Journal of Vocational Behavior 76 (2010) 178–186

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Journal of Vocational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate / jvb

College students’ perceptions of calling in work and life:A qualitative analysis

Isaac Hunter a, Bryan J. Dik a,*, James H. Banning b

a Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, CO, United Statesb School of Education, Colorado State University, CO, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:Received 24 June 2009Available online 13 October 2009

Keywords:CallingVocationQualitative document analysisEthnographic content analysis

0001-8791/$ - see front matter � 2009 Elsevier Incdoi:10.1016/j.jvb.2009.10.008

* Corresponding author. Address: Department of PFax: +1 970 491 1032.

E-mail address: bryan.dik@colostate.edu (B.J. Dik

This study examined open-ended responses from 295 college students to questions regard-ing how they define the construct of calling, how having a calling influences their careerdevelopment, and the extent to which the term ‘‘calling” may apply to areas of life otherthan work. Results indicated that students perceived a calling as originating from guidingforces, co-occurring with unique fit and well-being, having altruistic features, and extend-ing to multiple life roles. These results largely support recent conceptualizations of callingin the career development literature, and suggest themes to explore in counseling withclients who desire to approach work as a calling.

� 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

One of the most critical constraints on theory, research, and practice related to the construct of ‘‘calling” in the careerdevelopment literature has been the lack of a consensus definition of the term. Extant definitions vary considerably,although usually describe approaching the work role with a sense of purpose and meaning, often with some referenceto God, passion, or giftedness as a motivating source (Dik & Duffy, 2009). The definitional confusion may partly reflect thatwhat calling means seems to have changed over time (Baumeister, 1991; Hall & Chandler, 2005; Schuurman, 2004); somescholars have argued that the evolving nature of constructs similar to calling require them to be reviewed in an ongoingmanner (Ruiz Quintanilla & Wilpert, 1988). Because having a sense of meaning and purpose—constructs that conceptuallyoverlap with calling—in one’s career are associated with increased performance, commitment, well-being, and satisfaction(Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Pratt & Ashforth, 2003; Serow, Eaker, & Ciechalski, 1992; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001), fur-ther investigation into the nature of calling and its role in career development may have promising applications for prac-titioners. However, as research on calling advances, it is important to evaluate, on an ongoing basis, the extent to whichcurrent working definitions of the construct accurately reflect the way it is experienced and understood by individuals.Qualitative research approaches are useful for this aim (e.g., Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Miles & Huberman, 1994).Thus, the purpose of the present study is to evaluate how well current working definitions of calling in the literature con-verge with how the construct is understood by college students—a population for whom the construct may be particularlyrelevant—by qualitatively examining the ways in which students conceptualize calling and its role in their work andbroader lives.

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sychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, C-52 A.G. Clark Bldg., CO 80523-1876, United States.

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I. Hunter et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 76 (2010) 178–186 179

1.1. Contemporary definitions of calling

Descriptions of work as a calling date at least to the early centuries C. E., when monks described perceptions of beingcalled to monastic life (Hardy, 1990). The concept was broadened during the 16th and 17th centuries, when ProtestantReformers argued that any occupation could hold spiritual significance. Aspects of this approach to calling share assumptionsmade by other religious traditions as well (e.g., Buddhism: Dalai Lama & Cutler, 2004). Modern conceptions of calling oftenretain the religious roots of the concept, although many scholars and practitioners endorse secularized versions of the termthat focus on internal, rather than divine, sources of motivation (Hall & Chandler, 2005). The history of the term points to itsembeddedness in Western cultural values, and although it may be relevant to varying extents across multiple cultural per-spectives, this is a question for research to address (Dik & Duffy, 2009).

