipedia, Shimgray, Skyfiler, Slady, Slakr, Smack, Someguy1221, Sonnydayz4eva, Spangineer, SpuriousQ, Standleylake40, Stefan Kögl, Stefanomione, Stephen Burnett,Stephen Turner, Stephen Yeates, Stephenb, Stevage, StoneCutter589, Storkk, Storm Rider, Str1977, Stuartfanning, Suchire, Super Jamie, Sus scrofa, Synchronism, Synthiac, TShilo12,Tangotango, Taroaldo, Tarotcards, Technocratic, Teddks, Tellyaddict, Telsa, Teltalheart, Tetraminoe, The Anome, The Haunted Angel, The Parsnip!, The Wookieepedian, The undertow,Theone00, Thequestfortruth, Thingg, Thucyd, Tide rolls, Tim1988 2, Tnxman307, Tobys92, Toh, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Tomtschik, Tony Sidaway, Tpbradbury,Tpellman, Trainra, Trc, Tregoweth, Trellia, Tricky, Triwbe, Trollwatcher, Trusilver, Twobitsprite, Tyrenius, Ulfhednar, Unc424, Unknown Dragon, Urbane Legend, User2004, VeryVerily,Vincenzo.romano, VirtualSteve, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Wales, Waltgibson, Wandering Writer, Warfreak, Watery Tart, Wayne Slam, Wayward, Weapon22, Wednesday Next, WelshMatt,Wesley, Wetman, Wfgh66, Where, Whiskeyjdjackass12345, Whisky drinker, Wiglaf, Wiki alf, WikiBully, Wikidenizen, Wikipelli, Wilhelmus, Willentrekin, William Avery, Willking1979,Winchelsea, Wizard of Yendor, WookieInHeat, Wrad, Xed122333, Xeno, Xerocs, Xuanwu, Xxanthippe, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yelyos, Youandme, Yworo, Zanimum, Zeborah,Zeimusu, Zhou Yu, Zpb52, ^demon, 1457 anonymous edits

Nikah  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417726214  Contributors: Anisa3k, Anonymous editor, Atropos, Bhadani, Bongwarrior, BrianGV, Carmichael95, Cfsenel, CltFn,DanMS, Dawood82, Dont101, Editor2020, Emiellaiendiay, Everyking, Fatepur, Freestylefrappe, Gaius Cornelius, Gogo Dodo, Grenavitar, Ian Pitchford, Irishpunktom, Jandalhandler, JeffreyN,Jeysaba, Jpallan, Jujutacular, Karl Meier, Klonimus, Lao Wai, Lord Anubis, M Asif, MatthewVanitas, Mel Etitis, Middayexpress, Mks68, Modestmuslimah2006, Mordgier, Neutrality, NewmanLuke, Omicronpersei8, Paul Lewison, Pseudomonas, Qef, Queeran, Radagast83, RawEgg1, Razimantv Alt, Rjwilmsi, Shimirel, Siddiqui, Spasage, Striver, The Brain, Thingg, Tigeroo, Useraaqib12, Varanya, Vice regent, Waggers, William Avery, Yuber, Zainubrazvi, Zero0000, 85 anonymous edits

Poker  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418544726  Contributors: (3ucky(3all, 0x6D667061, 1001001, 119, 16@r, 2005, 2D, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, 6smarketing, 9Tank7, A purple wikiuser, ALargeElk, AaCBrown, Accurizer, Acroterion, ActivCard, Adam Bishop, Addshore, AdjustShift, AdrianMay, Ahoerstemeier, Aiden Fisher, Ais523, Ajg1977, Ajraddatz, Akqjt, Alakey2010, Alanatme, AlbertX, Alex5461, Alexandra Georgiana Eremia, Alienus, AllForOne&OneForAll, Allbusiness, Alphachimp, Andrewpmk, Andvd, AndyBloch, Andycjp, Anne09, Antandrus, Anthony, Anthony Appleyard, Antipastor, Anyep, ArchonMagnus, Arnon Chaffin, Art LaPella, Asdfcvgbtrdhhkjhlbgutjh, Ashleycrowson, Aster123, Asterion, Astral, AuburnPilot, Avatar, Axay11, Axlrosen, AzaToth, BSI, Babaroga, Backpackadam, BadBeatBasti, Balloonman, Bart133, Bbatsell, Bbbuilder2002, Bcp67, Beetstra, Bento00, Betacommand, Bevo, Beyond silence, Bkell, Blair P. Houghton, Blake-, Blanchardb, Blazersgonlose, Blurpeace, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobostonepony, Boinger, Bongwarrior, Bowtosensei, Brad