THEORY & METHOD IN AMERICAN/ CULTURAL STUDIES: A Bibliographic Essay / T.V. Reed

X. Postcolonial & Transnational Theories

"Postcolonial" (or post-colonial) as a concept enters critical discourse in its current meanings in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but both the practice and the theory of postcolonial resistance go back much further (indeed to the origins of colonialism itself). Thus below I list a number of writers who were "postcolonial" avant la lettre, including figures like Franz Fanon and Albert Memmi, the Caribbean "negritude" writers, and some U.S. critics whose work also presages some of the positions now labeled postcolonial.

The term means to suggest both resistance to the "colonial" and that the "colonial" and its discourses continue to shape cultures whose revolutions have overthrown formal ties to their former colonial rulers. This ambiguity owes a good deal to post-structuralist linguistic theory as it has influenced and been transformed by the three most influential postcolonial critics Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, and Homi Bhabha. Many genealogists of postcolonial thought, including Bhabha himself, credit Said's Orientalism as the founding work for the field.

Said's argument that "the Orient" was a fantastical, real material-discursive construct of "the West" that shaped the real and imagined existences of those subjected to the fantasy, set many of the terms for subsequent theoretical development, including the notion that, in turn, this "othering" process used the Orient to create, define, and solidify the "West." This complex, mutually constitutive process, enacted with nuanced difference across the range of the colonized world(s), and through a variety of textual and other practices, is the object of postcolonial analysis.

Both the term and various theoretical formulations of the "postcolonial" have been controversial. I have included works below which take very different approaches to what broadly can be labeled postcolonial, and I have included works which offer strong critiques of some of the limits of the field as practiced by some of it most prominent figures.

I have also included a separate section on North American postcolonial studies. This is meant both to suggest affinities and differences. In the context of American Studies the work of figures like C.L.R. James, and W.E.B. DuBois, and more recently H.L. Gates, Jr., Gloria Anzaldúa, Lisa Lowe, and José David Saldívar, to name only a few, have anticipated, drawn from, critiqued and applied postcolonial theory to this continent. Part of that work emerges out of traditions in U.S. ethnic studies that have traced diasporic links between home countries and new worlds for several decades. Another part of that work has included decentering the "United States" from its claim on the term "America," a move that connects the hemispheres, points toward the history of the U.S. as an imperial power, and underscores the contemporary fact of intensified transnationalization

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and globalization of cultures. The term "transnationalism" is the most often used critical term to denote the complex new flow of culture (in all directions, though hardly equally) resulting from the current mobility of people, capital, and ideas across national boundaries. Strong efforts are underway within the American Studies community to locate the field-imaginary of American Studies within more complicated trans- and post-nationalisms, without underplaying the continuing power of nationalisms.

Online Postcolonial Studies Resources:

Info on various post-colonial listservs Interroads a discussion list on American Studies in international perspective. Public Culture Site for this important journal of "transnational cultural studies." Postcolonial studies homepage Useful introductory site from Emory University. Political Discourse: Theories of Colonialism & Postcolonialism Very rich site

from Brown University. Includes succinct introductions to topics in and theorists of (post)colonialism.

Edward Said  Extensive Online bibliography of works by and about this key postco theorist.

Jouvert: A Journal of Postcolonial Studies Further Online Postcolonial Resources from "Voice of the Shuttle."

ALL CITATIONS IN THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY ARE ARRANGED CHRONO-TOPICALLY, NOT ALPHABETICALLY, TO GIVE A SENSE OF THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS EMERGING OVER TIME.

Overviews and Anthologies:

Barker, Francis, et al., eds. Europe and its Others. (2 vols.) Colchester: University of Essex, 1985. Essays from the influential postcolonial Essex sociology of literature conference.

Ashcroft, Bill, et al. The Empire Writes Back. London: Routledge, 1989. Important collection of essays on postcolonial literary studies, particularly those stemming from the former British colonies. Helped establish postcolonial studies as an academic field.

Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Post-colonial Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, 1995. Collection of essays that ranges widely in time and space, including good selection of precursors, but limited largely to literary postcolonial work, and with some essays that are too truncated.

Williams, Patrick, and Lauren Chrisman, eds., Colonial Discourse and Postcolonial Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. Less geo-culturally inclusive than the Ashcroft, Griffith, Tiffin collection, but selections are more carefully chosen and arranged. It also covers more postcolonial issues beyond the literary, and presents most pieces in their entirety.

Bhabha, Homi, ed., Nation and Narration. London: Routledge, 1990. Rich collection of advanced essays on the languages of nationalism and nationalisms of language.

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Major Figures:

Said, Edward. Orientalism. NY: Pantheon, 1978. By most accounts the founding text of postcolonial theory. Said coins the term "orientalism" to describe the way in which a fantasy Orient (his focus is primarily what the West calls the Middle East) is projected onto, and then inscribed upon the lands and peoples of the region. Using a somewhat unstable blend of Foucaultian and Marxist theory, Said established the notion of an archive of knowledges and languages with power to shape external realities as well as the subjectivities of those subjected to colonial discourses and colonial rule.

---. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983. Extremely important and provocative collection of essays on the relation of literary theory to the wider social world. See especially "Introduction: Secular Criticism," "Reflections on American 'Left' Literary Criticism," and "Traveling Theory."

---. Culture and Imperialism. London: Chatto and Windus, 1993. Important follow-up to Orientialism, focused this time on the inscription of colonial/imperial concerns into the literature of the dominant Anglo-European world.

---. Edward Said: A Critical Reader. Edited by Michael Sprinker. Oxford: Basil Blackball, 1992. A good point of entry into Said's work.

Extensive Online bibliography of works by and about Said. Fanon, Franz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Constancy Farrington

Harmondsworth. London: Penguin, 1967 [1963]. ---. Black Skins, White Masks. (trans. Charles Lam Markmann). London: Pluto

Press, 1986 [1953]. If Said was the founder, then Fanon must be listed as an ur-founder, for his works on the psychology of colonialism and resistance, with their emphasis on the role of colonial languages (like the French he learned in his native Martinique) in the construction of a colonized mind presaged much postcolonial theory, and his work continues to be influential in its many re-readings. Fanon had immense influence on the previous generation of Third World revolutionaries during the independence struggles of the 50s and 60s.