In recent years, calling has been defined in a number of overlapping but distinct ways, including a call to serve God(Davidson & Caddell, 1994), a summons by God to pursue a certain type of work (Dalton, 2001), an orientation toward workmotivated by a quest for fulfillment and a desire to impact society (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1986; Wrzes-niewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997), a sense of passion, giftedness and direction God places on one’s heart (Sellers,Thomas, Batts, & Ostman, 2005), ‘‘work that a person perceives as [her or] his purpose in life” (Hall & Chandler, 2005, p.160),and as ‘‘the rich, simple, and complex ‘stuff’ that moves people from places deep within to a state of being, as opposed to apath by which people are driven in life and are constantly doing” (Colozzi & Colozzi, 2000, p. 84, italics in original). The clo-sely-related term vocation has been defined as a call to something larger than oneself (Greenbalt & Greenbalt, 2001), an over-whelming desire to find meaning in our lives through work (Fine, 2003), ‘‘what people believe they are called to do with theirlives” (Weiss, Skelley, Haughey, & Hall, 2004, p. 105), and ‘‘being engaged in work as an inner calling” (Treadgold, 1999, p.83). Clearly, existing definitions are diverse, often confounded, and tend to lack the detail and clarity necessary to guide reli-able and valid measurement of the construct. Furthermore, scholars have noted that calling extends to other life roles outsideof work (Schuurman, 2004; Sellers et al., 2005; Serow et al., 1992).

In an effort to help unify further research in this area, Dik and Duffy (2009) reviewed interdisciplinary literature on callingand vocation and attempted to summarize the constructs using the following working definition:

A calling is a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in amanner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-orientedvalues and goals as primary sources of motivation (p. 427).

Within this definition are three dimensions. The first refers to the degree to which external sources (e.g., God, a salient socialneed, a family legacy) compel or motivate a person in a certain direction. The second focuses on how one’s activity within a par-ticular life role contributes to a sense of meaning and purpose, either in that role specifically, or in one’s life as a whole. The thirddimension points to ‘‘other-oriented” or prosocial motives that accompany one’s activity in a particular life role. Although thescholarly literature seems well-represented by these dimensions, it remains to be seen how well the definition actually corre-sponds to how people who perceive a calling personally define the construct. The present study explores this question.

1.2. Qualitative research on calling

Although using qualitative methods to explore the role of calling and vocation in the work experience seems a fruitfulstrategy, relatively few studies have employed these methods. One recent study found that some African American under-graduates reported doing God’s work through their careers (Constantine, Miville, Warren, Gainor, & Lewis-Coles, 2006),sometimes using the word calling to describe this approach to integrating spirituality and work. Two other studies investi-gating White Christian mothers employed as academic faculty found that calling applied to both their role of motherhood aswell as to their careers (Oates, Hall, & Anderson, 2005; Sellers et al. 2005). These studies also found calling to be a beneficialway to conceptualize work and provided a support by which participants could better cope with the stress of the multipledemands placed upon them by various roles. Another study showed that although unable to initially obtain their ideal jobsdue to societal constraints, a group of African American women nevertheless identified their occupations in education ascallings, finding meaning in work they had been pushed toward because of oppressive societal norms (Loder, 2005).Although helpful starting points, none of these studies specifically explored how participants define the term ‘‘calling”,which is a central purpose of the present study.

In a recent grounded theory interview study of 23 zookeepers reported by Bunderson and Thompson (2009), researchersnoted that ‘‘although we did not begin our investigation with a focus on work as a calling, comments reflecting a sense of callingemerged as the most frequently coded category of data. . ..[so] it became apparent that if we were to understand why zookeep-ers are so dedicated to a low-paying, limited-status job, we needed to better understand their sense of calling” (pp. 35–36). Theyproceeded to conduct a more in-depth content analysis of their interview data with the purpose of describing zookeepers’ viewsof calling and the influence such views have on their work. Results suggested that their sample of zookeepers viewed a calling asa job ‘‘that one feels destined to fill by virtue of particular gifts, talents, and/or idiosyncratic life opportunities” (p. 38), whichprovided a sense of identification, meaning, and importance along with moral duty, personal sacrifice, and vigilance.

Finally, in a recent qualitative study of seven White, Christian, female university students, French and Domene (in press)found that participants described sensing callings in entire areas of life rather than narrowly in the work role, and their call-

180 I. Hunter et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 76 (2010) 178–186

ings appeared to function as a lens through which they perceived the world, including daily activities, relationships, and lei-sure. Five characteristics emerged as participants described the nature of their callings: ‘‘(a) altruistic focus, (b) intensity, (c)deep passion for calling area, (d) facilitating the discovery of calling in others, and (e) the burdens of having a calling” (p. 8).Participants pointed to others’ support and early exposure to the roles in which they felt called as factors that were instru-mental in the emergence of their callings. They also described personal attributes as contributing to the development of theircallings, such as proactivity and tenacity, resiliency, and a sense of identity.