theory, Brec, Brucethemoose, Bryan Derksen, Bsoft, Bth, Bug in a nutcase1, BuickCenturyDriver, CIreland, CLW, Cacuija, Cafzal, Caiaffa, CalgaryWikifan, Calmer Waters, Caltas, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Casey J. Morris, Casmith 789, Ccacsmss, CeeWhy2, CenozoicEra, Chairman S., Charles Matthews, Charliewilson, Chas zzz brown, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chasetheace2011, Chrislk02, Chrismarais, Chromaticity, Chutznik, Chzz, Clarityfiend, Cleanandclear, Clumse, Cmh, Co149, Coffee, Colin Farell, College.kids, Colonel Warden, Commander Keane, Conversion script, Corpx, Corymaxe, Courcelles, Crazy4metallica, Crazynas, Creet, Cretog8, Crouchy91, CryptoDerk, Da.Tomato.Dude, Dackley, Dale Arnett, Dan100, Daniel, Daniel Quinlan, DanielCD, Danny Goldy, Danski14, David Gerard, Dawn Bard, Dawood92, Dcoetzee, Dddstone, DegenFarang, Delirium, Delldot, Deltacaster, Den fjättrade ankan, Dennisict, Deor, DerHexer, Desmay, Dethme0w, Dglasgow, Diablorex, Dianebobk, Digitalme, Dijxtra, Dike404, Discospinster, Dittyjwd, Dmd1281, Dobrien, DocWatson42, Docu, Doesluch, Donald Albury, Dreadstar, Dreko, Dsklanage, Dtoliaferro, Duja, E20Ci, E946, EGroup, ESkog, Eaglizard, Ean5533, Ed Poor, Ed g2s, Edcolins, Edivorce, Edward Z. Yang, Egil, Ehccheehcche, Eink21, Elassint, Emhoo, Empec, Endofskull, Entirelybs, Epbr123, Erik9, ErikHaugen, Escape Orbit, Essexmutant, Eugene van der Pijll, Evenios, Evercat, Everyking, Evil saltine, Excirial, Explicit, Fabioejp, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fawn Lake, Fetofs, Flaming Ferrari, Flamingo85, Flewis, Fodopuppet, Foobar, Foodmarket, FrancoGG, FredMSloniker, FreplySpang, Frontrank, Fugimugim, Furrykef, GDonato, Gadget850, Gaelen S., Gail, Gamer20102011, GamingEditor, GarryPoola, Gary King, Garylikescheese, Gatewaycat, GeneralCheese, GeorgeMoney, Gghjk, GhostPirate, Giftlite, Ginsengbomb, Globalignition, Gnojham, Gogo Dodo, GraemeL, Graham87, GregRobson, Gscshoyru, Gurch, Gwernol, Gworldpeace, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, HalJor, HaloProcess, Hasek747, Hazir, Heapchk, Heimstern, Hemmer, Henrygb, Hermes the Wise, Hetar, HeteroZellous, Highpriority, Hippia, Hmains, Hne123, Honette, Hpesoj00, Hu12, Iamsammalone, Ida Shaw, Idleguy, Imran, Imz, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, Isfisk, It Is Me Here, J. W. Love, J.delanoy, JForget, JWSchmidt, JabberWok, Jackol, Jacob Schneider, Jaded519, JaeDyWolf, Jake11, JamesTeterenko, Jammo, Jamon8888, Jaredadams321, Jason Quinn, Jdowland, Jedudedek, Jeff G., Jeffrey Smith, Jenn10s13, Jennavecia, JephSullivan, JeremyA, Jeronimo, Jessepederson13, Jessesaurus, Jewbacca, Jh51681, Jibbajabba, Jigen III, Jimokay, Jj137, Jjdudebailey, Jmatt1122, Jmgolivares, JoSchmo, Joeseo12, Joffeloff, John, John254, Johnbrownsbody, Johnleemk, Joycloete, Joyous!, Jtd00123, Ju66l3r, JudahBlaze, Jujutacular, Julesd, Juliancolton, Jwpurple, Kaaveh Ahangar, Kablammo, Kairos, Kanags, Kansan, Karl198, Kaushik twin, Kencaesi, Kendrick7, Kenyon, Key West, Kf4bdy, Khukri, Kilo-Lima, Kim1220, King of Hearts, Kingtman9, Király27, Kkellyqq, Kosebamse, KrakatoaKatie, Krenakarore, Krich, Krisrobinson, Kuru, Kzollman, L Kensington, LA2, La Pianista, Ladypoker, LaggyNewbie, Lando Calrissian, Larry_Sanger, Laurens-af, LeNoir679, Lee Daniel