RESEARCH REPORT 2014-3

College Completion Comparing APreg Dual-Enrolled and Nonadvanced Students By Kelly Godfrey Haifa Matos-Elefonte Maureen Ewing and Priyank Patel

RESEARCH

RESEARCH

About the College Board

The College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity Founded in 1900 the College Board was created to expand access to higher education Today the membership association is made up of over 6000 of the worldrsquos leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education Each year the College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness and college success mdash including the SATreg and the Advanced Placement Programreg The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students educators and schools For further information visit wwwcollegeboardorg

copy 2014 The College Board College Board Advanced Placement Program AP SAT and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board PSATNMSQT is a registered trademark of the College Board and National Merit Scholarship Corporation All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners Visit the College Board on the Web wwwcollegeboardorg

For more information on College Board research and data visit researchcollegeboardorg

RESEARCH

About the College Board

The College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity Founded in 1900 the College Board was created to expand access to higher education Today the membership association is made up of over 6000 of the worldrsquos leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education Each year the College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness and college success mdash including the SATreg and the Advanced Placement Programreg The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students educators and schools For further information visit wwwcollegeboardorg

copy 2014 The College Board College Board Advanced Placement Program AP SAT and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board PSATNMSQT is a registered trademark of the College Board and National Merit Scholarship Corporation All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners Visit the College Board on the Web wwwcollegeboardorg

For more information on College Board research and data visit researchcollegeboardorg

Contents Executive Summary 6

Introduction 7

Method 9

Data 9

Procedures 10

Results 11

Descriptives 11

English Subject Area 12

Math Subject Area 17

Science Subject Area 21

History Subject Area 24

Discussion 29

References 32

Tables

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205) 11

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies 12

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies 12

Table 4 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group 13

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 14

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 15

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 15

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups 16

Table 9 Math Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 17

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies 17

Table 11 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group 18

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 18

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 19

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 19

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups 20

Table 16 Science Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 21

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies 21

Table 18 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group 22

Table A1 English Participation Regression Results First-Year College English GPA

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 22

Table 25 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 23

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 23

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups 24

Table 23 History Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 25

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies 25

Performance Group 25

Outcome Variables 26

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 27

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 27

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups 28

Appendix A English Regression Results

34

Table A2 English Performance Regression Results First-Year College English GPA 34

Table A3 English Participation Regression Results Final College English GPA 35

Table A4 English Performance Regression Results Final College English GPA 35

Table A5 English Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 36

Table A6 English Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 36

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

6 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Executive Summary The study presented here is an investigation and comparison of the relationships between the Advanced Placement Programreg (APreg) and dual-enrolled high school courses and college outcomes Previous research provides evidence that participation in AP and subsequent success on AP Exams is positively related to various college outcomes including an increased likelihood of graduating from college and better preparation for the academic rigor of the college classroom This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the value of advanced course work in high school in preparing students for higher education success by investigating the relationships between participation and performance in AP courses and exams dual enrollment courses and regular courses and four different college outcomes including first-year subject-specific GPA final subject-specific GPA calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted Results indicated that higher performance on AP Exams was related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment course grades were at a C or higher and students taking these courses tended to graduate from college in fewer calendar terms than other groups

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

8 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

9 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

12 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

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College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Tables

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205) 11

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies 12

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies 12

Table 4 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group 13

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 14

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 15

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 15

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups 16

Table 9 Math Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 17

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies 17

Table 11 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group 18

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 18

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 19

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 19

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups 20

Table 16 Science Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 21

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies 21

Table 18 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group 22

Table A1 English Participation Regression Results First-Year College English GPA

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 22

Table 25 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 23

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 23

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups 24

Table 23 History Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 25

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies 25

Performance Group 25

Outcome Variables 26

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 27

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 27

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups 28

Appendix A English Regression Results

34

Table A2 English Performance Regression Results First-Year College English GPA 34

Table A3 English Participation Regression Results Final College English GPA 35

Table A4 English Performance Regression Results Final College English GPA 35

Table A5 English Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 36

Table A6 English Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 36

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

6 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Executive Summary The study presented here is an investigation and comparison of the relationships between the Advanced Placement Programreg (APreg) and dual-enrolled high school courses and college outcomes Previous research provides evidence that participation in AP and subsequent success on AP Exams is positively related to various college outcomes including an increased likelihood of graduating from college and better preparation for the academic rigor of the college classroom This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the value of advanced course work in high school in preparing students for higher education success by investigating the relationships between participation and performance in AP courses and exams dual enrollment courses and regular courses and four different college outcomes including first-year subject-specific GPA final subject-specific GPA calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted Results indicated that higher performance on AP Exams was related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment course grades were at a C or higher and students taking these courses tended to graduate from college in fewer calendar terms than other groups

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

8 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

9 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Table A1 English Participation Regression Results First-Year College English GPA

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables 22

Table 25 Mean 10th-Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 23

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 23

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups 24

Table 23 History Whole-Sample Participation Frequencies 25

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies 25

Performance Group 25

Outcome Variables 26

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 27

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients 27

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups 28

Appendix A English Regression Results

34

Table A2 English Performance Regression Results First-Year College English GPA 34

Table A3 English Participation Regression Results Final College English GPA 35

Table A4 English Performance Regression Results Final College English GPA 35

Table A5 English Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 36

Table A6 English Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 36

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

6 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Executive Summary The study presented here is an investigation and comparison of the relationships between the Advanced Placement Programreg (APreg) and dual-enrolled high school courses and college outcomes Previous research provides evidence that participation in AP and subsequent success on AP Exams is positively related to various college outcomes including an increased likelihood of graduating from college and better preparation for the academic rigor of the college classroom This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the value of advanced course work in high school in preparing students for higher education success by investigating the relationships between participation and performance in AP courses and exams dual enrollment courses and regular courses and four different college outcomes including first-year subject-specific GPA final subject-specific GPA calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted Results indicated that higher performance on AP Exams was related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment course grades were at a C or higher and students taking these courses tended to graduate from college in fewer calendar terms than other groups

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

8 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

9 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

10 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

11 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

12 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

13 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

14 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 37

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First-Year College Math GPA 38

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA 39

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 40

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 41

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First-Year College Science GPA 42

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA 43

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 44

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

6 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Executive Summary The study presented here is an investigation and comparison of the relationships between the Advanced Placement Programreg (APreg) and dual-enrolled high school courses and college outcomes Previous research provides evidence that participation in AP and subsequent success on AP Exams is positively related to various college outcomes including an increased likelihood of graduating from college and better preparation for the academic rigor of the college classroom This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the value of advanced course work in high school in preparing students for higher education success by investigating the relationships between participation and performance in AP courses and exams dual enrollment courses and regular courses and four different college outcomes including first-year subject-specific GPA final subject-specific GPA calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted Results indicated that higher performance on AP Exams was related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment course grades were at a C or higher and students taking these courses tended to graduate from college in fewer calendar terms than other groups

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

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College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

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College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

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-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

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College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

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-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

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College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 45

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First-Year College History GPA 46

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA 47

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree 48

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree 49

6 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Executive Summary The study presented here is an investigation and comparison of the relationships between the Advanced Placement Programreg (APreg) and dual-enrolled high school courses and college outcomes Previous research provides evidence that participation in AP and subsequent success on AP Exams is positively related to various college outcomes including an increased likelihood of graduating from college and better preparation for the academic rigor of the college classroom This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the value of advanced course work in high school in preparing students for higher education success by investigating the relationships between participation and performance in AP courses and exams dual enrollment courses and regular courses and four different college outcomes including first-year subject-specific GPA final subject-specific GPA calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted Results indicated that higher performance on AP Exams was related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment course grades were at a C or higher and students taking these courses tended to graduate from college in fewer calendar terms than other groups

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

8 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

9 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

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College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

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-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

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College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

6 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Executive Summary The study presented here is an investigation and comparison of the relationships between the Advanced Placement Programreg (APreg) and dual-enrolled high school courses and college outcomes Previous research provides evidence that participation in AP and subsequent success on AP Exams is positively related to various college outcomes including an increased likelihood of graduating from college and better preparation for the academic rigor of the college classroom This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the value of advanced course work in high school in preparing students for higher education success by investigating the relationships between participation and performance in AP courses and exams dual enrollment courses and regular courses and four different college outcomes including first-year subject-specific GPA final subject-specific GPA calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted Results indicated that higher performance on AP Exams was related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment course grades were at a C or higher and students taking these courses tended to graduate from college in fewer calendar terms than other groups

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

8 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

9 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

10 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

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-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

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Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

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Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

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College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

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College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

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College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

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College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

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College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

7 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Introduction The College Boardrsquos AP Program was established in 1955 to provide students with the opportunity to take rigorous college-level courses and obtain college credits while still in high school Each AP course culminates with an end-of-course AP Exam through which students have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the content learned The AP Exam is criterion-referenced with scores ranging from 1 to 5 indicating the proficiency level of students within a particular subject area Scores of 3 or higher are typically considered successful scores and the American Council on Education recommends that students obtaining a score of at least 3 be considered eligible to receive college credit or advanced placement Currently there are over 30 exams across six content areas (English mathematics and computer science sciences history and social sciences arts and world languages and cultures) that are taken by students throughout the US and around the world

Since its inception the AP Program has seen tremendous growth Over the last 10 years the number of seniors graduating from high school having taken one or more AP Exams has more than doubled Similarly the AP Program has seen a 79 increase in the number of graduating seniors that are successful on at least one AP Exam since 2002 (College Board 2013) The expansion of the AP Program has resulted in a growing body of literature examining the impact of the AP experience on student outcomes (Ewing 2006) A number of researchers have focused on the validity of AP Exam scores for course placement (Burnham amp Hewitt 1971 Dodd Fitzpatrick De Ayala amp Jennings 2002 Ewing Huff amp Kaliski 2010 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Morgan amp Ramist 1998) Specifically they have investigated whether students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP Exam and were exempted from the introductory course in college perform as well in subsequent courses as students who were not exempted from the introductory course

Additionally researchers have conducted studies to gauge the impact of AP participation and performance on other college outcomes such as college enrollment (Chajewski Mattern amp Shaw 2011) first-year GPA (Duffy 2010 Hargrove Godin amp Dodd 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008 Mattern Shaw amp Xiong 2009 Willingham amp Morris 1986) second-year and discipline specific GPA (Geiser amp Santelices 2004) fourth-year GPA (Hargrove et al 2008) credit hours taken (Hargrove et al 2008 Keng amp Dodd 2008) college retention (Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008 Mattern et al 2009) and college graduation (Doherty Mellor amp Jian 2006 Duffy 2010 Hargrove et al 2008) In general results from these studies show that AP students outperform non-AP students on most college outcomes

While there are more students enrolling in AP courses and taking AP Exams than ever before AP is not the only means by which high school students can obtain college credit Through dual enrollment (DE) many students are afforded the opportunity to participate in college-level courses while in high school and may obtain both college and high school credit for a course Like AP participation in dual enrollment is also on the rise (Waits Setzer Lewis amp Greene 2005 Thomas Marken Gray amp Lewis 2013) The simultaneous increase in AP and DE raises the question how well are these students doing in college in comparison to one another and in comparison to students who do not participate in either program

8 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

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College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

11 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

12 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

13 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

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College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

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College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

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College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

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College Completion

While a few studies have been conducted comparing the effects of participation in dual-enrolled courses also known as dual-credit courses and AP courses on student outcomes (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008 Klopfenstein 2010 Murphy amp Dodd 2009 OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004 Speroni 2011ab Struhl amp Vargas 2012) there remains a dearth of rigorous large-scale research directly comparing students who participate in AP and DE programs in terms of college outcomes By rigorous research we mean studies that use rigorous statistical methodologies and attempt to control for other variables or factors (eg prior achievement socioeconomic status etc) that may account for why students who participate in one program versus another may or may not achieve different outcomes In addition the few rigorous studies that have been conducted have not always yielded similar findings For example one study found that DE students are more likely than AP course-takers to graduate in four five and six years after controlling for SATACT scores Texas Assessment of Academic Skills participation in the National School Lunch Program gender and ethnicity (OrsquoBrien amp Nelson 2004) However a more recent study found no DE advantage over AP in terms of graduating in five years or less after controlling for Floridarsquos Comprehensive Assessment Test scores and various demographic characteristics including gender raceethnicity English language proficiency and free lunch eligibility (Speroni 2011a) It should also be noted that Speroni only took participation into account when comparing AP and dual enrollment not performance In addition college achievement (such as course performance) was not explored There is some indication that AP students are more likely than DE students to earn higher college grades (Eimers amp Mullen 2003 Hargrove et al 2008) and take more credit hours than DE students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) however these studies included fewer covariates focusing mainly on academic achievement and socioeconomic status