Memmi, Albert. The Colonizer and the Colonized. New York: Orion, 1965. Rivals Fanon as an influential text for Third World and postcolonial resisters and critics.

Spivak, Gayatri. In Other Worlds. NY: Methuen, 1987. Collects many of the key essays by one of the foremost "postcolonial" cultural critics who combines elements from deconstruction, feminist theory, and marxism.

---. "Can the Subaltern Speak?" in Nelson and Grossberg, eds. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1988.

---. The Post-colonial Critic. Edited by Sarah Harasym. New York & London: Routledge, 1990. Collection of interviews that provides a lucid entry point into Spivak's intellectual realm.

Bhabha, Homi. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. A representative set of essays by one of the two or three most oft-cited postcolonial theorists. Such Bhabha notions of "hybridity" (an inmixing of dominant and

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subaltern cultures) and "mimicry" (subaltern echoes with difference of dominant discourses) are played out in these pieces.

Aijaz, Ahmad. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. London: Verso, 1992. The most important and widely debated marxist critique of some of the limits of certain versions of postcolonial theory.

Representative Texts:

Ngugi wa Thiong'o . Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics and Language of African Literature. London: James Curry, 1986. One of many important works of criticism by one of Kenya's foremost novelists. In it Ngugi declares farewell to the English language and announces his return to his native Gikuyu tongue.

Mudimbe, V.Y. The Invention of Africa. London: James Curry, 1988. A brilliant text that in many ways does for Africa what Said's Orientalism did for the Middle East.

Amur, G. S. and S. K. Desai, eds. Colonial Consciousness in Commonwealth Literature.Bombay: Somania Publications, 1984. Especially strong collection on India sub-continent literatures.

Guha, Ranajit. ed., Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society. (2 vols.) New Dheli: Oxford University Press, 1985;1986. The "subaltern studies" school draws from a number of currents in and outside postcolonial theory.

Suleri, Sara. Rhetoric of English India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Highly influential, nuanced reading of the languages of colonialism under British rule in India.

Césaire, Aimé. Discourse on Colonialism. New York: New York University Press, 2000. Important work by one of the major figures of the Caribbean "negritude" movement that influenced U.S black nationalism, Afro-European, and Third World anti-colonial struggles. Blends Cesaire poetic, surrealist sensibility with rich critique of colonialism. Excellent new edition with an illuminating introductory essay by Robin D.G. Kelley.

James, C.L.R. The C.L.R. James Reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1992. Fine introduction to this brilliant Afro-Caribbean/American thinker whose career spans the mid 20th century and whose intellectual range and style make him an important anti-colonial writer relevant to postcolonial theory.

Brathwaite, Edward Kamau. The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica, 1770-1820.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Brathwaite is one of the major theorists of Caribbean "interculturalism" and "creolization," and this historical study adds great depth to his theoretical speculations.

Chow, Rey. Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading between the West and the East. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. Important feminist postcolonial analysis of Asian discourses.

Sommer, Doris. Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. Rich readings of key Latin and North American fiction in dialectical, colonial/postcolonial tension.

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Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. Rev. and extended edition. London: Verso, 1991. The most influential recent study of the origins and nature of "nationalism." Useful as a background to nationalism as a force in both colonialism and resistance to colonialism.

Appadurai, Arjun. "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy," Public Culture 2 (Spring, 1990). Brilliant attempt to invent a set of concepts to understand the complex, multilateral "flows" of culture in the current, transnational context.

McClintock, Anne. "The Angel of Progress: Pitfalls of the Term 'Post-Colonialism'," Social Text 31/32 (Spring 1992). One of the more succinct and insightful reflections on the problematic nature of the term "postcolonial."

---. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Context. London: Routledge, 1995. Brilliantly detailed study tracing the complex interrelations of sexuality, race, gender, and nation in colonial discourses and practices.

Lloyd, David. Anomalous States: Irish Writing and the Post-Colonial Moment. Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1993. Brilliant reading of Yeats, Beckett, Heaney, and Joyce in context of Ireland's postcolonial predicaments.

San Juan, Jr., E. Beyond Postcolonial Theory. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998. Searching critique of the political inadequacy of postcolonial theory.

Lowe, Lisa and David Lloyd, eds. The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press, 1997. Rich collection of essays offering a variety of political critiques of colonialism sensitive to the dynamic between the specificity of local struggles and the determinations of global systems.

North American Postcolonial Studies

Du Bois, W. E. B. The World and Africa. New York: International Publishers, 1965. DuBois has been interestingly recoded as a Black Atlantic intellectual by Gilroy, and this book offers a glimpse into his postcolonial thinking.

Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Press, 1987. Brilliant collection of essays and poems asserting and analyzing the postcolonial presence of Chicanos/as, while meditating on the status of real and metaphorical "fronteras/borderlands." Her concept of the "borderlands" has become a key term in contemporary theory.

Mohanty, Chandra. "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses." Feminist Review 30 (Autumn 1988):61-88. Important postcolonial critique of universalizing tendencies in Western feminist discourses.

Sandoval, Chela. "U.S. Third World Feminism: The Theory and Practice of Oppositional Consciousness in a Postmodern World." Genders 10 (1991):1-23. Brilliant use of postcolonial and other theory to elucidate the theorizing practice of U.S. women of color feminisms.

Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, ed. Black Literature and Literary Theory. NY: Methuen, 1984. Collection of essays employing and critiquing structuralism and post-structuralism as tools for interpreting African and African-American texts. See especially Gates's introduction, and the essays by Benston, Stepto, and Johnson.

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Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, ed., "Race," Writing, and Difference. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1985; 1986. This collection of essays from Critical Inquiry includes a number of important pieces on race in America as well as key contributions to postcolonial theory. See particularly the essays by Gates, Said, Johnson, Carby and Gilman.