Crocker, LeiWM06, Leithp, Lewzer99, Lightmouse, Lights, Liko81, Lildirtball809, Linkspamremover, LoneFox, Longhair, LordBefalas, Lowellian, Luna Santin, Lupin, MK, MSchmahl, MacGyverMagic, Maddison murphy, Mafiameister, Magnus Manske, Mailer diablo, Malerbron, MarSch, Mark9797, MarkSutton, MasterDevilJoker, Mathematrucker, Maunderb, Mauzj, Mav, Max power, Maximillion Pegasus, Maximus Rex, McGeddon, McSly, Mclentch, Meaganunderwood, Media anthro, Meelar, Mentifisto, MichaelJanich, Mickgreen220567, Mike.lifeguard, Mikef777, Mikelr, Mind flux, Mister721972, Mitchellanderson, Mollythegreat, Morganfitzp, Moriori, Morven, Moxymoxy, Mr Adequate, MrMirz, Mswake, Mtrs84, Mugango, Mushston, Musical Linguist, Musicluverman7, MussiveG, Mvpsworld, Mwilso24, Mysteronald, Myth America, Nagytibi, Nakon, NateTrib, NawlinWiki, Neilc, Nesson, Netalarm, Netoholic, Netsnipe, Nick0r, Nn123645, Noctibus, Noirish,

Article Sources and Contributors 56

Nommonomanac, Nonc, Nsayer, Nuttycoconut, Ny80, Nygiants10, Ocaasi, Omicronpersei8, Onlinepokermasters, Onorem, Opelio, Oren0, Osswid, OwenX, Oxymoron83, PatrikR, Pcb21, PeepP,Percolator, Pernogr, Peruvianllama, Peteforsyth, Peyna, PhGustaf, Phearson, Pheonix1974, Phgao, Philip Trueman, PhilipR, Philipman, Phuzion, Picapica, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Pitiricus,Planetneutral, Plvekamp, Pmj, Pocket41, Pokerauthority, Pokeresq, Pokerpadz, Pokerriot, Pokerskool, PokitJaxx, Porges, Prari, PrestonH, Private Butcher, Psb777, PseudoOne, Punkedagain,QDennis, Quiddity, Qwe, RB972, RCRC, RHaworth, RJASE1, Rafikk, RainbowOfLight, Rajabadboy, Ranaenc, Ranveig, Rasmus Faber, Raul654, Razol2, Razorflame, Rdsmith4, Realkyhick,Reclamamascata, Recognizance, Redvers, Reevio, Retired username, Rettetast, Revolver, RexNL, Rhobite, Rich Farmbrough, Riddler3232, Ripple11, RoToRa, RoachMcKrackin, Rob Pommer,Robert Merkel, Robert Saunders, Robert3123423, Roberta F., Robyroy, RockMFR, Rockvee, Ronhjones, RoomUA, RosslolLambert, Rparobe, Rray, RxS, Ryancarney, Ryulong, S0232699,SGBailey, SJP, Saltwynd110, Sanbeg, Sango123, Sarenacrowe, Satori, SavageLori, Sceptre, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, Scott Gall, Seaeagle04, Searchme, Sebastian B., Sfinktah, Shadow1,Shadowjams, Shadowlynk, Shakespeare23, Shanes, SharkOrFishPoker, Shawn in Montreal, Shirulashem, Shta, Sin-man, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sirex98, Skitskat, Skyezx, Slakr,Slightsmile, SmartGuy, Smartguy911, Snottywong, Snowolf, Snoyes, Snpoj, Someguy1221, Sonicjimi, Sonyclick, Splien101, Spunkygirl1234, SpyMagician, St.daniel, Stephanwehner, StephenBurnett, Stephen Gilbert, Stephenb, Stephenchou0722, Stepheno, Stevage, SteveHFish, SteveLamacq43, Strohlio, Strongsauce, Strshljen, Stw, SubSeven, Supadawg, Susurrus, Svanslyck, Syop,THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TOO, TYelliot, Ta bu shi da yu, Tadman, TastyPoutine, Tawker, Taxman, Taylor4452, Tbhotch, TedizKiller36, Teggis, Tempshill, Tfine80, That Guy, From ThatShow!, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wild Falcon, The big ass man, The806, TheNewPhobia, TheWikiCorrector, TheoClarke, Therealphildiamond, Thingg, Tide rolls, TigerShark,Timneu22, Timo, Timtom23, Timwi, Titoxd, Tjdouglas, Tjmayerinsf, Tlusťa, Toby Woodwark, Tofubar, Tomaradze, Tombomp, Tomgreeny, Tommy2010, Toms2866, Tony Fox, TonyTheTiger,Totalhumungoretard, Townmouse, Trafford09, Trafixltd, Travelbird, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Tregoweth, Trusilver, Tubby, Turbonegro, TutterMouse, Twaz, Twinings