A key element missing from prior research is performance on AP Exams and in DE courses yet there is evidence to suggest that the performance standards and entry requirements espoused by each program differ Descriptive data suggest that it is more common to earn a DE course grade (typically C or higher) that meets eligibility requirements for postsecondary credit than it is to earn a passing score on an AP Exam that meets eligibility requirements For example in 2009ndash2010 in Florida 94 of dual enrollment students earned postsecondary credit whereas only 41 of AP students earned postsecondary credit (Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation 2013) Florida eligibility requirements for participation in DE programs indicate that students must pass a college placement test to enroll in Florida DE courses while AP students do not need to pass a college readiness test to enroll Thus the number of college credits earned by AP and DE students may also be associated with a college readiness factor prior to course-taking that needs to be accounted for when comparing AP and DE students

Another confounding factor is related to the types of courses offered by AP and DE programs DE programs often have a career andor technical and vocational focus Although DE programs typically have been reserved for academically focused students increasing numbers of career and technical education programs are providing DE opportunities to their students (Karp Calcagno Hughes Jeong amp Bailey 2007) In the 2010-11 academic year many high schools offered DE programs with a career and technicalvocational focus and of the total DE enrollments 295 were in courses with such a focus (Thomas et al 2013) To more accurately compare outcomes for students who participate in AP and DE programs more research is needed that identifies and focuses on the courses that are similar between the two programs

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College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

9 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

The purpose of this study is to build on the existing body of literature examining the impact of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment on college outcomes Specifically this study examines the relationship between studentsrsquo participation and performance levels in AP courses and exams and dual enrollment courses within specific subject areas (ie English math science and history) and four college outcomes including first-year and final subject area college grade point average (GPA) calendar time to bachelorrsquos degree and credit hours attempted to degree To ensure a more focused comparison of the AP and DE programs this study only includes DE courses that are academically focused and were judged to be comparable with AP courses AP and DE groups were disaggregated by AP Exam score and DE course grade categories to evaluate the relationship between performance in AP and DE programs (separate from participation) on college outcomes

Method Data

Data for this study were mostly acquired from the Department of Education (DOE) from a large diverse state located in the continental United States and are ideal for this study because of the large number of students who participate in AP and dual enrollment programs in the state The DOE data set contains high school transcript data for each student student enrollment records high school awards (eg completed high school with a diploma GED or different degree) and high school GPA on record at time of graduation among other variables Additionally the DOE supplied researchers with studentsrsquo postsecondary enrollment data including college enrollment records transcript data including grades number of credits attempted and the year and term of enrollment as well as postsecondary awards (eg degrees awarded and GPA) These data were merged with data obtained from the College Board providing achievement test scores for all students in the DOE files

The sample of students was composed of high school diploma recipients between 2000 and 2001 who immediately enrolled in public in-state higher education institutions following graduation from high school This state has a large public higher education system with over 25 institutions that serve the majority of state residents pursuing postsecondary education Only students with public high school records for at least grades 10 through 12 were maintained in the base sample Students who attended private high schools had specialized diplomas did not immediately enroll in a public in-state higher education institution or did not graduate from high school were not included in the sample

To distinguish dual enrollment courses researchers first identified courses on studentsrsquo high school course transcripts where the instructional institution was postsecondary and the course had a college level associated with it These courses were further investigated using course title and brief summaries provided in the course catalogs of the higher education institutions Those that were comparable to AP courses in each subject area over 120 courses in total were selected as DE courses for this study It is possible that course may have been taught to students in some districts by the high school as opposed to an institution of higher education but due to the statewide common course numbering system it was assumed the courses were to cover the same material and basic curriculum

Students were identified as having participated in AP DE or neither An AP student must have taken an AP course and exam in a given subject area and no DE courses in that area A DE student must have taken a DE course in a given subject area but not an AP course or exam in that area A student identified as ldquoneitherrdquo must not have taken an AP course exam or DE

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College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

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College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

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College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

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College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

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College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

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College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

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College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

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College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

10 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

course in that subject area Any students not fitting these criteria were removed from analyses In English for example 3 of the total sample participated in both AP and dual enrolled English courses and were therefore removed from analyses

Four outcome variables were created (1) calendar time in number of possible terms (fall spring summer maximum of 30 terms or 10 years) to graduation with a bachelorrsquos degree (2) credit hours attempted for bachelorrsquos degree (3) first-year subject-specific college GPA and (4) final subject-specific college GPA Because of a statewide summer school requirement enrolled terms to degree were calculated but not reasonably interpretable One methodology note worth mentioning here is that credits to degree (measured in college credit hours awarded for courses attempted and completed) and time to degree (measured in enrolled terms) are only calculated using those students who actually had a record of graduation limiting the number of students in the samples

Other variables from the data include 10th-grade state assessment reading and math scores percent of grades 9ndash10 course work taken at an honors or more advanced level overall GPA for grades 9ndash10 subject-specific GPA for grades 9ndash10 gender (reference group gender = 0 is male) raceethnicity (reference group is white) and freereduced lunch status If a student received freereduced lunch in any year in high school this was set to 1 Otherwise it was set to 0 If a student had multiple genders or raceethnicities (other than missing) in hisher records then his or her gender or raceethnicity was set to missing

Procedures

For each subject area two sets of analyses were completed for each of the four outcome variables one using AP and DE participation groups as the key variable of interest and one using AP and DE performance groups as the key variable of interest The analyses involved a series of three multiple regression analyses including (1) student covariates only (ie Model 1) (2) student covariates and AP and DE participation or performance group (ie Model 2) and (3) student covariates AP and DE participation or performance group and interactions between student variables and group membership (ie Model 3) Missing data were deleted listwise by default Interactions were initially included in Model 3 in order to provide the most robust and thorough analyses but were not of much interest theoretically Interaction coefficients did not add practical value to the variance explained and therefore are not discussed here

An example regression equation for Model 2 that includes both student covariates and an indicator for AP and DE participation groups using first-year college English GPA as the outcome variable is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12D ualEnrollmentParticipationi + b13APParticipationi + ri

An example of the same regression equation for Model 2 using performance groups as the key variable of interest is the following English_FYGPAi = b0 + b1HS_GPA_9-10i + b2Percent_honors_plusi + b3English_GPA_9shy10i + b4State_math_testi + b5State_reading_testi + b6Genderi + b7Lunch_statusi + b8Race=Asiani + b9Race=AfricanAmericani + b10Race=Hispanici + b11Race=Otheri + b12DualEnrollment_GradeD-Fi + b13DualEnrollment_GradeCi + b14DualEnrollment_GradeA-Bi + b15AP_Exam1-2i + b16AP_Exam3i + b17AP_Exam4-5i + ri

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College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

13 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

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College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

11 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

146

To further interpret group comparisons when the outcome of interest was the performance groups pairwise comparisons were conducted between the adjusted means for the groups just like one would do within ANOVA and ANCOVA but these were conducted within a regression framework by calculating the group intercepts and then using the intercepts to calculate the adjusted means Group comparisons between the adjusted means were then calculated using Scheffeacutersquos method (see Pedhazur 1997)

Results Descriptives

The initial sample of students meeting study criteria was 97205 students Over half of the students in the sample were female (576 n = 56019) and approximately 253(n = 24638) of students received freereduced lunch status at least once during their high school tenure Table 1 lists the general breakdown of raceethnicity in the base sample

Table 1 RaceEthnicity of Sample (n = 97205)

RaceEthnicity

Missing

Asian

African AmericanBlack

Hispanic

Other

White

Percent

15

32

183

04

620

The breakdown of race and gender may not strongly represent that of the statersquos entire high school cohorts due to sampling constraints Information on those students who elected to pursue a private postsecondary education or higher education within another state is unknown This base sample of students was used to create samples for each subject area English math (including computer science and statistics) science and history

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College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

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College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

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College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

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College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

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College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

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College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

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-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

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College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

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College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

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College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

12 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

English Subject Area

A total of 74884 students from the base sample were selected for the English sample These students were categorized into three English participation groups AP course and exam DE course and neither AP English includes English Language and English Literature The frequencies for each of these groups are presented in Table 2

Table 2 English Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Sample

Advanced Placement 142

Dual Enrollment 82

Neither 776

These three participation groups were further defined by performance and frequencies are listed in Table 3 One interesting result to note is that the majority of DE students received a grade of C or higher compared to a much smaller percentage of AP students earning a 3 or higher (only 560 of AP English students in the sample earned a 3 or higher on the exam while 971 of DE students in the sample earned a final course grade of a C or higher) This difference may have implications when comparing outcome variables between performance groups

Table 3 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total English Sample

Neither 58128 100 776

DE grade of D or F 177 29 02

DE grade of C 646 105 09

DE grade of A or B 5331 866 71

AP score of 1 or 2 4669 440 62

AP score of 3 3732 352 50

AP score of 4 or 5 2201 208 29

To understand the differences in academic achievement across the participation and performance groups before possible participation in AP or DE the mean 10th-grade state assessment scores were calculated and are presented in Table 4 Students who participated in DE or AP English had a higher mean assessment score in both reading and math than students who did not with AP students having the highest mean scores Comparing performance groups students who scored a 3 or higher on an AP English Exam had higher reading and math assessment scores than other students Students who scored a 4 or 5 on the AP Exam had the highest mean assessment scores overall

13 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

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College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

15 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

13 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 4 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by English Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3088 3149

DE 3376 3401

AP 3509 3524

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3330 3346

DE grade C 3240 3303

DE grade AndashB 3394 3415

AP score 1ndash2 3364 3397

AP score 3 3572 3580

AP score 4ndash5 3711 3701

Table 5 presents group means of the college outcomes for English with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that students with higher AP Exam scores in English have on average and without taking group differences into account higher first-year college English GPAs higher final college English GPAs graduate with a bachelorrsquos degree in fewer terms and earn a degree with fewer credit hours attempted at the institution

14 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

15 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

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College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

14 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 5 English Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 326

(069) 328

(061) 1597 (395)

13780 (2322)

DE 331

(078) 339

(069) 1404 (364)

13789 (2018)

AP 350

(061) 351

(056) 1382 (305)

13315 (210)

Performance

DE grade DndashF --shy --shy 1679 (431)

13951 (2203)

DE grade C 306

(104) 308

(082) 1561 (396)

14164 (2087)

DE grade AndashB 334

(075) 341

(067) 1389 (357)

13761 (2009)

AP score 1ndash2 343

(059) 341

(053) 1452 (323)

13704 (2014)

AP score 3 358

(061) 357

(056) 1357 (293)

13173 (2028)

AP score 4ndash5 364

(062) 364

(057) 1302 (263)

12860 (2237)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are in parentheses

In order to get a better idea of the impact of participation and performance in AP and dual-enrolled courses while controlling for relevant academic and demographic variables a series of hierarchical regressions were calculated Because interactions were not practically significant only results from Model 2 are presented in Tables 6 and 7 Regression coefficients indicate the degree of change the outcome variable shows when changing the predictor variable by one unit holding other variables constant These values give an idea of the strength of the relationship between the predictors and the outcome Only standardized coefficients significant at the 005 two-tailed alpha level are listed in the table as well as R-square values to indicate model fit Full regression model results for the English subject area are listed in Appendix A

15 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

15 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 6 English Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

AP participant 007 003 -007

DE participant -006 -011 007

R-Square 014 4 0163 0194 0051

Table 7 English Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year English GPA Final English GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 011 -006

Percent course work Honors+ 010 009 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 015 016 -018 -010

10th-grade math assessment 003 -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 007 007 -002 -004

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 010 008 -008 -005

Race = Asian -002 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -007 -009 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 003 004

DE grade of C -008

DE grade of AndashB -013 008

AP score of 1ndash2 007

AP score of 3 006 -007

AP score of 4ndash5 -011

R-Square 014 4 0164 0195 0052

There were no significant effects found of earning a grade of D or F in dual-enrolled English so this group has been removed completely from Table 7 In order to make group comparisons on the four outcome variables adjusted means were calculated and compared using Scheffeacutersquos approach Significant comparisons are presented in Table 8