JanMohamed, Abdul, and David Lloyd, eds., The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse. NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. A theoretically informed collection of articles from a two-volume special issue of Cultural Critique examining representational strategies in and strategic contexts for literatures of US domestic and international "Third World" writers. See especially pieces by Kaplan, Mani, Radhakrishnan, Rabasa and Rosaldo.

Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic. Cambridge, Harvard UP, 1993. Rich analysis of the quadrilateral trade of transnational culture among Africa, Britain, the Caribbean, and the United States that rethinks the positioning of a host of modern intellectuals.

Trinh, Minh Ha. Woman, Native, Other. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1989. A formally innovative text that is at once feminist postcolonial theory and an autobiography of this Vietnamese-American film-maker/scholar.

Calderón, Héctor, and José David Saldívar, eds. Criticism in the Borderlands. Durham: Duke University Press, 1991. Collects many of the most influential essays in theory and criticism of Chicano/a literature and culture from postcolonial, neo-Marxist, feminist, and new historicist vantage points. Includes a useful select, annotated bibliography.

Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. NY: Vintage, 1992. Brilliantly illuminates the "Africanist" presence as structuring subtext in classic American literary and cultural texts.

Saldívar, José David. Dialectics of Our America: Genealogy, Cultural Critique and Literary History. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991. Makes strong argument via Latin American and Chicano/a literatures for a decentering of the United States as "America" and recentering of "American" literary and cultural studies in a North/South hemispheric dynamic.

------. Border Matters: Remapping American Cultural Studies. Berkeley: U.C. Press, 1997. Excellent set of essays placing American Studies, Cultural Studies, Ethnic Studies, and Postcolonial Studies into dialogue around a series of readings of Chicano and multiethnic cultural texts.

Amy Kaplan, and Donald Pease, eds. Cultures of United States Imperialism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993. Ground-breaking collection of essays attempting to re-place American Studies in the context of studies of imperialism and postcoloniality. See especially Kaplan's lucid introduction.

Buell, Lawrence. "American Literary Emergence as a Postcolonial Phenomenon." American Literary History 4 (1992): 411-42. Suggestive but at points problematic argument for viewing early United States literature as marked by the postcolonial relation to England. Can be read as obscuring the more central role of U.S. as imperial and neocolonial power, even amidst its postcolonial moments.

Desmond, Jane, and Virginia Domínquez. "Resituating American Studies in a Critical Internationalism," American Quarterly 48 (September 1996):475-90.

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Strong, lucid argument for a rethinking of American Studies in relation to other "area studies" in order to better locate the field in the larger terrain of a critical trans- and inter-nationalism that undercuts American exceptionalism.

Lowe, Lisa. Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics..Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press, 1996. Brilliant use of postcolonial, marxist, critical race and feminist theory to analyze the complicated interrelations of Asian immigrant, Asian American and dominant communities in the U.S. Using the example of Asian immigration in its various waves, Lowe exposes the historical construction of dominant notions of U.S. nationhood and citizenship in dialectical relation to those it would exclude or only partially include within those categories.

duCille, Ann. "Postcolonialism and Afrocentricity: Discourse and Dat Course." In duCille, Skin Trade. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1996. Brilliant essay examining the dangers of essentialism in both postcolonial studies and black studies, and the equal danger of reducing one to the other.

Cook-Lynn, Elizabeth. Why I Can't Read Wallace Stegner, and Other Essays. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1996. Powerful, wide-ranging collection of essays developing an anti-colonialist, pro-sovereignty approach to Native studies.

Vizenor, Gerald. Manifest Manners: Postindian Warriors of Survivance. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1994. Brilliantly re(de)constructivist collection of essays by a postcolonial, postindian poet, fictionist and critic. Invents an alternative critical language for Native studies.

Warrior, Robert. Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1995. Uses the work of John Joseph Matthews and Vine Deloria, Jr. to initiate brilliant rethinking of American Indian intellectual traditions that skillfully unites indigenous resources, sovereignty issues and contemporary cultural theory.

Singh, Amritjit and Peter Schmidt, eds. Postcolonial Theory and the United States: Race, Ethnicity, and Literature Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2001. Excellent collection of essays on various diasporic and transnational formations, as well internal neo-colonialisms. Include a fine introductory essay on the relation ot postcolonial theory to U.S. culture(s).

 http://www.wsu.edu/~amerstu/tm/poco.html

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Postcolonial criticism, a study of specificitiesInterview with Jean-Marc Moura  

The only French writer to have published work on postcolonial criticism as practiced in the Anglo-Saxon countries, Jean-Marc Moura gives a detailed explanation here of the interest it has, and the issues at stake, for thought in the Francophone countries.

What do you think explains the silence of French academics with regard to postcolonialism?

What explains it, is that this movement began in the Anglo-Saxon countries twenty or so years ago, when immigrants started to enter the British and American universities. The movement first of all developed in Britain and the States, therefore, then was expanded by English-language criticism from the Commonwealth, the countries formerly colonized by England. It is a critical movement which is highly developed in the Anglo-Saxon countries, but which, as it is not specifically Francophone - it is not Francophone at all, in fact - has been somewhat ignored by us.

How did the term 'postcolonialism' emerge?

It emerged quite gradually. These students came to the American and British universities (Africans, Indians, West Indians, etc.), and began to question literary history in terms of their own history. They realized that literary history was very Eurocentric, and absolutely did not take their colonial and post-colonial history into account. Then, some of them obtained posts in the universities, and began to reconsider literary history in relation to their own history of immigration and as immigrants. It was then that the term 'postcolonial' emerged. It is interesting to note that it did not emerge in the countries of the centre, such as the United States or Great Britain, it appeared in the post-colonial countries. One of the major critical works on postcolonial theory was published in Australia, i.e. a country formerly colonized by Great Britain.

Questions of colonization and its effects seem to be posed on different levels: on the level of a State and its history, and that of the communities which make up its immigrant population.