The present study shares the goal of the Bunderson and Thompson (2009) and French and Domene (in press) studies ofinvestigating the meaning and perceived impact of calling for participants, assessing these questions directly and in a struc-tured manner, using a comparatively large and diverse sample of undergraduate college students.

1.3. Calling and vocation among college students

According to Arnett (2004), traditional college students (ages 18–25) are in the developmental stage of ‘‘emerging adult-hood.” Arnett suggests that this rather new stage in the U.S. and other developed nations has become relevant over the lastfew decades and is a product of an increasing number of years between adolescence and adulthood. As the average age bywhich people marry continues to rise, the widening interval between adolescence and marriage creates more time for explo-ration and a greater expressed desire for work that is meaningful compared to past generations (Arnett, 2004). Given that themajor developmental tasks of emerging adulthood relate to establishing an identity, including making significant careerdecisions, the college student population seems the optimal place to start for exploring phenomenological understandingsof calling at the present time. Indeed, at least one large-scale survey of more than 5000 college students found that morethan 40% reported that having a calling to a particular career was mostly or totally true of them (Duffy & Sedlacek, in press);in the present study, 68% of participants indicated that the concept ‘‘calling” was relevant in their career decision-makingprocess. Thus, the construct appears prevalent among college students.

To summarize, the purpose of the present study is examine the extent to which modern definitions of calling correspondto college students’ responses to questions regarding how they define the construct and how having a calling influences theircareer development. To explore the range of life roles to which the term may apply, the study also assesses the extent towhich the term ‘‘calling” may apply to areas of life other than work. Although this research is exploratory, results will serveas one source of information useful for evaluating existing approaches to defining calling.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

Data were collected from 340 undergraduate students at a large Western research university as well as 66 and 29 under-graduate students from two Midwestern Christian liberal arts colleges. Of the 435 respondents, 295 (68%; 61% of the researchuniversity participants and 94% of the Christian college students) indicated that ‘‘calling” was a relevant consideration intheir career development by responding ‘‘yes” to at least one of three questions asking (1) if they currently perceived theircareer as a calling, (2) if they were searching for a calling in their career, and (3) if the term ‘‘calling” was relevant in how theythought about their career. Of these 295 respondents, 77% identified as female, with a mean age of 19.0 years and standarddeviation of 1.54. The reported ethnicity was 86.8% White/European, 5.4% Latino/Hispanic, 3.1% Asian/Pacific Islander, 2.0%Native American, 1.7% Black/African and 2.0% Other/Omitted. The reported religious affiliation was 56.0% Protestant, 14.0%Nonreligious/Omitted, 14.0% Catholic, 2.0% Atheist, 1.4% Agnostic, 1.0% LDS; 10.2% identified as Jewish, Buddhist, ChristianScientist, or ‘other’ (no specific affiliation over 1%). Participants volunteered from undergraduate psychology courses thatgive credit for research participation.

2.2. Procedures

A purposive sampling strategy was used to supplement the public research university sample with students at reli-giously-affiliated liberal arts institutions because it was expected that calling may be particularly salient for participantswith faith commitments. Students who expressed an interest in participating were sent a link via e-mail to a secured websitethat presented a consent form; those providing informed consent subsequently were directed to the survey. The open-endedquestions in the current study were part of a larger survey of work attitudes, which also contained quantitative measures.The open-ended questions were presented prior to quantitative scales to minimize the potential for order effects in whichexposure to work attitudes items could influence responses to the open-ended questions.

2.3. Instruments

Three open-ended questions were administered to all students who indicated that ‘‘calling” was relevant to them (68% ofthe original sample). Responses were typed, with no limits on length or time. The questions were as follows:

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‘‘As it applies to your career, how do you define the word ‘‘calling”?”‘‘What, specifically, does it mean for you to approach your career as a calling?”‘‘Does the word ‘‘calling” apply to areas of your life other than work? Please explain.”

2.4. Coding and analyses

Emergent qualitative document analysis (QDA, also known as ethnographic content analysis or ECA) was used to ana-lyze the responses to open-ended survey questions in the present study. This method was selected due to its open, explor-atory nature which makes it ideal for examining the applicability of existing theories or for uncovering new information(Altheide, 1987; Altheide, Coyle, Devriese, & Schneider, 2008). Rather than attempting to fit the data into predefined cat-egories, as is the strategy in Classical Content Analysis (Krippendorff, 2004), QDA is focused on discovery of concepts thatemerge during the analysis. QDA allows the information to be viewed from a more inductive rather than deductiveapproach.