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

16 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 8 Significant Pairwise Comparisons English Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year English GPA AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

012

013

Terms to Degree

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

-037

078

-050

065

-052

062

Credits to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

-257

-224

-481

-290

-417

-690

-674

-483

There were no significant differences between groups in final college English GPA and only two significant comparisons among performance groups in first-year college English GPA Students with AP Exam scores of 1 2 or 3 tended to outperform dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B by a little over a tenth of a grade point This means that after accounting for previous course performance state assessment scores in reading and math gender race advanced course-taking and so on students who score a 1 2 or 3 still outperform dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B One group that did not show a statistically significant higher first-year English GPA compared to the other groups was the AP students who scored a 4 or 5 A couple of reasons for why this may have happened are detailed in the Discussion section English GPAs were calculated from grades in English American and English literature and composition courses

When comparing performance groups on time and credits attempted to degree a greater number of significant differences were found AP students with a score of 1 or 2 on the exam tended to attempt more credits before degree attainment than AP students scoring a 3 or higher AP students scoring at least a 3 on the exam graduated with fewer credits attempted than dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B and students who did not take AP or dual-enrolled English in high school Dual-enrolled English students with a course grade of A or B attempted significantly more credits on average than regular students

Finally comparing calendar terms to degree once student background variables were taken into account students at all five AP Exam score levels tended to take slightly longer (by less than one term) to graduate than students in dual-enrolled English with a course grade of A or B Results and comparisons are explored further in the Discussion section

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

17 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Math Subject Area

A total of 73907 students were selected from the base sample for the math sample Table 9 presents the percentage of students in the whole math sample by participation group AP Math courses included Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A and Computer Science AB

Table 9 Math Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group

Advanced Placement

Dual Enrollment

Neither

Percentage of Sample

94

16

889

These three participation groups were further categorized into performance groups Frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 10 As with English students who participated in DE math received a grade of B or higher whereas a smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 10 Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Math Sample

Neither 65728 100 889

DE grade of D or F 97

DE grade of C 253

DE grade of A or B 865

80

208

712

01

03

12

AP score of 1 or 2 3312

AP score of 3 1686

AP score of 4 or 5 1966

476

242

282

45

23

27

Like English mean assessment scores were calculated to determine group differences before participation in AP dual enrollment or regular courses These values are presented in Table 11 Similar to the English sample students who participated in AP math andor computer science had higher average 10th-grade state assessment scores in both reading and math than students who participated in dual-enrolled courses and students who did not participate in AP or DE courses

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

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College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

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College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

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College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

18 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 11 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Math Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3173

DE 3425 3526

AP 3506 3653

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3303 3399

DE grade C 3339 3462

DE grade AndashB 3464 3559

AP score 1ndash2 3443 3557

AP score 3 3526 3687

AP score 4ndash5 3596 3787

Table 12 presents the performance group means for math with standard deviations in parentheses These results indicate that on average without taking any group differences into account students with higher AP Exam scores in math had higher first-year and final college math GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted Students with higher exam scores or better dual-enrolled course grades graduated in fewer calendar terms

Table 12 Math Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 257

(105) 264

(087) 1551 (395)

13680 (2268)

DE 278

(103) 284

(090) 1333 (367)

14046 (2301)

AP 315

(086) 314

(076) 1376

(289) 13488

(2124)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 243

(098) 1412

(379) 14458 (2337)

DE grade C 245

(104) 258

(089) 1409

(396) 14147 (2326)

DE grade AndashB 287

(098) 293

(088) 1309

(357) 13986 (2291)

AP score 1ndash2 300

(091) 301

(078) 1404 (302)

13604 (2088)

AP score 3 321

(079) 318

(071) 1369 (282)

13489 (2157)

AP score 4ndash5 333

(080) 332 (071)

1337 (270)

13310 (2142)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records Standard deviations are presented in parentheses

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

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College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

19 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 13 presents the coefficients from the regressions calculated using participation groups as well as the R-square values for model fit Table 14 presents the standardized coefficients and R-square values from the models including performance groups Like English alpha levels were set at 005 and only significant coefficients are included These coefficients are an indicator of the impact of the predictors on each of the outcome variables holding all others constant For full model results for math see Appendix B

Table 13 Math Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 025 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

AP participant 012 010 009 -004

DE participant -006 -006 -010 008

R-Square 0209 0215 0180 0046

Table 14 Math Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Math GPA Final Math GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 006 008 -014 -005

Percent course work Honors+ 004 004 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 026 024 -009 -003

10th-grade math assessment 014 013 -005 005

10th-grade reading assessment 002 004 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 004 004

Gender 006 008 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 004

DE grade of DndashF -010

DE grade of C -006

DE grade of AndashB -008 -006 -008 006

AP score of 1ndash2 006 008 -004

AP score of 3 007 007 008 -004

AP score of 4ndash5 007 010 008 -007

R-Square 0209 0216 0180 0046

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

20 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 15

Table 15 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Math Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

012

026

017

031

016

030

Final Math GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

008

012

022

015

025

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

114

112

122

116

126

116

126

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

588

423

443

590

For first-year college math GPA AP students at all score levels outperformed their peers with dual-enrolled math course grades of A or B and students who took neither AP nor dual-enrolled math courses in high school Comparing final college math GPA AP students at all score levels had higher GPAs than regular students and those with a score of 3 or higher in AP math outperformed their peers with dual enrollment course grades of A or B Math GPAs were calculated from grades in mathematics computer and information sciences computer programming and statistics courses

When comparing credits taken to degree math results were similar to English results Dual-enrolled students with a grade of AndashB took more credits before graduation than their peers in AP at all score levels and regular students who did not take AP or DE These differences indicate that dual-enrolled math students with higher grades tend to take 1ndash2 more courses (ie 4ndash6 credit hours) before graduation than their AP and regular course-taking peers once student background variables are taken into account

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

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College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

-

21 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

After taking student background variables into account DE students with a grade of AndashB or C completed college on average one term faster than AP students Dual-enrolled students with a grade of A or B also graduated over one term faster than regular students These findings comparing AP and DE students are similar to those found in English but are slightly larger here indicating a slightly more intense effect in math and computer science Implications from these results are discussed further in the Discussion section

Science Subject Area

A total of 73884 students were selected from the base sample of all students to comprise the science whole sample Table 16 presents the percentage of students in the whole science sample by participation group AP Science courses included Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics B Physics C Mechanics and Physics C Electricity and Magnetism

Table 16 Science Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 95

Dual Enrollment 24

Neither 881

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 17 Like English and math the majority of dual-enrolled science students received a grade of B or higher whereas a much smaller percentage of AP students earned a score of 3 or higher

Table 17 Science Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total Science Sample

Neither 65106 100 881

DE grade of D or F 99 56 01

DE grade of C 325 183 04

DE grade of A or B 1354 762 18

AP score of 1 or 2 4319 617 58

AP score of 3 1536 219 21

AP score of 4 or 5 1145 164 15

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 18 Students who went on to take AP science courses and exams as opposed to dual-enrolled or just regular courses had the highest average reading and math scores

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

22 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

Table 18 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by Science Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3139 3183

DE 3383 3421

AP 3496 3580

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3221 3276

DE grade C 3260 3313

DE grade AndashB 3424 3458

AP score 1ndash2 3424 3496

AP score 3 3580 3671

AP score 4ndash5 3653 3773

Table 19 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for science with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have higher first-year and final science GPAs and graduate with fewer credits attempted to degree Students who participated in dual-enrolled science courses graduated on average in the shortest time

Table 19 Science Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 265

(096) 265

(085) 1548 (391)

13676 (2264)

DE 273

(092) 275

(080) 1336 (373)

13898 (1932)

AP 300

(082) 292

(075) 1388 (307)

13522 (2216)

Performance

DE grade DndashF 1533 (433)

14254 (1933)

DE grade C 217

(110) 227

(090) 1406 (425)

13948 (2034)

DE grade AndashB 283

(086) 284

(075) 1317 (357)

13877 (1913)

AP score 1ndash2 285

(085) 279

(077) 1424 (321)

13667 (2158)

AP score 3 302

(079) 300 (071)

1346 (275)

13390 (2250)

AP score 4ndash5 335

(067) 325

(062) 1324 (280)

13223 (2317)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

23 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 20 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 21 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 Full model results are listed in Appendix C

Table 20 Science Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 018 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 009 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

AP participant 005 008 -002

DE participant -005 -011 006

R-Square 0194 0167 0182 0046

Table 21 Science Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year Science GPA Final Science GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 010 007 -015 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 009 007 -018 -006

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 017 017 -007 -003

10th-grade math assessment 009 008 -006 005

10th-grade reading assessment 008 008 -005 -006

Freereduced lunch status 003 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian -003 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack -009 -010 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 007 005 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -015 -010

DE grade of AndashB -011 006

AP score of 1ndash2 009

AP score of 3 004

AP score of 4ndash5 016 011 006 -006

R-Square 0196 0169 0182 0046

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

24 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 22

Table 22 Significant Pairwise Comparisons Science Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year Science GPA AP score of 4ndash5 Neither 016

Final Science GPA

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

014

047

018

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of C

Neither DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of C

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

139

133

143

137

123

117

137

130

Credits to Degree

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

477

428

533

202

Comparing first-year science GPA AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 outperformed regular students even after variables were taken into account With final science GPA AP 4ndash5 students also outperformed regular students AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 and dual-enrolled students with a grade of C College science GPAs were calculated using grades from biology and biological sciences biophysics chemistry environmental science and physics courses

Results indicated that AP science students with exam scores of 1ndash2 took a couple more credits on average before graduating than students who did not take AP or DE science courses once background variables were taken into account Dual-enrolled science students with course grades of AndashB tended to take more credits than their peers in regular high school courses as well as AP science students with exam scores of 3 or higher These results are similar to those found with English and math

Comparing calendar terms to degree completion science results show that like English and math dual-enrolled students tend to graduate quickest when all other background variables are taken into account Adjusted means show that DE students with course grades of C or better graduate in fewer calendar terms than regular and AP students with all comparisons showing a difference of less than 15 terms These implications are discussed along with those for English and math in the Discussion section

History Subject Area

A total of 75203 students were selected for the history sample Table 23 presents the percentage of students in the history sample by participation group

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

-

-

25 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 23 History Whole Sample Participation Frequencies

Participation Group Percentage of Whole Sample

Advanced Placement 121

Dual Enrollment 36

Neither 843

Frequencies and percentages for the seven participation and performance categories are listed in Table 24 History students who took dual-enrolled courses were more likely to receive a higher grade (ie A or B) than lower A much smaller percentage of AP history students earned a 3 or higher on the exam Like English math and science these findings may have implications later on

Table 24 History Group Performance Frequencies

Group Number of Students Percentage of Participation Group

Percentage of Total History Sample

Neither 63388 100 843

DE grade of D or F 76 28 01

DE grade of C 318 116 04

DE grade of A or B 2346 856 31

AP score of 1 or 2 5239 577 70

AP score of 3 2250 248 30

AP score of 4 or 5 1586 175 21

Mean 10th-grade state assessment scores are presented in Table 25 AP history students had the highest mean scores even students who scored a 1 or 2 on the exam

Table 25 Mean 10th Grade State Assessment Scores by History Participation and Performance Group

Group Reading Score Math Score

Participation

Neither 3116 3172

DE 3405 3413

AP 3512 3548

Performance

DE grade DndashF 3165 3219

DE grade C 3300 3308

DE grade AndashB 3427 3434

AP score 1ndash2 3428 3476

AP score 3 3595 3612

AP score 4ndash5 3675 3696

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

26 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 26 presents the performance group means of the four college outcome variables for history with standard deviations in parentheses On average without taking any group differences into account AP students have the fewest credits attempted to degree and graduate in fewer calendar terms with a higher history GPA both in the first year and final year Students with higher AP history scores have the highest GPAs and graduate with the fewest credits and in the fewest terms

Table 26 History Participation and Performance Group Means of Four Outcome Variables

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Participation

Neither 281

(091) 289

(080) 1563 (392)

13745 (2277)

DE 285

(093) 298

(088) 1392 (381)

13876 (2047)

AP 318

(080) 317

(076) 1381 (314)

13341 (2191)

Performance

DE grade DndashF

DE grade C 252

(090) 1535 (433)

14026 (2050)

DE grade AndashB 294

(086) 303

(086) 1376 (371)