What is interesting in postcolonial theory and its movement is that it is an international literary movement. It is played out between Europe, that is the former colonial powers, the United States as the main representative of the West, and all the formerly colonized nations. It is a global movement, therefore, but one which is thought in terms of countries and geographic zones (Africa, Australia, the West Indies, New Zealand, India), thus in terms of specificities. But the questioning is literally world-wide, which is perhaps why, at the end of this twentieth century - the era of what is now referred to as globalization - the movement is becoming so widespread: because it is suited to this globalization specific of our time.

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Given the world-wide amplitude of this movement, what should we make of the French academics' silence?

I can see several reasons for this, but there is one main one first of all. You are well aware that the French language has often been set up as a war machine against the world domination of English. Today, the battle is practically lost: English really is the world's lingua franca. It seems to me that the French should react and realize that the French language is lucky to be a second world language. We need to stop taking such a hard line on the domination of English. That would allow us to perceive the positive aspects of postcolonial criticism. We would begin to see it not as an Anglo-Saxon machine set to dominate the Francophone critical world even more, but as a critical tool which could be of service to us in our own Francophone studies. That is the first reason: French-speakers' deep suspicion vis-à-vis the English language.

The second reason is probably related to the first. The majority of academics involved in French studies do not speak English very well, and therefore have little access to this Anglophone body of works, which has not yet been translated in France. The third reason comes from the fact that postcolonial criticism is part of a development in the Anglo-Saxon universities, which is quite different to that of French literary studies. The two do not, therefore, necessarily converge. We need to rethink our own studies in France, in order to take postcolonial criticism on board, perhaps in a more coherent manner than we normally do. It is a step which very few colleagues seem to feel the need to take.

Doesn't treating all Third World literature from the perspective of postcolonialism elude the differences between the former colonies and the former protectorates?

On a global level, the postcolonial corpus is "imperialist" - with all the inverted commas that that requires - as it entails all the literature from the Southern countries written in the European languages. It is vast, and that is one of the objections that can be made. In reality, postcolonialism enables us to consider literature in terms of centre/margin relations, which are an essential element in today's world. This criticism insists on the specificities of each of these literatures within this imperialist ensemble. One of its most interesting aspects for French is precisely this insistence on the regional and territorial specificities of the different Francophone literatures. If you take France's and the Francophone world's literary histories, you will see that most of them treat this Francophone literature as a kind of extension of French literature, which does not need to be contextualized to be understood. People simply think that it is in French, and so should be spoken about it as if it were French literature. Postcolonial criticism does the opposite: it insists on specificities, and on the fact that you first of all need to position it in anthropological, sociological, and even economic terms before discussing and analyzing it in the way that you would with French literature. It is a global movement, therefore, as it defines itself in global terms, and a movement which, within this globalization, insists on each of these literatures' specificities. At least two specificities can be pointed out. Firstly, these are literatures of the margins in relation to a centre, which is the publishing centre of the West, and it is important to take the relation of the authors vis-à-vis this Western publishing centre into account. Secondly, these literatures are characterized by

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the coexistence of two cultures: it is important to contextualize these linguistic and sociological elements before studying these literatures. This is one of the contributions postcolonial criticism makes. Take the histories of Francophone literature, for example. You will notice that the truly sociological, anthropological and economic elements are largely ignored. You are expected to analyze pages of Senghor as if Senghor's poetry could be explained in the same way as Rimbaud's poetry when, in fact, Senghor's poetry obviously needs to be situated in space and time before being discussed simply as French literature. Would we overlook Flaubert's Norman origins? Would a study of Madame de Bovary which does not take the fact that its author comes from Normandy be a serious study? Can we ignore Maupassant's Norman origins? It is of exactly the same importance. There is a concern for identity, a rooting of identity, just as in the major consecrated French authors. This affirmation of identity needs to be acknowledged.

The term ghettoization regularly crops up in relation to the arts from these margins. The fact that these literatures are considered an extension of French literature as they are in French, does not stop them from being marginalized. What do you think?

I think that the notion of the margins is fundamental. If you write in a European language, but position yourself outside Europe, you have to consider this literature as being on the margins. Marginal does not mean less important, but indicates that there is a conceptual element there, which has to be taken into account in order to measure the specificity of this literature. I think that it is at present much more important than French literature, which is a bit narcissistic. Take the example of Kourouma and Les Soleils des indépendances or En attendant le vote des bêtes sauvages. If you study Kourouma with your students without giving them an introduction to Malinke culture, they will not be able to grasp Kourouma's text, quite simply because you will not have given them the keys necessary to understand the way in which Kourouma manipulates the French language, the way in which he truly creates a third language out of Malinke and French. They will not understand all Kourouma's cultural allusions either, particularly in Les Soleils des indépendances. It is not possible. To my mind, it is not the notion of ghettoization which should be introduced here, but the question of scientific rigour. If you want to study a literature, you have, at least, to study its sociological and political context first of all, without which one is not rigorous.

But can we really refer to postcolonialism, given that colonialism itself is not dead and buried?

One needs to recognize that postcolonialism entails two things. I am going to introduce an orthographical concept, which is specific to postcolonial criticism: post-colonial, with a hyphen, which simply means that we are living in the era after colonization - which some might contest - and postcolonial in one word, without a hyphen, which is the critical school which looks at an ensemble of works which seek to deconstruct the colonial codes, and which try to challenge the latter. In this sense, postcolonialism begins in the colonial era itself. An author such as Aimé Césaire - or Kateb Yacine - is a postcolonial author in the sense that, already in the colonial era itself, he sought to deconstruct, to challenge the colonial codes and all the discourses which contested the

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existence of a colonial subject, etc. In this respect, postcolonialism is a critical concept, not a historic concept. It is a critical school which concentrates on studying all strategies of writing which confound colonial codes, imperial codes.

Are works on postcolonial theory likely to become more widespread?

You force me to be immodest, but, at present, there is only one work which analyzes the meeting of Francophone studies and postcolonial criticism in French, and that is mine. There are no others. That said, I am quite confident: I think that this critical model's interest will cause it to spread in France, but it may well develop on the margins. That is, it will reach us via Canada, Quebec, and via Africa, via African critics, who will adopt these elements and who will transfer them to the Francophone zone.