The responses to the three questions of interest in this study typically ranged from one to three sentences and were codedindividually using the method of constant comparative analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The development of themes fol-lowed the practice of qualitative document analysis (QDA; Altheide et al., 2008). Specifically, two trained undergraduate re-search assistants and the first author independently used open coding to label each participant’s response in a brief butdescriptive way. Descriptive labels often contained words used repeatedly in participant responses, or a phrase that summa-rized the general message conveyed. Subsequent responses were either listed under existing labels, or were used to createnew labels if they did not neatly fall into ones which were previously identified. Once saturation of labels had been achieved,the process of analyzing new responses ceased. Saturation was determined to have been reached after a number of responsesno longer necessitated the creation of new labels and it was concluded that nothing new was emerging from the data thatwas adding uniquely to existing labels. To ensure trustworthiness, inter-coder consensus was achieved. The research assis-tants and first author met to compare and discuss the various labels obtained through open coding. Any disagreements andcoding discrepancies were discussed and in some cases labels were renamed or adjusted until all three researchers hadreached consensus. Through this method of peer debriefing and examination (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), the researchers wereable to help ensure that the labels were grounded in the responses and not merely products of individual biases. Once con-sensus on initial labels had been reached, axial coding was used to form broad themes or categories through which multiplelabels were represented. Axial coding consists of grouping similar labels through the process of constant comparative anal-ysis and then creating broad categories/themes that represent them. For example, the labels Fulfill Destiny, Driven Feeling,God’s Will/Plan and Unique Purpose were grouped under the theme, Guiding Force, the term that best seemed to capturethe ‘‘essence” of the labels. When labels were perceived as being too dissimilar to be grouped within a single theme, the pro-cess necessitated the creation of a new, additional theme that would adequately capture the labels’ meanings. These cate-gorical themes also were discussed and edited until all researchers had come to a point of consensus that the initial labelswere properly described by the broader themes. Tables 1–3 present illustrations of the resultant thematic structures ob-tained by use of these coding strategies.

3. Results

Responses to the questions varied from a brief phrase to more detailed answers that were a few sentences long. Someresponses contained multiple ideas which were coded by the researchers into multiple labels; likewise, some labels fit intomore than one theme. As this study explores the meaning of a construct, the emergent themes provide the essential infor-mation; precise numerical representation of responses is unnecessary in QDA (Altheide et al., 2008). Nevertheless, themesand labels are presented in an order that approximates their relative frequency in the data. The following sections corre-spond, in order, to the open-ended response questions used in the present study. Sample responses for each label are pre-sented in Tables 1–3.

3.1. Definitions of calling

Responses to the question of how to define ‘‘calling” prompted 13 labels, from which three primary themes were iden-tified: Guiding Force, Personal Fit/Eudemonic Well-Being, and Altruism. As reported in Table 1, the descriptive theme GuidingForce seemed to best capture responses citing God’s will and gifts, a sense of destiny, and more general feelings of beingdriven or pushed by some unknown force. Individual responses falling under this theme often seemed to suggest anexternal force; however, participants were not always explicit about the source or origin of the force, which may alsohave been experienced as internal in nature, or some combination of internal and external. Secondly, the theme of Per-sonal Fit/Eudemonic Well-Being reflected a sense of one’s job matching one’s own specific abilities as well as the positiveoutcomes that are inherent when such a match exits. Finally, the theme of Altruism emerged from responses that refer-enced having a calling as leading to positive outcomes for society in a broad sense, as well as helping certain peoplespecifically.

Table 1Definitions of calling: themes, labels, and examples.

Guiding ForceGod’s Will/Plan. Participant 10: ‘‘A ‘calling’ refers to accepting and following a path God has laid out for my life”Fulfill Destiny. Participant 425: ‘‘Something in your career field that makes you believe that you were destined to do”Driven Feeling. Participant 384 said ‘‘A natural instinct or pull towards a certain field or career. A career that you have an unexplainable passionfor”God’s Gifts. Participant 33: ‘‘These are gifts God has given me that will allow me to have a career that fulfills both my job and earth and also helpfurther the Kingdom of God”Outside Force. Participant 135: ‘‘A calling means that I have a higher power directing or guiding in the way that I should lead my life whetherthat be with a career decision or not”Unique Purpose. Participant 182: ‘‘The purpose that is for me in my life”