13859 (2052)

AP score 1ndash2 306

(083) 307

(077) 1429 (328)

13608 (2094)

AP score 3 334

(070) 329 (071)

1345 (295)

13156 (2220)

AP score 4ndash5 352

(063) 343

(066) 1298 (273)

12852 (2306)

Note Missing values indicate fewer than 25 students with valid records

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

27 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table 27 presents the statistically significant coefficients and R-square estimates from the regressions calculated using participation groups Table 28 presents the significant standardized coefficients and R-square estimates from the models including performance groups Alpha levels were set at 005 For full model results see Appendix D

Table 27 History Participation Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year History GPA Final History GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -017 -004

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 013 010 -009 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 013 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 002 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

AP participant 015 009 -009

DE participant -006 -007 008

R-Square 0125 0112 0183 0047

Table 28 History Performance Regression Results Significant Standardized Coefficients

First-Year GPA Final GPA Terms to Degree Credits to Degree

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 011 013 -014 -004

Percent course work Honors+ 006 005 -016 -003

Subject grades 9ndash10 GPA 012 010 -008 -004

10th-grade math assessment -007 005

10th-grade reading assessment 012 012 -003 -005

Freereduced lunch status 004 005

Gender 003 -011 -006

Race = Asian 002 006

Race = African AmericanBlack 008 002 -002 012

Race = Hispanic 004 003 004

DE grade of DndashF

DE grade of C -020 -019

DE grade of AndashB -009 010

AP score of 1ndash2

AP score of 3 018 011 -008

AP score of 4ndash5 023 013 -013

R-Square 0128 0114 0183 0049

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

28 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Adjusted means were calculated using the results from the regression calculations and pairwise comparisons of those means are presented in Table 29 Implications from these findings are discussed in detail in the Discussion section

Table 29 Significant Pairwise Comparisons History Performance Groups

Outcome Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 ndash Group 2

First-Year History GPA

AP score of 1ndash2 Neither

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

016

031

040

025

Final History GPA

AP score of 3 Neither

AP score of 3 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 Neither

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of C

AP score of 4ndash5 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 4ndash5 AP score of 1ndash2

020

052

025

058

023

016

Terms to Degree

Neither DE grade of AndashB

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 DE grade of AndashB

AP score of 3 DE grade of AndashB

096

048

056

073

048

Credits to Degree

Neither AP score of 3

Neither AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of C AP score of 4ndash5

DE grade of AndashB Neither

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 1ndash2

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 3

DE grade of AndashB AP score of 4ndash5

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 3

AP score of 1ndash2 AP score of 4ndash5

322

550

838

395

393

717

945

324

552

College history course grades saw a similar trend to the other subjects AP students with a score of 1 2 or 3 had a significantly higher first-year history GPA than regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school Students with higher AP history exam scores of 4 or 5 had significantly higher first-year course grades than AP students with a score of 1 or 2 and dual-enrolled students with a course grade of A or B once background variables were taken into account Comparing final college history course GPA AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher tended to fare better than other students Students with an AP Exam score of 3 outperformed dual-enrolled students with a course grade of C and regular students in college history courses AP history exam takers with a score of 4 or 5 outperformed those same students as well as dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 1ndash2 College history GPAs were calculated using history courses and the more specific courses noted as African history American history Asian history European history world history and Latin American history

Comparing credits taken to degree once background variables were accounted for AP students tended to attempt fewer credits on average than the other performance groups

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

29 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Like the previous subjects showed regular students who took neither AP nor DE history courses in high school tended to take more credits than AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher with differences between one and two courses assuming a standard 3-credit-hour structure Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB took on average one to three more courses than AP students with AP history students with scores of 4ndash5 attempting the fewest credit hours before graduation

In history calendar-terms-to-degree results appeared relatively similar to the other subject areas Students who did not take any AP or DE history courses in high school tended to take at least a half term longer to graduate on average once background variables were taken into account than students who were dual-enrolled with course grades of AndashB and AP students with exam scores of 3 or higher Dual-enrolled history students with course grades of AndashB graduated on average one-half to three-quarters of a term quicker than AP history students with exam scores of 3 or lower Implications of these findings as well as possible reasons for the dissonance between credits to degree and terms to degree are discussed further in the following section

Discussion Although the samples were different for each subject area several differences among participation and performance groups were constant across all four subject areas The majority of students who took dual-enrolled courses received final course grade of A or B (possibly entitling them to college credit) while much smaller percentages of AP students earned a 3 or higher on the exam However in terms of academic ability AP students had the highest mean state assessment scores in math and reading followed by dual-enrolled students indicating that higher ability students were more inclined to take Advanced Placement than dual enrollment or regular courses This has implications when comparing outcome variables as groups were not randomly equivalent before course choice and participation

Comparing group means for each of the four outcome variables AP students had the most positive outcomes higher first-year and final subject-specific GPAs fewer credits attempted to degree and fewer calendar terms to degree However because these means do not take into account inherent group differences on various student background characteristics it is difficult to directly attribute outcome differences to course participation and performance For this reason regression models were estimated to compare groups on the outcome variables with covariates included to explain preexisting group differences and theoretically remove their effects from analyses

Regression results indicated that group differences did exist on the college outcomes even after controlling for relevant characteristics Regression models included student background variables meaning the presented effects of performance group membership are above and beyond any differences between the groups including state assessment scores grades 9ndash10 GPAs in the given subject area percent of high school course work taken at an advanced level race gender and so on Although participation group differences were presented in this study performance results provide a clearer insight into those differences In general higher AP scores were associated with higher first-year and final grades in the same subject area with the exception of English where higher performance in dual-enrolled courses did not show the same trends of positive effects when compared to lower course performance perhaps because DE course grades tended to show little to no variability Overall it appears that higher performing AP examinees have higher first-year and final subject-specific college grades than their dual-enrolled peers

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

30 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

In English final college English GPA had no significant differences among performance groups once background variables were taken into account and first-year GPA had only a couple of significant differences for AP students scoring a 1 2 or 3 Because English tends to be a general education course with requirements for all majors this subject may perform slightly differently than others Students with high AP scores and high DE grades may have received credit for first-year composition courses thus fulfilling a requirement and resulting in no further English courses taken Students in this scenario would not be included in the English sample for comparisons In addition courses in strongly related subjects such as journalism and mass communications were not included in this study and may have been another option for exploring the skills and subsequent academic performance of these students Results from the other three subjects were similar to previous research findings that AP students tend to outperform their peers in both first-year and final college academic outcomes

Higher AP Exam scores were also associated with fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree In all four subject areas after adjusting for background student variables AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 take fewer credits to graduate than other groups including dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB These differences range from 533 credit hours to 945 meaning that AP students with scores of 4ndash5 tend to take two to three standard 3-hour courses fewer than their peers with grades of AndashB in dual enrollment courses Differences between students with AP scores of 3 or higher and regular students who did not take AP or DE courses in the subject area are intuitive as it is likely students with higher AP Exam scores were awarded credits toward graduation requirements In fact these results differ from previous research which found that AP takers tend to make more credit hours in college than dual-enrolled students (Hargrove et al 2008 Murphy amp Dodd 2009) likely due to different AP credit-granting policies in place However dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB are also likely to be awarded credits toward a degree and means adjusted for various background variables indicate that they still take more credit hours to degree than their peers in AP One potential reason for these differences could be choice of majors AP students may be less likely to change majors or more likely to declare earlier and thus establish a course plan earlier than non-AP students Future research could explore the role of AP and DE in the choice of (and propensity to change) major

Among students who graduated with a bachelorrsquos degree within six years those who were dual enrolled tended to graduate in the shortest time followed by AP and regular students who did not participate in AP or DE in high school With the exception of the history subject area dual-enrolled students with course grades of AndashB graduate in significantly fewer calendar terms than students with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These differences range from 062 to 130 meaning that on average DE students with grades of AndashB graduate a half-term to over one term quicker than AP students with exam scores of 4ndash5 In history dual-enrolled students with grades of AndashB graduated in fewer terms than AP students with exam scores of 3 or below but differences were not significant with AP Exam scores of 4ndash5 These findings are somewhat perplexing but as mentioned earlier AP students may be less likely to change major transfer institutions or fail course work Future research should explore these aspects of higher education There are several contextual notes to keep in mind when interpreting differences in terms to degree There is a statewide scholarship program in place in this state that provides students with college funding for up to seven years or a certain number of accumulated credit hours as long as they meet certain GPA requirements Therefore students with higher GPAs experience some small incentive in the form of financial support to remain in school and either take more advanced courses before graduation or a reduced course load

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

31 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

each term There is also a statewide requirement for summer school credits that may play a role in the number of terms to graduation if students delay summer school until their final year of college education

This study had a few additional limitations First there was no accounting for college course levels when calculating first-year and final college subject GPAs For example some students may have been enrolled in introductory courses while other students were taking more advanced course work These differences were not specified in the model and may be of some interest in comparing differences between performance groups Second DE students in one subject area may be taking AP courses in another subject and vice versa therefore it is difficult to attribute specific effects within subject area when looking at overall outcomes like credit hours and calendar terms to degree Follow-up research could investigate the overall impact of participation and performance in AP DE and both across subject areas on graduation and time to degree Third postsecondary school selectivity was also not included in the models but would be interesting for future research Therefore differences between colleges and universities the students attended may have played a role in course grades time to graduation and credits that could be inadvertently attributed to group membership particularly if different performance groups were more or less likely to attend different institutions with different academic selectivity and expectations A final limitation to the approach presented here is that AP and dual enrollment credit-granting policies vary across schools Those differences were not available therefore they could not be controlled for within our analyses

Future research comparing dual enrollment and AP performance groups on college outcomes should consider taking several things into account school choice course load per semester major selection and advanced course-taking This study was unique in that it took studentsrsquo course and exam performance into account to better understand outcomes However it may be interesting to explore the postsecondary choices made by students of varying performance in these programs As mentioned previously students who are offered course credit by way of AP Exam scores or dual-enrolled course grades may choose to take a relaxed course load while enrolled in college It may be valuable to determine if students are electing to take fewer courses rather than reducing the number of terms they are enrolled in college Exploring course loads may help researchers support institutionsrsquo understanding of their studentsrsquo pathways to graduation

In summary results from this study agree with previous research suggesting that there are benefits to participating in college creditndashoffering programs like Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses Higher performance on AP Exams was positively related to higher college performance in the subject area as well as fewer credit hours taken to bachelorrsquos degree Most dual enrollment students earned a grade of C or better and higher performers tended to graduate college in fewer calendar terms than other groups This study adds unique information to the field by studying AP and dual enrollment effects not only taking performance in those coursesexams into account but also considering other student background variables that may play a role in selection into those course types and lends support to the notion that taking more advanced rigorous course work in high school and performing well in those courses leads to positive college outcomes

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

32 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

References Burnham P S amp Hewitt B A (1971) Advanced Placement scores Their predictive

validity Educational and Psychological Measurement 31(4) 939ndash945

Chajewski M Mattern K D amp Shaw E J (2011) AP participation and college enrollment Educational Measurement Issues and Practice 30(4) 16ndash27 College Board (2013) The 9th annual AP report to the nation New York The College Board

Dodd B G Fitzpatrick S J De Ayala R J amp Jennings J A (2002) An investigation of the validity of the AP grades of 3 and a comparison of AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2002-9) New York The College Board

Doherty C Mellor L amp Jian S (2006) The relationship between Advanced Placement and college graduation (National Center for Educational Accountability 2005 AP Study Series Report 1) Austin Texas National Center for Educational Accountability

Duffy II W R (2010) Persistence and performance at a four-year university The relationship with advanced coursework during high school In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 139ndash163) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Eimers M T amp Mullen R (2003) Dual credit and Advanced Placement Do they help prepare students for success in college Paper presented at the Association for Institutional Research Fall Conference Tampa FL

Ewing M (2006) The AP Program and student outcomes A summary of research (College Board Research Notes RN-29 November 2006) New York The College Board

Ewing M Huff K amp Kaliski P (2010) Validating AP Exam scores Current research and new directions In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp 85ndash106) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

Florida Department of Education Office of Articulation (2013) Comparison of Floridarsquos articulated acceleration programs Retrieved June 1 2013 from httpwwwfldoeorg articulationpdfcfaappdf

Geiser S amp Santelices V (2004) The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Berkeley CA Center for Studies in Higher Education University of California Berkeley Retrieved February 9 2011 from httpcsheberkeleyedu publicationsdocsROPGeiser404pdf