man, Txcobra96, Tyl1924,Uberdog, Uncle Dick, UnitedStatesian, Unknown, Unschool, Usrnme h8er, VIPRakeback, VSPokerking, Valeri67, Vanka5, Vary, Vegaswikian, Versageek, Versus22, ViciousGame, Vikreykja,Viridian, Vondort, Vrenator, Warbirdadmiral, Wasted Sapience, Wave1995, Wiki alf, WikiPotter, Wikidish22e2, Wikipelli, Wilchett, William M. Connolley, Wingsandsword, Woohookitty,Www.usaogc.com, Xandackie, Xaosflux, Xhaoz, Xman098, Xoder, Xynny, Yearanditem, Yidisheryid, Zack wadghiri, Zahd, Zbelinsky, Ze miguel, Zephyter, ZooFari, Zuklord, Zzuuzz, 1503anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 57

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his kids.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dr.A.B.Rajib_Hazarika_&_his_kids.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Rajah2770Image:Model Cybernetic Factory.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Model_Cybernetic_Factory.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:User:MddImage:Science-symbol-13a.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Science-symbol-13a.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:PsychoslaveImage:James Watt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Watt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Shizhao, VoyagerImage:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LANLImage:Honda ASIMO Walking Stairs.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honda_ASIMO_Walking_Stairs.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Indolences,Morio, Ronaldino, WstImage:wiki tarantula.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wiki_tarantula.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Arno / CoenImage:JARVIK 7 artificial heart.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JARVIK_7_artificial_heart.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Heart, Lung andBlood Institute (NHLBI)File:Crypto.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crypto.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dev-NJITWILLImage:Lorenz-SZ42-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorenz-SZ42-2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Avron, Dbenbenn, SissssouImage:Skytala&EmptyStrip-Shaded.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skytala&EmptyStrip-Shaded.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:ChrklFile:16th century French cypher machine in the shape of a book with arms of Henri II.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:16th_century_French_cypher_machine_in_the_shape_of_a_book_with_arms_of_Henri_II.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: User:UploadaltFile:Encoded letter of Gabriel Luetz d Aramon after 1546 with partial deciphering.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Encoded_letter_of_Gabriel_Luetz_d_Aramon_after_1546_with_partial_deciphering.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:UploadaltImage:Smartcard3.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Smartcard3.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Channel RImage:International Data Encryption Algorithm InfoBox Diagram.svg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Data_Encryption_Algorithm_InfoBox_Diagram.svg 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