Personal Fit/Eudemonic Well-BeingStrengths/Abilities. Participant 302 referred to calling in this way: ‘‘Something you are naturally good at”Fit/Positive Outcome. Participant 273: ‘‘A ‘calling’ is when you find a career that really fits you as a person with your personality, and you feel likeyou can give something special to the field”Enjoyment. 375: ‘‘The career that will bring happiness in your life and others”Interest/Motivation. Participant 306: ‘‘A calling is what motivates you to achieve more in your career, something you feel you were meant to do,something that is fulfilling”Unique Purpose. Participant 182: ‘‘The purpose that is for me in my life”Personal Growth. Participant 278: ‘‘It is a feeling that I can’t explain, a feeling to be a part of something to better myself and others”Having a Clear Idea. Participant 23: ‘‘Having a clear thought about what you want to do in life”

AltruismFit/Positive Outcome. Participant 241: ‘‘What will make me happiest and what I can do that will initiate the most positive change in the world”Positive Impact on Others. Participant 79: ‘‘Being led to do something because it helps others, not only myself”

Note. Themes are in bold, labels in italics.

Table 2Behavioral implications of calling: themes, labels, and examples.

Follow Guiding ForcesFollow/Glorify God. Participant 105 is ‘‘God has planned what will happen in our life already and by approaching our career as a calling, we ourfulfilling what God has planned for us”Fulfill Destiny. Participant 356 is as follows, ‘‘It means that I feel that I am meant to do what I do for a reason that I may or may not know”Find Unique Purpose. Participant 406: ‘‘To feel in your career that you actually are doing what you are supposed to be doing in life”Utilize God’s Gifts. Participant 83: ‘‘It means that I need to look at the areas in which God has gifted me, then look at what areas need my talents.Where these two areas meet is most likely where God is calling me to go”Follow Should/Driven Feeling. Participant 160: ‘‘For me, it means that it’s something that I should or need to do in my life”

Pursue Interests/Talents/MeaningFind Importance/Meaning. Participant 373 said this about finding meaning, ‘‘A career should not just merely be something a person does, but itshould help to define that person and add importance to their life”Find Enjoyment. Participant 54, is ‘‘It means developing all my talents and abilities, but especially honing in on the subject matter that I amespecially gifted in and enjoy doing”Have Positive Outcomes/Fit. Participant 291 is ‘‘It means that I will be good at what I do and be happy with my choice”Use Strengths/Abilities. See above Participant 54Interests and Motivation. Participant 55 ‘‘Devoted, and motivated”Find Unique Purpose. Listed in Theme one, Participant 182Follow Clear Ideas. Participant 312: ‘‘Approaching and knowing that the certain career that I chose is the one that I know and want to do”Find Personal Growth. Participant 473: ‘‘Refine my skills and expand my knowledge to pursue what makes me happy”Openness to Anything. Participant 78: ‘‘Approach it with an open mind willing to work at your calling with your whole heart once you find outwhat that calling is”

Pursue AltruismPositive Impact on Others- Participant 126: ‘‘Help everyone and anyone I can”Have Positive Outcomes/Fit- Participant 142: ‘‘It means that I will actually feel I am making a difference rather than just making money”

Effortful DedicationDedication at Work. Participant 171: ‘‘It means I must approach it with my best of efforts”

Note. Themes are in bold, labels in italics.

182 I. Hunter et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 76 (2010) 178–186

3.2. Behavioral implications of calling

In response to the question ‘‘What, specifically, does it mean for you to approach your career as a calling?”, four themesemerged from 16 labels: Follow Guiding Forces, Pursue Interests/Talents/Meaning, Display Altruism and Effortful Dedication (seeTable 2). The theme Follow Guiding Forces describes the large number of responses indicating intent to align with some formof beyond-the-self influence, such as God’s plan, one’s destiny or other external or internal forces. Pursue Interests/Talents/Meaning summarizes participant responses that focused on more internal and personal pursuits such as utilizing one’s abil-ities, finding happiness, and having a meaningful existence. Display Altruism is derived from responses describing some form

Table 3Scope of calling: themes, labels, and examples.