Hargrove L Godin D amp Dodd B (2008) College outcomes comparisons by AP and non-AP high school experiences (College Board Research Report No 2008-03) New York The College Board

Karp M M Calcagno J C Hughes K L Jeong D W amp Bailey T R (2007) The postsecondary achievement of participants in dual enrollment An analysis of student outcomes in two states St Paul MN National Research Center for Career and Technical Education University of Minnesota

Keng L amp Dodd B G (2008) A comparison of college performances of AP and non-AP student groups in 10 subject areas (College Board Research Report No 2008-7) New York The College Board

Klopfenstein K (2010) Does the Advanced Placement Program save taxpayers money In P M Sadler G Sonnert R H Tai amp K Klopfenstein (Eds) AP A critical examination of the Advanced Placement Program (pp189ndash218) Cambridge MA Harvard Education Press

33 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Mattern K D Shaw E J amp Xiong X (2009) The relationship between AP Exam performance and college outcomes (College Board Research Report No 2009-4) New York The College Board

Morgan R amp Ramist L (1998) Advanced Placement students in college An investigation of course grades at 21 colleges (ETS Statistical Report No 98-13) Princeton NJ Educational Testing Service

Murphy D amp Dodd B (2009) A comparison of college performance of matched AP and non-AP student groups (College Board Research Report No 2009-6) New York The College Board

OrsquoBrien D M amp Nelson T D (2004) Strengthening college preparation and access through concurrent enrollment in high school and community college (State of Texas Education Research Center Working Paper) Dallas The University of Texas at Dallas

OrsquoKeefe L Hayes D Easton-Brooks D amp Johnson T (2010) Advanced Placement dual credit and four-year college graduation Enrollment Management Journal 4(3) 69ndash88

Pedhazur E J (1997) Multiple regression in behavioral research Explanation and prediction Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing

Speroni C (2011)a Determinants of studentsrsquo success The role of Advanced Placement and dual enrollment programs (National Center for Postsecondary Research Working Paper) New York The National Center for Postsecondary Research

Speroni C (2011)b High school dual enrollment programs Are we fast-tracking students too fast (National Center for Postsecondary Research Working Paper) New York The National Center for Postsecondary Research

Struhl B amp Vargas J (2012) Taking college courses in high school A strategy for college readiness (Jobs for the Future Research Report October 2012) Boston Jobs for the Future

Thomas N Marken S Gray L amp Lewis L (2013) Dual credit and exam-based courses in US public high schools 2010-11 (NCES 2013-001) US Department of Education Washington DC National Center for Education Statistics Retrieved September 17 2013 from httpncesedgovpubs20132013001pdf

Waits T Setzer J C amp Lewis L (2005) Dual credit and exam-based courses in US public high schools 2002-03 (NCES 2005-009) US Department of Education Washington DC National Center for Education Statistics Retrieved September 17 2013 from httpncesedgovpubs20052005009pdf

Willingham W W amp Morris M (1986) Four years later A longitudinal study of Advanced Placement students in college (College Board Research Report No 86-2) New York The College Board

34 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix A English Regression Results

Table A1 English Participation Regression Results First Year College English GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 1227 0093 13158

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0165 0020 0104 8257

Percent course work Honors+ 0462 0048 0097 9540

English grades 9ndash10 GPA 0219 0017 0152 12546

10th-grade math assessment 0000 0000 0016 1399

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0067 6641

Gender 0142 0012 0101 11906

Freereduced lunch status -0018 0016 -0010 -1139

Race = Asian -0079 0027 -0024 -2957

Race = African AmericanBlack -0116 0017 -0066 -6897

Race = Hispanic -0017 0019 -0008 -0898

AP English participant 0057 0011 0074 5012

DE English participant -0069 0016 -0059 -4254

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0162

lt0001

lt0001

0255

0003

lt0001

0369

lt0001

lt0001

Table A2 English Performance Regression Results First Year College English GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 1212 0099 12264

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0165 0020 0104 8243

Percent course work Honors+ 0462 0048 0097 9547

English grades 9ndash10 GPA 0219 0018 0152 12445

10th-grade math assessment 0000 0000 0016 1421

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0068 6634

Gender 0141 0012 0101 11871

Freereduced lunch status -0018 0016 -0010 -1139

Race = Asian -0080 0027 -0024 -2964

Race = African AmericanBlack -0116 0017 -0066 -6884

Race = Hispanic -0017 0019 -0008 -0910

DE English grade of DndashF -0047 0151 -0032 -0311

DE English grade of C -0102 0073 -0072 -1396

DE English grade of AndashB -0056 0035 -0048 -1602

AP English score of 1ndash2 0068 0031 0073 2193

AP English score of 3 0069 0033 0065 2100

AP English score of 4ndash5 0049 0039 0039 1249

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0155

lt0001

lt0001

0255

0003

lt0001

0363

0756

0163

0109

0028

0036

0212

35 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A3 English Participation Regression Results Final College English GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 1392 0069 20215

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0154 0015 0113 10152

Percent course work Honors+ 0362 0037 0088 9795

English grades 9ndash10 GPA 0197 0013 0158 14968

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0027 2741

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0075 8375

Gender 0097 0009 0077 10652

Freereduced lunch status -0011 0013 -0006 -0837

Race = Asian -0037 0021 -0012 -1759

Race = African AmericanBlack -0145 0013 -0088 -10923

Race = Hispanic 0011 0015 0006 0781

AP English participant 0023 0008 0034 2877

DE English participant -0018 0010 -0019 -1714

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0006

lt0001

lt0001

0402

0079

lt0001

0435

0004

0087

Table A4 English Performance Regression Results Final College English GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 1404 0073 19240

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0155 0015 0113 10174

Percent course work Honors+ 0363 0037 0088 9803

English grades 9ndash10 GPA 0195 0013 0156 14674

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0027 2702

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0074 8255

Gender 0096 0009 0077 10608

Freereduced lunch status -0010 0013 -0006 -0819

Race = Asian -0036 0021 -0012 -1733

Race = African AmericanBlack -0145 0013 -0088 -10874

Race = Hispanic 0011 0015 0006 0781

DE English grade of DndashF 0064 0105 0051 0608

DE English grade of C -0105 0049 -0085 -2150

DE English grade of AndashB -0014 0023 -0015 -0614

AP English score of 1ndash2 0016 0022 0018 0710

AP English score of 3 0029 0023 0032 1287

AP English score of 4ndash5 0018 0026 0017 0706

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0007

lt0001

lt0001

0413

0083

lt0001

0435

0543

0032

0539

0478

0198

0480

36 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A5 English Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25742 0327 78737

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0074 -0056 -6145

Percent course work Honors+ -4217 0185 -0169 -22751

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -1330 0064 -0179 -20735

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0071 -8702

10th-grade reading assessment -0002 0001 -0019 -2550

Gender -0655 0045 -0083 -14516

Freereduced lunch status 0411 0063 0040 6516

Race = Asian 0332 0108 0017 3090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0242 0069 -0022 -3529

Race = Hispanic 0375 0073 0030 5151

AP English participant 0072 0040 0016 1809

DE English participant -0584 0044 -0108 -13321

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0011

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

0070

lt0001

Table A6 English Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25713 0345 74479

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -0469 0074 -0058 -6326

Percent course work Honors+ -4214 0185 -0169 -22735

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -1301 0065 -0175 -20057

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0070 -8567

10th-grade reading assessment -0002 0001 -0018 -2385

Gender -0656 0045 -0083 -14548

Freereduced lunch status 0409 0063 0039 6476

Race = Asian 0330 0108 0017 3065

Race = African AmericanBlack -0244 0069 -0022 -3557

Race = Hispanic 0377 0073 0030 5166

DE English grade of DndashF 0810 0470 0103 1725

DE English grade of C -0351 0214 -0046 -1639

DE English grade of AndashB -0730 0102 -0132 -7143

AP English score of 1ndash2 0048 0105 0008 0463

AP English score of 3 -0083 0107 -0014 -0782

AP English score of 4ndash5 -0109 0118 -0017 -0925

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0017

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

0085

0101

lt0001

0644

0434

0355

37 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 150479 2077

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0470 0009

Percent course work Honors+ -6166 1177 -0042

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4539 0407 -0105

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0006 0047

10th-grade reading assessment -0034 0006 -0049

Gender -2117 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6844 0682 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7542 0435 0117

Race = Hispanic 2945 0462 0041

AP English participant -1754 0253 -0067

DE English participant 2235 0278 0071

72464

0920

-5239

-11145

5344

-6082

-7391

6654

10042

17353

6370

-6919

8032

lt0001

0358

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147275 2191

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0348 0471 0007

Percent course work Honors+ -6215 1176 -0043

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4318 0411 shy0100

10th-grade math assessment 0037 0006 0051

10th-grade reading assessment -0029 0006 shy0042

Gender -2120 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2648 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6752 0681 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7480 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2911 0462 0040

DE English grade of DndashF 0946 2977 0021

DE English grade of C 2650 1356 0059

DE English grade of AndashB 2486 0648 0077

AP English score of 1ndash2 0574 0663 0017

AP English score of 3 -2322 0676 shy0068

AP English score of 4ndash5 -4252 0749 shy0113

67217

0739

-5284

-10498

5797

-5245

-7408

6618

9913

17217

6301

0318

1954

3835

0865

-3436

-5676

lt0001

0460

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0751

0051

lt0001

0387

0001

lt0001

38 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1301 0144 -9060

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0148 0030 0061 4967

Percent course work Honors+ 0281 0070 0039 4039

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0433 0020 0259 21557

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0144 12456

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2074

Gender 0137 0017 0064 7943

Freereduced lunch status -0030 0024 shy0010 -1210

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0294

Race = African AmericanBlack -0015 0026 -0005 -0590

Race = Hispanic -0047 0028 shy0014 -1692

AP Math participant 0139 0024 0117 5898

DE Math participant -0136 0040 -0064 -3374

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0038

lt0001

0226

0768

0555

0091

lt0001

0001

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1247 0150 -8299

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0149 0030 0061 4998

Percent course work Honors+ 0280 0070 0039 4018

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0020 0258 21375

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0142 12250

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2048

Gender 0138 0017 0065 8005

Freereduced lunch status -0029 0024 shy0010 -1204

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0286

Race = African AmericanBlack -0016 0026 -0006 -0640

Race = Hispanic -0048 0028 shy0014 -1712

DE Math grade of DndashF 0107 0207 0046 0520

DE Math grade of C -0234 0131 shy0102 -1786

DE Math grade of AndashB -0176 0071 -0082 -2484

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0087 0046 0058 1872

AP Math score of 3 0130 0051 0072 2553

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0123 0049 0074 2511

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0041

lt0001

0229

0775

0522

0087

0603

0074

0013

0061

0011

0012

39 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0530 0096

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0150 0020 0077

Percent course work Honors+ 0238 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0333 0014 0246

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0130

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0139 0012 0078

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0018 0027 0004

Race = African AmericanBlack -0050 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

AP Math participant 0108 0016 0102

DE Math participant -0105 0027 -0058

-5500

7433

4895

24268

13211

4358

11540

-0173

0678

-2758

-1337

6588

-3922

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0863

0498

0006

0181

lt0001

lt0001

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0498 0100

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0152 0020 0078

Percent course work Honors+ 0237 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0330 0014 0244

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0128

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0141 0012 0079

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0019 0027 0005

Race = African AmericanBlack -0051 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

DE Math grade of DndashF -0068 0125 -0033

DE Math grade of C -0155 0086 shy0077

DE Math grade of AndashB -0103 0047 -0055

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0075 0030 0056

AP Math score of 3 0116 0034 0074

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0143 0033 0096

-4970

7510

4878

23936

12909

4332

11676

-0188

0694

-2797

-1341

-0543

-1807

-2211

2463

3444

4357

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0851

0488

0005

0180

0587

0071

0027

0014

0001

lt0001

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

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35 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A3 English Participation Regression Results Final College English GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 1392 0069 20215