Do you have any other works on this theme in the pipeline?

Yes, I am going to present another work to PUF, my publishers, on the discourse of the Francophone novel, which will apply postcolonial criticism more directly still to French-language works, as my first publication is a programmatic and theoretical presentation. It aims to point out the lessons we, the Francophone critics, can learn from these Anglo-Saxon theoretical elements. After that, I would like to apply them to texts more, to show how it can work.

How did your students of diverse origins react to your work, your approach?

The French students proved themselves to be highly interested in Francophone literature, not just African literature, but West Indian too. The students of African origin were, for their part, most appreciative of the study of the socio-cultural context. They got the impression that gaps were being filled, a superficiality in the study of these authors repaired.

How do you explain the fact that this critical movement developed in the Anglo-Saxon sphere?

I think that, fundamentally, there is the difference between the assimilationist model of integration in France, and the side-by-side existence of differences model in the Anglo-Saxon countries. Unlike the French, the Anglo-Saxons do not claim to assimilate most of the immigrant communities' differences. People used to refer at one time to the American melting-pot, but those days are long since gone. There is, therefore, a sort of coexistence between the different cultures in the Anglo-Saxon countries. That has developed in the United States with what is called cultural studies, i.e. each immigrant community identifies with its roots first of all, not so as to deny the national ensemble, but to safeguard its identity, and to consolidate the relations between its identity and the general national culture. In France, we still function on the assimilationist model, i.e. that of ignoring cultural specificities, which are supposed to fade away in a kind of crucible. This has probably played a role in the fact that France is behind in terms of postcolonial criticism, and in the fact that, until now, this cultural aspect of literature has barely been

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taken into account. Postcolonial criticism's first contribution to Africa was precisely to develop simultaneous comparative study - I am a lecturer in comparative literature, which is perhaps why this interests me - between Francophone, Anglophone and Lusophone texts. That is, to develop a specifically African point of view, independent of the language in which such and such a work was written, studying Senghor, Sony Labou Tansi, in the Francophone zone, Soyinka or Achebe, in the Anglophone region, José Juan Dino Vieira in the Lusophone zone. And, thus, developing a specifically African point of view which revealed the influences, the relations, but also the specificities of each of these literatures. That effectively allows us to envisage the development of postcolonial literature on a large scale, an African scale, whereas in the past, it was divided into: one, Francophone studies; two, Anglophone studies; and three, if there was time, Lusophone studies. That is no longer the case.

Does postcolonial criticism take works in the vernacular languages into consideration?

They are effectively taken into consideration, but I am not very familiar with this work because I do not speak the vernacular languages. I studied Malinke a little to study Kourouma. I know that if, by definition, one studies the vernacular languages from a postcolonial angle, one is likely to be tempted to study their relations to literature in the European languages. It seems to me that, in the years to come - I speak about this a little in the conclusion of my book - two sorts of postcolonial studies will develop: the first, which will perhaps be Western-centred, will be that of the global study of postcolonial literatures in European languages, on the scale of a region or a continent. And the second which will develop, will be the regional study of such and such a literature, in which the relation to languages in vernacular literature and the relation to languages in European literature will be envisaged. These two areas will, it seems to me, grow further and further apart. They will make up the postcolonial galaxy.

Can we really speak about a contemporary vernacular literature?

This, in fact, is an economic problem. It is a publishing problem, as publishing structures are not developed enough, especially in Africa, to enable a wide audience to have access to this literature in the vernacular languages. There are major postcolonial authors who have began to write again in these languages. People always cite the example of Ngugi Wa Thiongo, who began to write in English and who then wrote in Kikuyu. He realized that he had practically no public in this language. In the West Indies, we can cite the example of Confiant, who began by writing in Creole, and who then wrote in French, and who has written again in Creole. He finally realized that he had far more readers if he wrote in French. It's really an economic problem. I think that the dynamism of these literatures will depend on the economic dynamism of the African countries.

Where does postcolonial criticism stand in relation to the culturally mixed authors who live in the West?

In the United States, we have the example of Toni Morrison and the African American community. She is one of English literature's major writers today, recognized by all, who

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strives to develop a sense of the identity of black American culture, including its African roots. This is an example which doesn't exist in France - well, it did a bit with Senghor - but in today's generation, the major African writers do not function on the same model as Toni Morrison. They are, rather, authors who write in Africa, in French, and who offer us their African specificities. The example of France's beur literature* began to be studied, not by the French, but by the Americans, in New Orleans, about ten years ago. Its study in the terms of postcolonial criticism would involve analyzing this literature's sociological rooting, and its roots in relation to a sense of identity that is somewhat different from the French sense of identity, of the identity of a French person born in mainland France, who has no interest in his/her ancestors. A certain affirmation of this group's identity, which is a factor structuring this literature, has, therefore, to be taken into account. But it is not a question of ghettoization, it is simply a matter of scientific rigour. If we study a literature, we need to know where it comes from, how it was born, and what its profound roots are.

Can you explain the notion of hybridity to us?

Hybridity is the major concept of an Indian postcolonial critic called Homi K Bahbah. The hybrid world is a site of negotiation in two parts, it being understood that, on this site of negotiation, each arrives with an identity, which is not clearly defined, with a position which is open to compromise, in order to ally with the other to try to create something together. The situation of hybridity is not, therefore, the confrontation between two fixed identities. It is the meeting between two identities which are in construction and which, through this negotiation, will come into being and occur. This is unfortunately not translated into French. It is one of the major concepts of postcolonial criticism, not only on a political and social level, but also on a literary one. It comes down to treating works as hybrid works in which two cultures, which are in constant negotiation, coexist. What makes the work interesting is precisely this plural negotiation which takes place within each chapter, in every verse in poetry.

How was your book received by your academic colleagues?