Meaningful Interactions/RelationshipsRelationships/Family. Participant 209: ‘‘Yes, I feel called in all areas of my life, whether it’s with friends or family, I feel called to care for othersaround me. It’s important to have a calling because of its intimate, personal roots”Helping/Serving Others. Participant 400: ‘‘Yes, you can be called to do community service, to reach out to help certain organizations, etc.”God’s Plans. Participant 20: ‘‘Yes, a calling is anything God has planned for you”Religion/Church. Participant 132: ‘‘Yes, religion, I feel God has called me to do certain things in every area of life because of the career I feel calledto”

Meaningful ActivitiesHobbies/Interests/Athletics. Participant 368: ‘‘Yes, it applies to the areas that I enjoy doing such as mountain biking, camping, hunting, fishing,etc.”Education. Participant 17: ‘‘Yes - I felt ‘called’ to go to the college I attend; I also felt ‘called’ to work at a Bible camp, and study abroad for a year”Anything done with Passion. Participant 135: ‘‘Yes it does because I have to love the job that I do and feel that there is a reason for what I amdoing”Using Talents/Gifts. Participant 281: ‘‘Yes, a calling to express your other talents, or gifts”

Yes, EverythingEverything/Anything/Life. Participant 382: ‘‘Yes. It can apply to anything in my opinion. Anything you feel drawn to do for some reason explain-able or not”

Lifestyle/CharacterPersonality/Character/Actions. Participant 266: ‘‘Yes, it applies to the way I see the world. By saying that I have a calling I look at things aroundme as new possibilities”Location/Area. Participant 398: ‘‘Yes, other things such as where to live and where to go to school”Personal Growth/Improvement. Participant 260: ‘‘Yes I would like to believe so. I believe that it is what drives me to do things in my everydaylife. Things that may help someone else out or make me a better person”Spirituality. Participant 253: ‘‘Yes, it interrelates with personal beliefs or spirituality”

No, Only WorkNo, Calling refers to Work. Participant 318: ‘‘No, the word calling does not apply to areas of my life other than work”

Note. Themes are in bold, labels in italics.

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of helping others or having a positive impact on society. Finally, a small number of participants suggested that a calling leadsto increased dedication and energy, prompting the final theme, Effortful Dedication.

3.3. Scope of calling

Responses to the question ‘‘Does the word ‘calling’ apply to areas of your life other than work? Please explain” producedfive themes that summarize 14 labels. These themes include: Meaningful Relationships/Interactions; Meaningful Activities; Yes,Everything; Lifestyle/Character and No, Only Work (see Table 3). Meaningful Relationships/Interactions describes responses thatsuggested calling pertains to how one interacts with other humans, organizations, and God. The second theme, MeaningfulActivities, captures responses that referred to interests, talents, athletics, and academic pursuits. The third theme was Yes,Everything, which summarizes statements that simply indicated that virtually anything could be a calling. Lifestyle/Characterwas the fourth theme and describes factors such as how one chooses to develop or grow, actions, choices, location and spir-ituality. Clearly there is some overlap with this theme and others, but it also is unique in that in centers more on how a per-son lives compared to what she or he is doing. Finally, in contrast to the third theme there were some participants who feltcalling does not extend outside of the traditional work role; this prompted the theme No, Only Work.

4. Discussion

The themes that converged across the definitions and behavioral implications of calling in the present study could besummarized as Guiding Force, Personal Fit/Well-Being/Meaning and Altruism. The Guiding Force theme corresponds with theidea of a transcendent or beyond-the-self summons that was proposed by Dik and Duffy (2009) as a central componentof calling, and that is encapsulated in what Bunderson and Thompson (2009) referred to as the ‘‘neoclassical” view of callingfound in their sample of zookeepers. The notion of a drive or force from some guiding source issuing the call was very clearlyrepresented in participant responses, and pointed to both secular and sacred sources of a calling. The evolution of the con-struct from a traditionally religious concern into a broader construct with both religious and secular relevance has been rec-ognized in recent literature (Hall & Chandler, 2005) and suggests that the construct has increased in inclusiveness. Someresponses referred to having a unique purpose or driven feeling, labels that precluded classification as purely external orinternal. This ambiguity regarding the source of one’s calling may be irrelevant for how many people define calling, as iscaptured in Hall and Chandlers’ (2005) definition of the term as components of a career ‘‘that a person perceives as [heror] his purpose in life”.