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0154 0015 0113 10152

Percent course work Honors+ 0362 0037 0088 9795

English grades 9ndash10 GPA 0197 0013 0158 14968

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0027 2741

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0075 8375

Gender 0097 0009 0077 10652

Freereduced lunch status -0011 0013 -0006 -0837

Race = Asian -0037 0021 -0012 -1759

Race = African AmericanBlack -0145 0013 -0088 -10923

Race = Hispanic 0011 0015 0006 0781

AP English participant 0023 0008 0034 2877

DE English participant -0018 0010 -0019 -1714

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0006

lt0001

lt0001

0402

0079

lt0001

0435

0004

0087

Table A4 English Performance Regression Results Final College English GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 1404 0073 19240

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0155 0015 0113 10174

Percent course work Honors+ 0363 0037 0088 9803

English grades 9ndash10 GPA 0195 0013 0156 14674

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0027 2702

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0074 8255

Gender 0096 0009 0077 10608

Freereduced lunch status -0010 0013 -0006 -0819

Race = Asian -0036 0021 -0012 -1733

Race = African AmericanBlack -0145 0013 -0088 -10874

Race = Hispanic 0011 0015 0006 0781

DE English grade of DndashF 0064 0105 0051 0608

DE English grade of C -0105 0049 -0085 -2150

DE English grade of AndashB -0014 0023 -0015 -0614

AP English score of 1ndash2 0016 0022 0018 0710

AP English score of 3 0029 0023 0032 1287

AP English score of 4ndash5 0018 0026 0017 0706

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0007

lt0001

lt0001

0413

0083

lt0001

0435

0543

0032

0539

0478

0198

0480

36 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A5 English Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25742 0327 78737

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0074 -0056 -6145

Percent course work Honors+ -4217 0185 -0169 -22751

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -1330 0064 -0179 -20735

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0071 -8702

10th-grade reading assessment -0002 0001 -0019 -2550

Gender -0655 0045 -0083 -14516

Freereduced lunch status 0411 0063 0040 6516

Race = Asian 0332 0108 0017 3090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0242 0069 -0022 -3529

Race = Hispanic 0375 0073 0030 5151

AP English participant 0072 0040 0016 1809

DE English participant -0584 0044 -0108 -13321

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0011

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

0070

lt0001

Table A6 English Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25713 0345 74479

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -0469 0074 -0058 -6326

Percent course work Honors+ -4214 0185 -0169 -22735

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -1301 0065 -0175 -20057

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0070 -8567

10th-grade reading assessment -0002 0001 -0018 -2385

Gender -0656 0045 -0083 -14548

Freereduced lunch status 0409 0063 0039 6476

Race = Asian 0330 0108 0017 3065

Race = African AmericanBlack -0244 0069 -0022 -3557

Race = Hispanic 0377 0073 0030 5166

DE English grade of DndashF 0810 0470 0103 1725

DE English grade of C -0351 0214 -0046 -1639

DE English grade of AndashB -0730 0102 -0132 -7143

AP English score of 1ndash2 0048 0105 0008 0463

AP English score of 3 -0083 0107 -0014 -0782

AP English score of 4ndash5 -0109 0118 -0017 -0925

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0017

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

0085

0101

lt0001

0644

0434

0355

37 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 150479 2077

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0470 0009

Percent course work Honors+ -6166 1177 -0042

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4539 0407 -0105

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0006 0047

10th-grade reading assessment -0034 0006 -0049

Gender -2117 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6844 0682 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7542 0435 0117

Race = Hispanic 2945 0462 0041

AP English participant -1754 0253 -0067

DE English participant 2235 0278 0071

72464

0920

-5239

-11145

5344

-6082

-7391

6654

10042

17353

6370

-6919

8032

lt0001

0358

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147275 2191

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0348 0471 0007

Percent course work Honors+ -6215 1176 -0043

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4318 0411 shy0100

10th-grade math assessment 0037 0006 0051

10th-grade reading assessment -0029 0006 shy0042

Gender -2120 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2648 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6752 0681 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7480 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2911 0462 0040

DE English grade of DndashF 0946 2977 0021

DE English grade of C 2650 1356 0059

DE English grade of AndashB 2486 0648 0077

AP English score of 1ndash2 0574 0663 0017

AP English score of 3 -2322 0676 shy0068

AP English score of 4ndash5 -4252 0749 shy0113

67217

0739

-5284

-10498

5797

-5245

-7408

6618

9913

17217

6301

0318

1954

3835

0865

-3436

-5676

lt0001

0460

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0751

0051

lt0001

0387

0001

lt0001

38 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1301 0144 -9060

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0148 0030 0061 4967

Percent course work Honors+ 0281 0070 0039 4039

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0433 0020 0259 21557

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0144 12456

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2074

Gender 0137 0017 0064 7943

Freereduced lunch status -0030 0024 shy0010 -1210

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0294

Race = African AmericanBlack -0015 0026 -0005 -0590

Race = Hispanic -0047 0028 shy0014 -1692

AP Math participant 0139 0024 0117 5898

DE Math participant -0136 0040 -0064 -3374

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0038

lt0001

0226

0768

0555

0091

lt0001

0001

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1247 0150 -8299

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0149 0030 0061 4998

Percent course work Honors+ 0280 0070 0039 4018

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0020 0258 21375

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0142 12250

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2048

Gender 0138 0017 0065 8005

Freereduced lunch status -0029 0024 shy0010 -1204

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0286

Race = African AmericanBlack -0016 0026 -0006 -0640

Race = Hispanic -0048 0028 shy0014 -1712

DE Math grade of DndashF 0107 0207 0046 0520

DE Math grade of C -0234 0131 shy0102 -1786

DE Math grade of AndashB -0176 0071 -0082 -2484

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0087 0046 0058 1872

AP Math score of 3 0130 0051 0072 2553

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0123 0049 0074 2511

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0041

lt0001

0229

0775

0522

0087

0603

0074

0013

0061

0011

0012

39 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0530 0096

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0150 0020 0077

Percent course work Honors+ 0238 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0333 0014 0246

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0130

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0139 0012 0078

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0018 0027 0004

Race = African AmericanBlack -0050 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

AP Math participant 0108 0016 0102

DE Math participant -0105 0027 -0058

-5500

7433

4895

24268

13211

4358

11540

-0173

0678

-2758

-1337

6588

-3922

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0863

0498

0006

0181

lt0001

lt0001

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0498 0100

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0152 0020 0078

Percent course work Honors+ 0237 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0330 0014 0244

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0128

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0141 0012 0079

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0019 0027 0005

Race = African AmericanBlack -0051 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

DE Math grade of DndashF -0068 0125 -0033

DE Math grade of C -0155 0086 shy0077

DE Math grade of AndashB -0103 0047 -0055

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0075 0030 0056

AP Math score of 3 0116 0034 0074

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0143 0033 0096

-4970

7510

4878

23936

12909

4332

11676

-0188

0694

-2797

-1341

-0543

-1807

-2211

2463

3444

4357

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0851

0488

0005

0180

0587

0071

0027

0014

0001

lt0001

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

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36 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A5 English Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25742 0327 78737

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0074 -0056 -6145

Percent course work Honors+ -4217 0185 -0169 -22751

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -1330 0064 -0179 -20735

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0071 -8702

10th-grade reading assessment -0002 0001 -0019 -2550

Gender -0655 0045 -0083 -14516

Freereduced lunch status 0411 0063 0040 6516

Race = Asian 0332 0108 0017 3090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0242 0069 -0022 -3529

Race = Hispanic 0375 0073 0030 5151

AP English participant 0072 0040 0016 1809

DE English participant -0584 0044 -0108 -13321

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0011

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

0070

lt0001

Table A6 English Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25713 0345 74479

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -0469 0074 -0058 -6326

Percent course work Honors+ -4214 0185 -0169 -22735

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -1301 0065 -0175 -20057

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0070 -8567

10th-grade reading assessment -0002 0001 -0018 -2385

Gender -0656 0045 -0083 -14548

Freereduced lunch status 0409 0063 0039 6476

Race = Asian 0330 0108 0017 3065

Race = African AmericanBlack -0244 0069 -0022 -3557

Race = Hispanic 0377 0073 0030 5166

DE English grade of DndashF 0810 0470 0103 1725

DE English grade of C -0351 0214 -0046 -1639

DE English grade of AndashB -0730 0102 -0132 -7143

AP English score of 1ndash2 0048 0105 0008 0463

AP English score of 3 -0083 0107 -0014 -0782

AP English score of 4ndash5 -0109 0118 -0017 -0925

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0017

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

0085

0101

lt0001

0644

0434

0355

37 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 150479 2077

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0470 0009

Percent course work Honors+ -6166 1177 -0042

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4539 0407 -0105

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0006 0047

10th-grade reading assessment -0034 0006 -0049

Gender -2117 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6844 0682 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7542 0435 0117

Race = Hispanic 2945 0462 0041

AP English participant -1754 0253 -0067

DE English participant 2235 0278 0071

72464

0920

-5239

-11145

5344

-6082

-7391

6654

10042

17353

6370

-6919

8032

lt0001

0358

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147275 2191

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0348 0471 0007

Percent course work Honors+ -6215 1176 -0043

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4318 0411 shy0100

10th-grade math assessment 0037 0006 0051

10th-grade reading assessment -0029 0006 shy0042

Gender -2120 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2648 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6752 0681 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7480 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2911 0462 0040

DE English grade of DndashF 0946 2977 0021

DE English grade of C 2650 1356 0059

DE English grade of AndashB 2486 0648 0077

AP English score of 1ndash2 0574 0663 0017

AP English score of 3 -2322 0676 shy0068

AP English score of 4ndash5 -4252 0749 shy0113

67217

0739

-5284

-10498

5797

-5245

-7408

6618

9913

17217

6301

0318

1954

3835

0865

-3436

-5676

lt0001

0460

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0751

0051

lt0001

0387

0001

lt0001

38 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1301 0144 -9060

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0148 0030 0061 4967

Percent course work Honors+ 0281 0070 0039 4039

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0433 0020 0259 21557

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0144 12456

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2074

Gender 0137 0017 0064 7943

Freereduced lunch status -0030 0024 shy0010 -1210

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0294

Race = African AmericanBlack -0015 0026 -0005 -0590

Race = Hispanic -0047 0028 shy0014 -1692

AP Math participant 0139 0024 0117 5898

DE Math participant -0136 0040 -0064 -3374

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0038

lt0001

0226

0768

0555

0091

lt0001

0001

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1247 0150 -8299

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0149 0030 0061 4998

Percent course work Honors+ 0280 0070 0039 4018

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0020 0258 21375

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0142 12250

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2048

Gender 0138 0017 0065 8005

Freereduced lunch status -0029 0024 shy0010 -1204

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0286

Race = African AmericanBlack -0016 0026 -0006 -0640

Race = Hispanic -0048 0028 shy0014 -1712

DE Math grade of DndashF 0107 0207 0046 0520

DE Math grade of C -0234 0131 shy0102 -1786

DE Math grade of AndashB -0176 0071 -0082 -2484

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0087 0046 0058 1872

AP Math score of 3 0130 0051 0072 2553

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0123 0049 0074 2511

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0041

lt0001

0229

0775

0522

0087

0603

0074

0013

0061

0011

0012

39 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0530 0096

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0150 0020 0077

Percent course work Honors+ 0238 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0333 0014 0246

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0130

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0139 0012 0078

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0018 0027 0004

Race = African AmericanBlack -0050 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

AP Math participant 0108 0016 0102

DE Math participant -0105 0027 -0058

-5500

7433

4895

24268

13211

4358

11540

-0173

0678

-2758

-1337

6588

-3922

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0863

0498

0006

0181

lt0001

lt0001

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0498 0100

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0152 0020 0078

Percent course work Honors+ 0237 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0330 0014 0244

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0128

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0141 0012 0079

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0019 0027 0005

Race = African AmericanBlack -0051 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

DE Math grade of DndashF -0068 0125 -0033

DE Math grade of C -0155 0086 shy0077

DE Math grade of AndashB -0103 0047 -0055

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0075 0030 0056

AP Math score of 3 0116 0034 0074

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0143 0033 0096

-4970

7510

4878

23936

12909

4332

11676

-0188

0694

-2797

-1341

-0543

-1807

-2211

2463

3444

4357

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0851

0488

0005

0180

0587

0071

0027

0014

0001

lt0001

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

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Our work focuses on the following areas

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Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

37 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table A7 English Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 150479 2077

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0470 0009

Percent course work Honors+ -6166 1177 -0042

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4539 0407 -0105

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0006 0047

10th-grade reading assessment -0034 0006 -0049

Gender -2117 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6844 0682 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7542 0435 0117