It was very well received by my Francophone colleagues in general, because they pointed out that I introduced new and important methodological elements. What was sometimes contested was the word postcolonial, the term colonial in a sense trapping the authors in a history they wanted to be rid of. But I was only translating the American term, and are we not, in fact, in a postcolonial world? Who can claim that Africa is not still concerned with all that happened during colonization? I am referring simply to the national borders. If there are tragedies which result, if there are so many conflicts, it is because these borders were drawn up in a totally aberrant manner in the days of the colonial world. In this respect, we are in a postcolonial world. I also had feedback from the wider Francophone world. The Quebeckers, I understand why, are very interested in this question because they are directly influenced by North America. It thus seems completely natural to them. I have not yet had any feedback from my African colleagues... nor West Indian, but I hope that I will soon and that it will be most favourable (laughter).

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interview by Boniface Mongo-Mboussa et Alexandre Mensah

Jean-Marc Moura is a lecturer in Comparative Literature at the University of Lille III. He has published L'image du Tiers-monde dans le roman français contemporain, PUF 1992; Lire l'exotisme, Dunod 1992; L'Europe littéraire et l'ailleurs, PUF 1998, and the book referred to in this interview: Littératures francophones et théorie postcoloniale, PUF, 1999. He has also published Littératures postcoloniales et représentations de l'ailleurs. Afrique, Caraïbe, Canada, Champion 2000, in collaboration with Jean Bessière.

* Translator's note: the term 'beur' refers to France's young, generally French-born, second-generation population of North African origin.

http://www.africultures.com/anglais/articles_anglais/int_moura.htm

ENGL 319 - Postcolonial Literature Fall 1997

Opening Lecture - Postcolonial Literature

       "Postcolonial literature" is essentially a political category, a shorthand term for an attempt to find similarities among various Third World national literatures. Postcolonial studies as a distinct area of interest has become more prominent since the late 1970s, in part triggered by Said's Orientalism (1978), which called attention to the way that Western literary discourse about "the East" tended to define non-European peoples and cultures as an alien "other," not part of the universalist culture of the West.         Postcolonial literature has been defined by Ashcroft as any literature affected by the colonial experience, including that of the colonial period itself. Theoretically, this could include writers such as Kipling, an Anglo-Indian, as well as literatures such as American or Irish; usually, however, these are excluded. Colonial countries can be divided into settler (Australia, Canada) and non-settler countries, although this division is not a "clean" one (and countries like the U.S. are usually not included, despite a history of European colonization, because of our current position of power in the world (Japan and other politically significant non-Western countries are also usually excluded for a variety of reasons)). Most typically, "postcolonial" refers to countries that exist at the margin of "mainstream" political and cultural activity, and these are usually the non-settler countries. We will contrast "Imperial" or "colonialist" literature, which takes as normal or "universal" aspects of political power and culture associated with the "home country" (European colonial power) and as "alien" or "other" the politics and culture of the colonized country, with "postcolonial" literature which specifically focuses on tensions between indigenous culture and the late colonizers, and/or problematizes the issue of perspective.        Issues in postcolonial studies include how Western style education and the imposition of Western culture affects the indigenous cultures of colonized states; the

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significance of linguistic choices in literary creation; the psychological expression of a speaker who has been culturally indoctrinated to see himself as inferior, or to be alienated from his (sociocultural) self. Issues include race, class, and gender relations as influenced by the colonial situation.        Even such apparently sensitive texts as Conrad's Heart of Darkness may perpetuate "colonialist" attitudes, as Chinua Achebe has pointed out. Marlow's narration robs the native African of legitimate humanity, even while decrying imperialism of other whites. The problem for the critic is to avoid duplicating Conrad's "sin" - to take one's own experiences as the norm and to present oneself as authority on the discourse of the "other" (296). Achebe has objected to readings that emphasize the "universal truths" as those that echo with Western culture, when that culture is taken as the norm. But Henricksen points out that there are also flaws in the opposite temptation, to see non-Western writing as "exotic" (299-300). In this course, our reading needs to foreground critical assumptions about relationship between dominant and subaltern literatures, recognize the tentative nature of these assumptions and the political implications of authors' choice of language and implied audience (303).

        In the colonial world, political power was enforced via economic and cultural hegemony. Even at the height of the British Empire, for instance, England's power was economic rather than military - the army and navy were stretched thin in covering so many economic outposts. So other tools were needed to control native populations: British culture served this purpose. Everywhere, British systems of government and education were superimposed on existing cultures, along with the English language (which remains a unifying force in countries like India). British policy from early on was to export British culture, including governmental forms and literature, music, etc. Similar efforts to impose European culture on "natives" were undertaken by the French and some of the other major colonial powers -- note for instance the ubiquity of Spanish language and culture on the former Spanish Empire. This was criticized even at the time by a few observers, as for example the British politician Sir Edward Cust in 1839: "To give a colony the forms of independence is a mockery; she would not be a colony for a single hour if she could maintain an independent station." (Qtd in Bhabha, 85). But these objections were not raised by those friendly to the "natives" - rather by those who thought there should be greater subjugation.

These efforts were remarkably successful. Rashna Singh quotes Ved Mehta, a "cultural inheritor" of colonialism, as bemoaning the absence of Mary Poppins and Alice in Wonderland from his childhood experience; no mention is made of Indian folktales or other indigenous literary forms. Colonial culture imposed its values on "inferior" former colonies, causing some to attempt merger with the larger culture by denying origins - e.g., Henry James and T.S. Eliot becoming "English" rather than "American" writers. This is akin to what Bhabha calls "mimicry" - i.e., colonial subjects seek to imitate the cultural behavior of the powerful, so as to escape their characterization as "other." But "to be Anglicized is emphatically not to be English" (Bhabha, 87); the colonial mimic, by failure to be "authentic," reveals the distortions of cultural difference. The Anglicized colonial is forever caught between two cultures, not allowed to be part of the one that he/she has embraced, but having already repudiated the other.