The second main theme describes calling as having an aspect of Personal Fit/Well-Being and Meaning. This theme primarilyemerged from responses that cited strengths, interests, positive outcomes and an overall sense of well-being and meaning-fulness. Enjoyment, motivation, purpose and positive outcomes were often attributed to the idea of optimal fit between

184 I. Hunter et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 76 (2010) 178–186

person and career. The breadth of this theme departs somewhat from the narrower emphasis on meaningfulness and pur-pose that dominates contemporary definitions of the construct (Dik & Duffy, 2009; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). One questionthis raises pertains to what is included in the concept of meaning. In the present study, references to enjoyment, motivationand purpose appeared synonymous with meaningfulness in defining calling. However, responses also commonly includedreferences to strengths and abilities as well as an increased sense of success. This type of success is somewhat similar tothe idea of subjective success one experiences after accomplishing personal, meaningful goals (Hall & Chandler, 2005; Lewin,1936; Locke, 1990a, b). Hence, one’s personal strengths and abilities may lead to positive outcomes that extend beyond sim-ple accomplishment and become an experience that is considered intrinsically meaningful. Because this causal chain is spec-ulative, further investigation on the link of fit and meaning is needed.

The third theme that emerged in both defining and behavioral questions on calling was Altruism. This theme also con-verges with contemporary definitions of calling. The third dimension of Dik and Duffy’s (2009) definition refers to ‘‘other-oriented values”, for example, and corresponds with the theme of altruism in that a non-self-centered agenda is centralto both. Altruism was a central theme in French and Domene’s (in press) study; similar themes embedded in how callingis conceptualized in the literature include caregiving (Oates et al., 2005; Sellers et al. 2005), de-emphasizing external re-wards (Wrzesniewski et al. 1997), and having goals directed toward helping society (Hall & Chandler, 2005).

A final theme, present only in the responses about behavioral implications of calling, was an increase in one’s effort anddedication. Outcomes relating to dedication and commitment have been examined in the literature, and meaningfulness andpurpose have been positively associated with performance and satisfaction (Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Wrzesniewski & Dut-ton, 2001). Thus, although a less frequently cited theme, the idea that calling has ties to performance and dedication has sup-port from participant responses as well as past research.

The question regarding the scope of calling was used to examine the degree to which calling is perceived as extendingbeyond traditional work roles. Several studies (e.g., French & Domene, in press; Oates et al., 2005; Sellers et al., 2005; Serow,1994) have suggested that the construct is broad and applies to non-work as well as work roles. The results from the presentstudy strongly support this expansion of scope, suggesting that callings can extend far beyond work roles to many otherareas. These results support Dik and Duffy’s (2009) decision to use the term ‘‘life role” rather than exclusively referencingtraditional work in their definition. The responses citing relationships as important support the research reviewed previouslythat suggested motherhood could be conceptualized as a calling (Oates et al., 2005; Sellers et al., 2005). Results also wereconsistent with hierarchical perspectives of calling in religious literature, which posit both general and specific callings(e.g., Guinness, 2003; Smith, 1999). Finally, the notion that virtually anything can be a calling is supported by Hall and Chan-dler’s (2005) description of calling as life attainments a person perceives as harmonious with his or her purpose in life.

4.1. Limitations and implications for future research and counseling practice

The results from this study are promising, yet the study’s limitations suggest a number of directions for further explora-tion in this area. First, for most college students future choices are very salient, but in many cases work or life experience isstill comparatively limited. Although a college population seems an appropriate starting point for this line of research, andalthough results largely converge with a recent study of employed zookeepers (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009), examining amore diverse population of adults with more work and life experience is an important next step. Second, although the rel-atively large sample size may have ensured greater diversity of perspective than is typical in small-N qualitative studies, amore heterogeneous sample (particularly with respect to characteristics such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religiousaffiliation, and country of origin) will provide a broader examination of the construct. It is plausible that individuals identi-fying with collectivist cultures may reference other-oriented outcomes as more central to meaning and satisfaction ratherthan personal success or achievement (Dik & Duffy, 2009), but thus far, very little is known about how calling is perceivedacross cultures. Religious differences may also play a significant role in how calling is defined, perhaps especially with re-spect to labels that emerged within the theme of guiding forces. In short, more diverse samples in all respects would providea richer understanding of this construct as well as more opportunity to evaluate existing definitions and conceptualizationsof the construct in the literature.