Race = Hispanic 2945 0462 0041

AP English participant -1754 0253 -0067

DE English participant 2235 0278 0071

72464

0920

-5239

-11145

5344

-6082

-7391

6654

10042

17353

6370

-6919

8032

lt0001

0358

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table A8 English Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147275 2191

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0348 0471 0007

Percent course work Honors+ -6215 1176 -0043

English grades 9ndash10 GPA -4318 0411 shy0100

10th-grade math assessment 0037 0006 0051

10th-grade reading assessment -0029 0006 shy0042

Gender -2120 0286 -0046

Freereduced lunch status 2648 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6752 0681 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7480 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2911 0462 0040

DE English grade of DndashF 0946 2977 0021

DE English grade of C 2650 1356 0059

DE English grade of AndashB 2486 0648 0077

AP English score of 1ndash2 0574 0663 0017

AP English score of 3 -2322 0676 shy0068

AP English score of 4ndash5 -4252 0749 shy0113

67217

0739

-5284

-10498

5797

-5245

-7408

6618

9913

17217

6301

0318

1954

3835

0865

-3436

-5676

lt0001

0460

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0751

0051

lt0001

0387

0001

lt0001

38 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1301 0144 -9060

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0148 0030 0061 4967

Percent course work Honors+ 0281 0070 0039 4039

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0433 0020 0259 21557

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0144 12456

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2074

Gender 0137 0017 0064 7943

Freereduced lunch status -0030 0024 shy0010 -1210

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0294

Race = African AmericanBlack -0015 0026 -0005 -0590

Race = Hispanic -0047 0028 shy0014 -1692

AP Math participant 0139 0024 0117 5898

DE Math participant -0136 0040 -0064 -3374

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0038

lt0001

0226

0768

0555

0091

lt0001

0001

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1247 0150 -8299

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0149 0030 0061 4998

Percent course work Honors+ 0280 0070 0039 4018

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0020 0258 21375

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0142 12250

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2048

Gender 0138 0017 0065 8005

Freereduced lunch status -0029 0024 shy0010 -1204

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0286

Race = African AmericanBlack -0016 0026 -0006 -0640

Race = Hispanic -0048 0028 shy0014 -1712

DE Math grade of DndashF 0107 0207 0046 0520

DE Math grade of C -0234 0131 shy0102 -1786

DE Math grade of AndashB -0176 0071 -0082 -2484

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0087 0046 0058 1872

AP Math score of 3 0130 0051 0072 2553

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0123 0049 0074 2511

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0041

lt0001

0229

0775

0522

0087

0603

0074

0013

0061

0011

0012

39 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0530 0096

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0150 0020 0077

Percent course work Honors+ 0238 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0333 0014 0246

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0130

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0139 0012 0078

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0018 0027 0004

Race = African AmericanBlack -0050 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

AP Math participant 0108 0016 0102

DE Math participant -0105 0027 -0058

-5500

7433

4895

24268

13211

4358

11540

-0173

0678

-2758

-1337

6588

-3922

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0863

0498

0006

0181

lt0001

lt0001

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0498 0100

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0152 0020 0078

Percent course work Honors+ 0237 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0330 0014 0244

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0128

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0141 0012 0079

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0019 0027 0005

Race = African AmericanBlack -0051 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

DE Math grade of DndashF -0068 0125 -0033

DE Math grade of C -0155 0086 shy0077

DE Math grade of AndashB -0103 0047 -0055

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0075 0030 0056

AP Math score of 3 0116 0034 0074

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0143 0033 0096

-4970

7510

4878

23936

12909

4332

11676

-0188

0694

-2797

-1341

-0543

-1807

-2211

2463

3444

4357

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0851

0488

0005

0180

0587

0071

0027

0014

0001

lt0001

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

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bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

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Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

38 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix B Math Regression Results

Table B1 Math Participation Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1301 0144 -9060

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0148 0030 0061 4967

Percent course work Honors+ 0281 0070 0039 4039

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0433 0020 0259 21557

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0144 12456

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2074

Gender 0137 0017 0064 7943

Freereduced lunch status -0030 0024 shy0010 -1210

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0294

Race = African AmericanBlack -0015 0026 -0005 -0590

Race = Hispanic -0047 0028 shy0014 -1692

AP Math participant 0139 0024 0117 5898

DE Math participant -0136 0040 -0064 -3374

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0038

lt0001

0226

0768

0555

0091

lt0001

0001

Table B2 Math Performance Regression Results First Year College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1247 0150 -8299

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0149 0030 0061 4998

Percent course work Honors+ 0280 0070 0039 4018

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0432 0020 0258 21375

10th-grade math assessment 0005 0000 0142 12250

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0020 2048

Gender 0138 0017 0065 8005

Freereduced lunch status -0029 0024 shy0010 -1204

Race = Asian -0011 0037 -0002 -0286

Race = African AmericanBlack -0016 0026 -0006 -0640

Race = Hispanic -0048 0028 shy0014 -1712

DE Math grade of DndashF 0107 0207 0046 0520

DE Math grade of C -0234 0131 shy0102 -1786

DE Math grade of AndashB -0176 0071 -0082 -2484

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0087 0046 0058 1872

AP Math score of 3 0130 0051 0072 2553

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0123 0049 0074 2511

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0041

lt0001

0229

0775

0522

0087

0603

0074

0013

0061

0011

0012

39 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0530 0096

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0150 0020 0077

Percent course work Honors+ 0238 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0333 0014 0246

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0130

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0139 0012 0078

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0018 0027 0004

Race = African AmericanBlack -0050 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

AP Math participant 0108 0016 0102

DE Math participant -0105 0027 -0058

-5500

7433

4895

24268

13211

4358

11540

-0173

0678

-2758

-1337

6588

-3922

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0863

0498

0006

0181

lt0001

lt0001

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0498 0100

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0152 0020 0078

Percent course work Honors+ 0237 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0330 0014 0244

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0128

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0141 0012 0079

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0019 0027 0005

Race = African AmericanBlack -0051 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

DE Math grade of DndashF -0068 0125 -0033

DE Math grade of C -0155 0086 shy0077

DE Math grade of AndashB -0103 0047 -0055

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0075 0030 0056

AP Math score of 3 0116 0034 0074

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0143 0033 0096

-4970

7510

4878

23936

12909

4332

11676

-0188

0694

-2797

-1341

-0543

-1807

-2211

2463

3444

4357

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0851

0488

0005

0180

0587

0071

0027

0014

0001

lt0001

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

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bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

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39 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B3 Math Participation Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0530 0096

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0150 0020 0077

Percent course work Honors+ 0238 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0333 0014 0246

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0130

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0139 0012 0078

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0018 0027 0004

Race = African AmericanBlack -0050 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

AP Math participant 0108 0016 0102

DE Math participant -0105 0027 -0058

-5500

7433

4895

24268

13211

4358

11540

-0173

0678

-2758

-1337

6588

-3922

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0863

0498

0006

0181

lt0001

lt0001

Table B4 Math Performance Regression Results Final College Math GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0498 0100

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0152 0020 0078

Percent course work Honors+ 0237 0049 0041

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA 0330 0014 0244

10th-grade math assessment 0004 0000 0128

10th-grade reading assessment 0001 0000 0037

Gender 0141 0012 0079

Freereduced lunch status -0003 0017 shy0001

Race = Asian 0019 0027 0005

Race = African AmericanBlack -0051 0018 shy0021

Race = Hispanic -0026 0020 -0009

DE Math grade of DndashF -0068 0125 -0033

DE Math grade of C -0155 0086 shy0077

DE Math grade of AndashB -0103 0047 -0055

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0075 0030 0056

AP Math score of 3 0116 0034 0074

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0143 0033 0096

-4970

7510

4878

23936

12909

4332

11676

-0188

0694

-2797

-1341

-0543

-1807

-2211

2463

3444

4357

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0851

0488

0005

0180

0587

0071

0027

0014

0001

lt0001

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

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Our work focuses on the following areas

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Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

40 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B5 Math Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25644 0341 75254

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1160 0072 -014 3 -16132

Percent course work Honors+ -4409 0180 -0177 -24487

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0505 0049 -0088 -10272

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5503

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7378

Gender -0839 0045 -0106 -18727

Freereduced lunch status 0456 0064 0044 7188

Race = Asian 0426 0108 0022 3947

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2612

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6302

AP Math participant 0443 0058 0088 7601

DE Math participant -0792 0088 -0098 -9015

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table B6 Math Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25539 0353 72407

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1159 0072 -0143 -16107

Percent course work Honors+ -4407 0180 -0177 -24470

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0507 0049 -0089 -10250

10th-grade math assessment -0006 0001 -0047 -5516

10th-grade reading assessment -0006 0001 -0054 -7376

Gender -0838 0045 -0106 -18682

Freereduced lunch status 0457 0064 0044 7190

Race = Asian 0427 0108 0022 3950

Race = African AmericanBlack -0179 0069 -0016 -2606

Race = Hispanic 0461 0073 0037 6300

DE Math grade of DndashF -0909 0435 -0096 -2089

DE Math grade of C -0577 0270 -0062 -2135

DE Math grade of AndashB -0677 0154 -0081 -4399

AP Math score of 1ndash2 0540 0110 0084 4919

AP Math score of 3 0578 0125 0078 4624

AP Math score of 4ndash5 0579 0121 0081 4790

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0037

0033

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

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Measurement

Research

Trends

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Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

41 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table B7 Math Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152495 2150

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2316 0454 -0049

Percent course work Honors+ -8922 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0944 0310 -0028

10th-grade math assessment 0035 0007 0048

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2604 0283 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2663 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6636 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7442 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2911 0461 0040

AP Math participant -1193 0368 -0040

DE Math participant 3556 0556 0076

70917

-5105

-7855

-3041

5217

-7504

-9211

6654

9754

17173

6315

-3240

6397

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

Table B8 Math Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152767 2225

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2347 0454 -0050

Percent course work Honors+ -8915 1136 -0061

Math grades 9ndash10 GPA -0893 0312 -0027

10th-grade math assessment 0036 0007 0049

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0059

Gender -2639 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2664 0400 0044

Race = Asian 6625 0680 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7450 0433 0115

Race = Hispanic 2919 0461 0040

DE Math grade of DndashF 3773 2741 0068

DE Math grade of C 2500 1708 0046

DE Math grade of AndashB 2831 0974 0058

AP Math score of 1ndash2 -1395 0692 -0037

AP Math score of 3 -1597 0789 -0037

AP Math score of 4ndash5 -3064 0764 -0074

68647

-5171

-7847

-2861

5363

-7485

-9318

6656

9738

17189

6331

1376

1464

2908

-2016

-2023

-4011

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0004

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0169

014 3

0004

0044

0043

lt0001

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

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Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

42 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix C Science Regression Results

Table C1 Science Participation Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1030 0152 -6787

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0222 0035 0101 6412

Percent course work Honors+ 0579 0080 0090 7283

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0305 0027 0175 11522

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0089 6494

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0079 6575

Gender -0009 0019 -0004 -0445

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0951

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1165

Race = African AmericanBlack -0235 0028 -0092 -8280

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6631

AP Science participant 0055 0024 0053 2343

DE Science participant -0086 0039 -0048 -2225

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0657

0341

0244

lt0001

lt0001

0019

0026

Table C2 Science Performance Regression Results First Year College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -1028 0166 -6205

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0229 0035 0104 6591

Percent course work Honors+ 0577 0079 0089 7260

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0293 0027 0167 10973

10th-grade math assessment 0003 0000 0085 6198

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0077 6434

Gender -0003 0019 -0001 -0147

Freereduced lunch status 0025 0026 0010 0940

Race = Asian -0043 0037 shy0011 -1171

Race = African AmericanBlack -0236 0028 -0093 -8340

Race = Hispanic 0197 0030 0068 6648

DE Science grade of DndashF -0333 0361 shy0164 -0922

DE Science grade of C -0250 0152 shy0125 -1644

DE Science grade of AndashB 0029 0083 0016 0351

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0104 0068 0082 1520

AP Science score of 3 0090 0072 0058 1247

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0257 0074 0162 3502

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0883

0347

0242

lt0001

lt0001

0357

0100

0725

0129

0212

lt0001

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

43 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C3 Science Participation Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0234 0102 -2288