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       Recognition of this position contributed to one of the early revolutionary critiques of colonialism, that of Frantz Fanon, a French writer born in Martinique and educated to conceive himself as French. However, his education in France and confrontation with French racism made him aware of the disorientation he experienced as a black man taught to behave "white," and he responded in part by writing his influential tract, Black Skin, White Masks (1952). He argued that racist/colonial culture creates a psychological construct that prevents the black man from recognizing his subjection to white norms. This alienation of the postcolonial subject is in particular the result of language: "To speak. . . means above all to assume a culture, to support the weight of a civilization," Fanon says. Thus, to speak French or another European language that establishes the opposition between black and white in moral terms is, for the black man, to accept one's association with what the white culture defines as evil. These cultural values become internalized, producing black alienation from the self.

Linguistic issues thus become important concerns for postcolonial critics, writers, and readers. The Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong'o takes the extreme position that postcolonial writers should only write in indigenous languages, eschewing the language of the colonizer; on the other hand, the Nigerian Chinua Achebe has argued that the colonial languages (in his case English, but also perhaps including French) are the only common medium of communication across Africa (and more broadly, across the Third World), and therefore remain an appropriate choice for literary language. Attitudes about language may also be connected to attitudes about who can speak to, for, or about postcolonial texts. For instance, some African writers have suggested that Westerners are disqualified from criticizing the African novel, insofar as they are the heirs of colonialism. Others, like Achebe, choose to write in English and include all people who read English in his audience.

In discussing Rushdie's Satanic Verses, Bhabha observes that migrant (postcolonial) peoples must confront the problem of crossing cultural frontiers; does such crossing "permit freedom from the essence of the self. . .[or] only change the surface of the soul, preserving identity under its protean forms" (224) Many postcolonial texts foreground the problem of cultural migration, as members of the former colonial empires return to the imperial center (Rushdie, Caribbean writers), negotiate the transition to other former colonies (Naipaul, Canadians), or to the United States (Mukherjee's Jasmine.) Another important marker of postcolonial writing is a concern with history and historical perspectives. (For example, Walter Rodney's statement "To be colonized is to be removed from history," or Derek Walcott's "I met History once, but he ain't recognize me" from "The Schooner Flight.") Postcolonial writing seeks to create a new connection to history, one that inverts the Eurocentric value system and looks at history and society from the perspective of those voices that have been silenced or ignored by the mainstream. Another term for postcolonial in this regard is "subaltern," referring to the position of colonial subjects as permanently subordinate to the rule of colonizers, in culture even after formal political independence. Postcolonial writing insists on the importance of history, but a history reconceived and refocused on previously marginal areas. As such it is connected to other politically inflected literary and cultural

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movements, including feminism. Thus we will see how various writers such as Coetzee, Achebe, and Mahfouz make use of historical concerns in their writing.

Partial list of sources: Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. London: Routledge, 1989. Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000. New York: Random House, 1987. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1988. O. Mannoni, Prospero and Caliban: The Psychology of Colonization. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964. Tony Smith, Ed. The End of the European Empire: Decolonization after World War II. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1975. Bruce Henricksen, "Chinua Achebe: The Bicultural Novel and the Ethics of Reading." In Sandra Ward Lott, Maureen S.G. Hawkins, and Norman McMillan, Global Perspectives on Teaching Literature. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1993. Pp. 295-310.

http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/PCTHEORY.HTM

ENGL 4F70, Contemporary Literary Theory, Brock University

Some Issues in Postcolonial Theory

Copyright 1997, 1998 by John Lye. This text may be freely used, with attribution, for non-profit purposes.

As with all of my posts for this course, this document is open to change. If you have any suggestions (additions, qualifications, arguments), mail me.

Post-colonial theory deals with the reading and writing of literature written in previously or currently colonized countries, or literature written in colonizing countries which deals with colonization or colonized peoples. It focuses particularly on

1. the way in which literature by the colonizing culture distorts the experience and realities, and inscribes the inferiority, of the colonized people

2. on literature by colonized peoples which attempts to articulate their identity and reclaim their past in the face of that past's inevitable otherness.

It can also deal with the way in which literature in colonizing countries appropriates the language, images, scenes, traditions and so forth of colonized countries.

This page addresses some of the complexities of the post-colonial situation, in terms of the writing and reading situation of the colonized people, and of the colonizing people.

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The literature(s) of the colonized

Postcolonial theory is built in large part around the concept of otherness. There are however problems with or complexities to the concept of otherness, for instance:

1. otherness includes doubleness, both identity and difference, so that every other , every different than and excluded by is dialectically created and includes the values and meaning of the colonizing culture even as it rejects its power to define;

2. the western concept of the oriental is based, as Abdul JanMohamed argues, on the Manichean allegory (seeing the world as divided into mutually excluding opposites): if the west is ordered, rational, masculine, good, then the orient is chaotic, irrational, feminine, evil. Simply to reverse this polarizing is to be complicit in its totalizing and identity-destroying power (all is reduced to a set of dichotomies, black or white, etc.);

3. colonized peoples are highly diverse in their nature and in their traditions, and as beings in cultures they are both constructed and changing, so that while they may be 'other' from the colonizers, they are also different one from another and from their own pasts, and should not be totalized or essentialized -- through such concepts as a black consciousness, Indian soul, aboriginal culture and so forth. This totalization and essentialization is often a form of nostalgia which has its inspiration more in the thought of the colonizers than of the colonized, and it serves give the colonizer a sense of the unity of his culture while mystifying that of others; as John Frow remarks, it is a making of a mythical One out of many...

4. the colonized peoples will also be other than their pasts, which can be reclaimed but never reconstituted, and so must be revisited and realized in partial, fragmented ways. You can't go home again.

Postcolonial theory is also built around the concept of resistance, of resistance as subversion, or opposition, or mimicry -- but with the haunting problem that resistance always inscribes the resisted into the texture of the resisting: it is a two-edged sword. As well, the concept of resistance carries with it or can carry with it ideas about human freedom, liberty, identity, individuality, etc., which ideas may not have been held, or held in the same way, in the colonized culture's view of humankind.