A third limitation is that participants were included in the study only if they indicated that calling was a relevant con-sideration for their career development in an absolute sense; we did not account for the relative depth or impact with whichparticipants may connect with the construct. It is possible that some participants consider calling to be relevant only insuperficial ways whereas others resonate very deeply with the concept. The possibility that individuals along this continuumconceptualize the construct differently adds a layer of interpretive complexity and further warrants that the present resultsbe considered with caution. Future research should take this potential moderating variable into account. Fourth, althoughthe research design in the present study used independent raters to minimize bias, this strategy alone cannot eliminatethe possible influence of bias. Replications of this study conducted by independent teams of researchers would make theseresults less tentative.

Although results from the present study support a multidimensional conceptualization of calling, the differences in fre-quency with which some themes were identified suggest that the dimensions of calling may be differentially salient for par-ticipants. Dik and Duffy (2009) only indirectly addressed this possibility, suggesting that some individuals with callings mayfind one dimension more salient than another (e.g., those from collectivist cultures may gravitate toward the altruisticdimension whereas those from individualist cultures may find the ‘‘purposeful work” dimension more salient). The present

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sample, consisting of American college students, provided limited support for this possibility in that the altruistic theme wasless frequently mentioned than other themes, but the issue of salience of the themes was not directly addressed by thestudy’s design. Future research is needed to specifically address the topic of salience and the possibility of third variablesmoderating the relative salience of the dimensions for participants. It is possible, of course, that some participants maynot find certain themes relevant at all for how they conceptualize calling. Finally, further research examining participants’understanding of calling in the context of other life roles, or as a concept that transcends life roles (see French and Domene(in press)), also would contribute meaningfully to the current literature, given that little is known about how a calling mightbe defined, sought out, experienced, and maintained in various non-work roles.

Despite the limitations of the present study, the results provide support for how calling has evolved over time and mayhelp strengthen proposed definitions of the construct that can help unify and facilitate further research. Calling was found tobe a relevant consideration for more than 2/3 of the college students in our sample. Given its prevalence, and because it istypically considered an antecedent to positive outcomes, developing strategies for assessing calling and for encouraging orfostering a sense of calling seems a fruitful avenue for applying this area of scholarship to career counseling practice. Resultsin this study and others (e.g., Bunderson & Thompson, 2009) suggest that the concept of a guiding force is relevant for manyparticipants. Exploring the relevance and content of this element of the concept with clients may be important, given thatsome who perceive an external source of a calling (e.g., God, fate, social needs) may adopt a passive, deferential approach tomaking career decisions (Eldridge & Dik, 2008). Identifying different roles to which a client feels called also would haveimplications for goal setting as well as client motivation toward the fulfillment of goals.

Although more research is needed to explore this, some clients who resonate with the term ‘‘calling” may neverthelesshave difficulty connecting the concept with the particulars of their experience. For example, some may discuss perceptionsof a calling to a career path in which they do not have the requisite abilities or academic record. However, upon explorationof the elements of their callings they view as most salient, they may identify alternative, previously unconsidered paths thatprovide a sufficient avenue for living out those most salient components of their callings. For example, a calling to practicemedicine may be centered around a desire to help facilitate healing; this value could be satisfied not only for physicians, butalso within more accessible careers such as nursing or radiologic technology. Similarly, some clients may view some work orother activities predominantly as a means to material gains or status while overlooking the varied ways those activities con-tribute to the common good, even if in subtle or indirect ways. Assisting clients in a process of re-evaluating the function ofsuch activities may facilitate a deeper sense of contribution and meaningfulness. Such considerations are part of the processof ‘‘job crafting”, in which people shape the parameters of their work environments, to the extent they are able, to enhancethe meaningfulness of the work (e.g., Dik, Duffy, & Eldridge, in press; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Finally, although resultssuggest that the themes of guiding force or transcendent summons, meaningful or purposeful work and personal fit, andaltruism may have broad relevance, particularly given their overlap with themes from the literature, this study also rein-forces the importance of understanding the idiosyncratic definitions of calling that clients may bring to counseling. Callingis a construct that has evolved, but that seems to have relevance for a large percentage of people. Understanding the con-struct in greater depth lays the foundation for additional research and further development of practical guidelines for work-ing with clients who are seeking or experiencing a sense of calling.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Ashleigh Michel and Tyler Duffield for their assistance and support.

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