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0129 0023 0069 5506

Percent course work Honors+ 0406 0055 0073 7320

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0266 0018 0178 14948

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0080 7161

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0087 8806

Gender 0032 0014 0019 2371

Freereduced lunch status 0066 0018 0030 3573

Race = Asian -0102 0028 -0028 -3583

Race = African AmericanBlack -0230 0020 -0103 -11626

Race = Hispanic 0126 0021 0048 5890

AP Science participant 0026 0017 0025 1512

DE Science participant -0050 0027 -0030 -1854

0022

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0018

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0131

0064

Table C4 Science Performance Regression Results Final College Science GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0172 0109 -1572

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0135 0023 0073 5763

Percent course work Honors+ 0404 0055 0072 7285

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA 0256 0018 0171 14228

10th-grade math assessment 0002 0000 0077 6805

10th-grade reading assessment 0002 0000 0084 8571

Gender 0038 0014 0022 2821

Freereduced lunch status 0065 0018 0030 3547

Race = Asian -0103 0028 -0028 -3602

Race = African AmericanBlack -0232 0020 -0104 -11737

Race = Hispanic 0127 0021 0048 5926

DE Science grade of DndashF 0074 0199 0038 0372

DE Science grade of C -0293 0102 -0153 -2882

DE Science grade of AndashB -0010 0052 -0006 -0195

AP Science score of 1ndash2 -0010 0041 -0008 -0234

AP Science score of 3 0038 0045 0025 0850

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0172 0047 0110 3676

0116

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0005

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0710

0004

0845

0815

0396

lt0001

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

44 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C5 Science Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 26080 0324 80522

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1209 0075 -0150 -16215

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24019

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0455 0057 -0068 -7975

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0063 -7661

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6346

Gender -0844 0045 -0107 -18935

Freereduced lunch status 0422 0063 0040 6665

Race = Asian 0405 0107 0021 3779

Race = African AmericanBlack -0205 0069 -0019 -2986

Race = Hispanic 0429 0073 0034 5866

AP Science participant 0430 0055 0084 7823

DE Science participant -0872 0078 -0114 -11241

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table C6 Science Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25999 0343 75809

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1213 0075 -0150 -16243

Percent course work Honors+ -4411 0184 -0177 -24015

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -0448 0057 -0067 -7787

10th-grade math assessment -0008 0001 -0062 -7590

10th-grade reading assessment -0005 0001 -0046 -6286

Gender -0847 0045 -0107 -18958

Freereduced lunch status 0423 0063 0040 6675

Race = Asian 0406 0107 0021 3790

Race = African AmericanBlack -0207 0069 -0019 -3007

Race = Hispanic 0428 0073 0034 5853

DE Science grade of DndashF -0041 0588 -0004 -0070

DE Science grade of C -0907 0261 -0099 -3483

DE Science grade of AndashB -0845 0152 -0106 -5562

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0527 0125 0087 4229

AP Science score of 3 0323 0143 0043 2252

AP Science score of 4ndash5 0460 0153 0058 3001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0003

lt0001

0944

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0024

0003

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

45 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table C7 Science Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 152020 2049

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2077 0471 -0044

Percent course work Honors+ -8921 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1302 0360 -0033

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0042 0005 -0061

Gender -2571 0282 -0056

Freereduced lunch status 2785 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6625 0677 0058

Race = African AmericanBlack 7490 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2847 0462 0039

AP Science participant -0683 0347 -0023

DE Science participant 2629 0490 0059

74198

-4409

-7684

-3614

5827

-7715

-9122

6962

9790

17257

6167

-1965

5360

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0049

lt0001

Table C8 Science Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 151437 2169

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2113 0472 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -8911 1161 -0061

Science grades 9ndash10 GPA -1230 0363 -0032

10th-grade math assessment 0039 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0041 0005 -0060

Gender -2635 0283 -0057

Freereduced lunch status 2786 0400 0046

Race = Asian 6630 0677 0059

Race = African AmericanBlack 7500 0434 0116

Race = Hispanic 2833 0462 0039

DE Science grade of DndashF 1776 3712 0032

DE Science grade of C 1506 1645 0028

DE Science grade of AndashB 2770 0959 0060

AP Science score of 1ndash2 0022 0787 0001

AP Science score of 3 -1510 0906 -0034

AP Science score of 4ndash5 -2564 0971 -0055

69825

-4477

-7675

-3386

5997

-7604

-9326

6965

9799

17277

6138

0478

0916

2888

0028

-1667

-2640

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0632

0360

0004

0977

0096

0008

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

46 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

-

-

Appendix D History Regression Results

Table D1 History Participation Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0358 0188 -1904

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0235 0037 0111 6362

Percent course work Honors+ 0396 0101 0061 3912

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0200 0026 0128 7786

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1773

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0128 8222

Gender 0026 0024 0014 1113

Freereduced lunch status -0005 0036 -0002 -0133

Race = Asian 0014 0069 0003 0206

Race = African AmericanBlack 0176 0034 0077 5239

Race = Hispanic 0018 0047 0005 0386

AP History participant 0162 0031 0152 5268

DE History participant -0103 0050 -0057 -2057

0057

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0266

0894

0837

lt0001

0700

lt0001

0040

Table D2 History Performance Regression Results First Year College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant -0325 0208 -1561

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0037 0114 6486

Percent course work Honors+ 0378 0101 0058 3736

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0186 0026 0119 7174

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0001 0030 1768

10th-grade reading assessment 0004 0000 0124 7942

Gender 0035 0024 0019 1470

Freereduced lunch status -0004 0035 -0002 -0118

Race = Asian 0015 0069 0003 0223

Race = African AmericanBlack 0178 0033 0078 5322

Race = Hispanic 0022 0047 0006 0462

DE History grade of DndashF -0394 0511 -0192 -0771

DE History grade of C -0407 0205 -0201 -1984

DE History grade of AndashB -0009 0114 -0005 -0080

AP History score of 1ndash2 0142 0095 0117 1496

AP History score of 3 0292 0102 0181 2873

AP History score of 4ndash5 0393 0107 0225 3661

0119

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0077

lt0001

0142

0906

0823

lt0001

0644

0441

0047

0937

0135

0004

lt0001

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

47 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D3 History Participation Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0344 0111 3102

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0240 0022 0132 10938

Percent course work Honors+ 0268 0061 0048 4414

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0145 0015 0105 9368

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1776

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0119 10911

Gender 0039 0014 0024 2700

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0401

Race = Asian 0004 0039 0001 0113

Race = African AmericanBlack 0040 0021 0019 1924

Race = Hispanic 0096 0023 0038 4150

AP History participant 0091 0018 0092 4933

DE History participant -0055 0029 -0034 -1894

0002

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0076

lt0001

0007

0689

0910

0054

lt0001

lt0001

0058

Table D4 History Performance Regression Results Final College History GPA

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 0394 0119 3309

Grades 9ndash10 GPA 0244 0022 0134 11105

Percent course work Honors+ 0257 0061 0046 4241

History grades 9ndash10 GPA 0136 0016 0098 8726

10th-grade math assessment 0001 0000 0021 1727

10th-grade reading assessment 0003 0000 0116 10578

Gender 0044 0015 0026 3000

Freereduced lunch status 0008 0020 0004 0407

Race = Asian 0005 0039 0001 0116

Race = African AmericanBlack 0041 0021 0020 1976

Race = Hispanic 0099 0023 0039 4291

DE History grade of DndashF -0001 0231 0000 -0003

DE History grade of C -0363 0127 -0194 -2859

DE History grade of AndashB -0021 0059 -0013 -0366

AP History score of 1ndash2 0048 0047 0042 1009

AP History score of 3 0161 0052 0107 3059

AP History score of 4ndash5 0212 0056 0133 3773

0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0084

lt0001

0003

0684

0908

0048

lt0001

0997

0004

0715

0313

0002

lt0001

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

48 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D5 History Participation Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25941 0324 80046

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1155 0068 -0143 -16983

Percent course work Honors+ -4124 0188 -0166 -21941

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0554 0048 -0088 -11633

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8456

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0030 -3988

Gender -0890 0045 -0112 -19948

Freereduced lunch status 0446 0064 0043 7014

Race = Asian 0440 0108 0023 4079

Race = African AmericanBlack -0180 0069 -0016 -2607

Race = Hispanic 0433 0073 0035 5905

AP History participant 0070 0048 0015 1459

DE History participant -0489 0064 -0073 -7664

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0009

lt0001

0145

lt0001

Table D6 History Performance Regression Results Calendar Terms to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 25929 0349 74331

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -1165 0068 -0144 -17121

Percent course work Honors+ -4102 0188 -0165 -21808

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -0531 0048 -0084 -11031

10th-grade math assessment -0009 0001 -0069 -8404

10th-grade reading assessment -0003 0001 -0028 -3776

Gender -0899 0045 -0114 -20107

Freereduced lunch status 0442 0064 0042 6959

Race = Asian 0441 0108 0023 4090

Race = African AmericanBlack -0182 0069 -0016 -2633

Race = Hispanic 0431 0073 0034 5881

DE History grade of DndashF 0930 0706 0107 1317

DE History grade of C -0277 0302 -0033 -0916

DE History grade of AndashB -0646 0152 -0094 -4245

AP History score of 1ndash2 0087 0140 0015 0624

AP History score of 3 -0166 0150 -0025 -1109

AP History score of 4ndash5 -0242 0158 -0034 -1532

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0008

lt0001

0188

0360

lt0001

0533

0268

0125

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

49 College Board Research Reports

College Completion

Table D7 History Participation Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 149862 2057

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2057 0432 -0043

Percent course work Honors+ -5350 1193 -0037

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1545 0302 -0042

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0052

10th-grade reading assessment -0038 0006 -0055

Gender -2773 0283 -0060

Freereduced lunch status 2874 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6850 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7567 0438 0116

Race = Hispanic 3022 0465 0041

AP History participant -2468 0306 -0089

DE History participant 3198 0405 0081

72838

-4767

-4484

-5112

5868

-6832

-9791

7129

10026

17284

6505

-8070

7895

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

Table D8 History Performance Regression Results Credits to Degree

Unstandardized B

Coefficients Std Error

Standardized Beta

Coefficients t Sig

Constant 147649 2213

Grades 9ndash10 GPA -2123 0432 -0045

Percent course work Honors+ -5007 1193 -0034

History grades 9ndash10 GPA -1353 0305 -0036

10th-grade math assessment 0038 0006 0053

10th-grade reading assessment -0035 0006 -0051

Gender -2912 0284 -0063

Freereduced lunch status 2866 0403 0047

Race = Asian 6861 0683 0060

Race = African AmericanBlack 7555 0437 0116

Race = Hispanic 2974 0464 0040

DE History grade of DndashF 1727 4469 0034

DE History grade of C 2898 1914 0058

DE History grade of AndashB 3973 0965 0099

AP History score of 1ndash2 0046 0884 0001

AP History score of 3 -3193 0953 -0081

AP History score of 4ndash5 -5478 1005 -0131

66732

-4919

-4198

-4435

5939

-6305

-10269

7115

10052

17272

6408

0387

1514

4118

0052

-3352

-5452

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

lt0001

0699

0130

lt0001

0958

0001

lt0001

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

The Research department actively supports the

College Boardrsquos mission by

bull Providingdata-basedsolutionstoimportanteducational problemsandquestions

bull Applyingscientificproceduresandresearchtoinformourwork

bull Designingandevaluatingimprovementstocurrentassessments anddevelopingnew assessmentsaswellaseducationaltoolstoensurethehighest technicalstandards

bull Analyzingandresolvingcriticalissuesforallprograms includingAPregSATreg PSATNMSQTreg

bull Publishingfindingsandpresentingourworkatkeyscientificand educationconferences

bull Generatingnewknowledgeandforward-thinkingideaswitha highlytrainedand credentialedstaff

Our work focuses on the following areas

Admission

Alignment

Evaluation

Fairness

Measurement

Research

Trends

Validity

Follow us online researchcollegeboardorg

- RESEARCH14b 8784

• College Completion Comparing APreg Dual-Enrolled and Nonadvanced Students
• • College Completion Comparing AP Dual-Enrolled and Nonadvanced Students
  • About the College Board
  • Contents
  • Executive Summary
  • Introduction
  • Method
  • Data
  • Procedures
  • Results
  • Descriptives
  • English Subject Area
  • Math Subject Area
  • History Subject Area
  • Discussion
  • References
  • Appendix A English Regression Results
  • Appendix B Math Regression Results
  • Appendix C Science Regression Results
  • Appendix D History Regression Results
  • The Research department actively supports the College Boardrsquos mission by