On a simple political/cultural level, there are problems with the fact that to produce a literature which helps to reconstitute the identity of the colonized one may have to function in at the very least the means of production of the colonizers -- the writing, publishing, advertising and

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production of books, for instance. These may well require a centralized economic and cultural system which is ultimately either a western import or a hybrid form, uniting local conceptions with western conceptions.

The concept of producing a national or cultural literature is in most cases a concept foreign to the traditions of the colonized peoples, who (a) had no literature as it is conceived in the western traditions or in fact no literature or writing at all, and/or b) did not see art as having the same function as constructing and defining cultural identity, and/or c) were, like the peoples of the West Indies, transported into a wholly different geographical/political/economic/cultural world. (India, a partial exception, had a long-established tradition of letters; on the other hand it was a highly balkanized sub-continent with little if any common identity and with many divergent sub-cultures). It is always a changed, a reclaimed but hybrid identity, which is created or called forth by the colonizeds' attempts to constitute and represent identity.

The very concepts of nationality and identity may be difficult to conceive or convey in the cultural traditions of colonized peoples.

There are complexities and perplexities around the difficulty of conceiving how a colonized country can reclaim or reconstitute its identity in a language that is now but was not its own language, and genres which are now but were not the genres of the colonized. One result is that the literature may be written in the style of speech of the inhabitants of a particular colonized people or area, which language use does not read like Standard English and in which literature the standard literary allusions and common metaphors and symbols may be inappropriate and/or may be replaced by allusions and tropes which are alien to British culture and usage. It can become very difficult then for others to recognize or respect the work as literature (which concept may not itself have relevance -- see next point).

There other are times when the violation of the aesthetic norms of western literature is inevitable,

1. as colonized writers search to encounter their culture's ancient yet transformed heritage, and

2. as they attempt to deal with problems of social order and meaning so pressing that the normal aesthetic transformations of western high literature are not relevant, make no sense.

The idea that good or high literature may be irrelevant and misplaced at a point in a culture's history, and therefore for a particular cultural usage not be good literature at all, is difficult for us who are raised in the culture which strong aesthetic ideals to accept.

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The development (development itself may be an entirely western concept) of hybrid and reclaimed cultures in colonized countries is uneven, disparate, and might defy those notions of order and common sense which may be central not only to western thinking but to literary forms and traditions produced through western thought.

The term 'hybrid' used above refers to the concept of hybridity, an important concept in post-colonial theory, referring to the integration (or, mingling) of cultural signs and practices from the colonizing and the colonized cultures ("integration" may be too orderly a word to represent the variety of stratagems, desperate or cunning or good-willed, by which people adapt themselves to the necessities and the opportunities of more or less oppressive or invasive cultural impositions, live into alien cultural patterns through their own structures of understanding, thus producing something familiar but new). The assimilation and adaptation of cultural practices, the cross-fertilization of cultures, can be seen as positive, enriching, and dynamic, as well as as oppressive. "Hybridity" is also a useful concept for helping to break down the false sense that colonized cultures -- or colonizing cultures for that matter -- are monolithic, or have essential, unchanging features.

The representation of these uneven and often hybrid, polyglot, multivalent cultural sites (reclaimed or discovered colonized cultures searching for identity and meaning in a complex and partially alien past) may not look very much like the representations of bourgeois culture in western art, ideologically shaped as western art is to represent its own truths (that is, guiding fictions) about itself.

To quote Homi Bhabha on the complex issue of representation and meaning from his article in Greenblatt and Gun's Redrawing the Boundaries,

Culture as a strategy of survival is both transnational and translational. It is transnational because contemporary postcolonial discourses are rooted in specific histories of cultural displacement, whether they are the middle passage of slaver and indenture, the voyage out of the civilizing mission, the fraught accommodation of Third World migration to the West after the Second World War, or the traffic of economic and political refugees within and outside the Third World. Culture is translational because such spatial histories of displacement -- now accompanied by the territorial ambitions of global media technologies -- make the question of how culture signifies, or what is signified by culture , a rather complex issue. It becomes crucial to distinguish between the semblance and similitude of the symbols across diverse cultural

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experiences -- literature, art, music, ritual, life, death -- and the social specificity of each of these productions of meaning as they circulate as signs within specific contextual locations and social systems of value. The transnational dimension of cultural transformation -- migration, diaspora, displacement, relocation -- makes the process of cultural translation a complex form of signification. the natural(ized), unifying discourse of nation , peoples , or authentic folk tradition, those embedded myths of cultures particularity, cannot be readily referenced. The great, though unsettling, advantage of this position is that it makes you increasingly aware of the construction of culture and the invention of tradition.

The literature(s) of the colonists:

In addition to the post-colonial literature of the colonized, there exists as well the postcolonial literature of the colonizers.

As people of British heritage moved into new landscapes, established new founding national myths, and struggled to define their own national literature against the force and tradition of the British tradition, they themselves, although of British or European heritage, ultimately encountered the originating traditions as Other, a tradition and a writing to define oneself against (or, which amounts to the same thing, to equal or surpass). Every colony had an emerging literature which was an imitation of but differed from the central British tradition, which articulated in local terms the myths and experience of a new culture, and which expressed that new culture as, to an extent, divergent from and even opposed to the culture of the "home", or colonizing, nation.

The colonizers largely inhabited countries which absorbed the peoples of a number of other heritages and cultures (through immigration, migration, the forced mingling of differing local cultures, etc.), and in doing so often adapted to use the myths, symbols and definitions of various traditions. In this way as well the literature of the hitherto colonizers becomes 'post-colonial'. (It is curiously the case that British literature itself has been colonized by colonial/postcolonial writers writing in Britain out of colonial experiences and a colonial past.)

In this regard a salient difference between colonialist literature (literature written by colonizers, in the colonized country, on the model of the "home" country and often for the home country as an audience) and post-colonial literature, is that colonialist literature is an attempt to replicate, continue, equal, the original tradition, to write in accord with

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British standards; postcolonial literature is often (but not inevitably) self-consciously a literature of otherness and resistance, and is written out of the specific local experience.

URL of this page: http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/postcol.html Last updated on July 22, 1998 by Professor John Lye

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