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COM 249 Mass Media and Mass Culture Sections 003 and 004 TR 12:30-1:45 p.m. and TR 2:00-3:15 p.m. Funkhouser Building Room 313 Don Lowe, Lecturer Office Grehan Journalism Room 240 Office Phone 257-2954 (do not leave voicemail) Office Hours MW 1:00-2:00 p..m and by appointment Email [email protected] Instructor Website comm.uky.edu/lowe/ Textbook Website masscomm.cqpress.com/ http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/ Materials Needed Textbook Mass Communication: Living in a Media World by Ralph E. Hanson (CQPress, 2008), 2nd Edition Scantrons Approximately 10 Scantron 882-E or 882-ES forms and a number two pencil Course Description An examination of the interplay between the technology and content of the mass communication media and culture. Course Objectives 1. Students will demonstrate the ability to organize and express their ideas clearly in written form using proper APA style. 2. Students will demonstrate the ability to organize and express their ideas clearly in oral form, including citations of reference materials.

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COM 249Mass Media and Mass CultureSections 003 and 004TR 12:30-1:45 p.m. and TR 2:00-3:15 p.m.Funkhouser Building Room 313Don Lowe, LecturerOffice Grehan Journalism Room 240Office Phone 257-2954 (do not leave voicemail)Office Hours MW 1:00-2:00 p..m and by appointmentEmail [email protected] Website comm.uky.edu/lowe/Textbook Website masscomm.cqpress.com/

http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/

Materials Needed

Textbook Mass Communication: Living in a Media World by Ralph E. Hanson (CQPress, 2008), 2nd Edition

Scantrons Approximately 10 Scantron 882-E or 882-ES formsand a number two pencil

Course Description An examination of the interplay between the technology and content of the mass communication media and culture.

Course Objectives

1. Students will demonstrate the ability to organize and express their ideas clearly in written form using proper APA style.

2. Students will demonstrate the ability to organize and express their ideas clearly in oral form, including citations of reference materials.

3. Students will demonstrate an understanding of communication studies from a social science perspective.

4. Students will demonstrate the ability to locate, identify, comprehend, and summarize information obtained from scholarly peer reviewed atricles.

5. Students will demonstrate ethical communication practices.

6. Students will demonstrate the ability to differentiate between mass media effects and critical/cultural studies.

7. Students will demonstrate an increased level of mass media literacy.

8. Students will demonstrate knowledge of the structure of mass media as an industry.

9. Students will demonstrate knowledge of the system of governing laws and regulations affecting mass media.

10. Students will demonstrate the ability to understand mass media through a historical perspective.

Research Policy:

The Department of Communication is committed to involving undergraduate students in scholarly research (approved by the University IRB) so that they may understand the importance of generating new knowledge at the University of Kentucky as a major research institution.  Students in this class are required to complete 1 research study = 1 research credit. Detailed information about these studies and the available session times to sign up are available on the SONAwebsite: http://comm.uky.edu/research/signup. Failure to participate in a research study or completion of the designated alternative assignment will result in a 5% deduction in your final course grade. It is your responsibility to regularly check the SONA website to keep track of the completion of your research credit and the deadlines and dates of the research studies

Academic Honesty (plagiarism and cheating):

Work submitted for this course must adhere to academic standards as described in the UK Student Rights and Responsibilities Handbook. This information is also available on the web at: http://www.uky.edu/StudentAffairs/Code/. Penalties for plagiarism or cheating can result in an “E” for the entire course.

If you have a question about whether you may be plagiarizing, please (a) consult the website: http://www.uky.edu/CommInfoStudies/COM/students/resources/integrity or (b) contact your instructor or the Director of Undergraduate Studies in Communication (Dr. Deanna Sellnow) prior to delivering your speech.

If you suspect cheating by a classmate, you can report your concern anonymously via: http://comm.uky.edu/surveys/contactus/cheating.html. Your message will be sent to the Department Chair (Dr. Nancy Harrington) and to your instructor. Unless you include your name, the message cannot be traced back to you.

Classroom Civility:

1. Always demonstrate respect for your instructor and fellow students.

2. Display a positive attitude about classroom participation.3. Use inclusive and respectful language.4. Cell phones should be put on silent and never answered during

class time. This also includes texting.5. If you eat or drink during class, place the trash in the trash can

and recyclables in the recycling bins on your way out of the classroom.

6. Reading the Kernel during class is unacceptable. Also, do not leave them in the room. Place them in the recycling bins on your way out of the classroom.

7. Do not study for other classes during this class. 8. Coming in late occasionally is fine, habitually will result in an

unexcused absence.9. Under no circumstances should you just leave the room prior to

class dismissal.10. This class has teaching assistants. At all times, you should interact with the teaching assistants in the same manner as you would interact with your instructor.

Attendance:

You are expected to be in class and to participate fully every day so you can benefit as much as possible from this course. This means you are expected to (a) read and consider applications of the information before coming to class, (b) ask questions and/or make applications in small group and large group class discussion, and (c) work to facilitate classroom interaction.

In order to accomplish course goals, you need to be in class every day. If you are absent on a day when an assignment is due or an exam is given, you will be allowed to hand in or make-up that work only if the absence is officially excused. You may be asked to provide official written documentation for absences. Excuses for university-sponsored activities must be made prior to such absences. No make-

up work is available for in-class exercises, workshops, or exams unless prior arrangements are approved by me.

Absences beyond two per semester will be penalized by dropping your final course grade 5% (1/2 letter grade) for each such absence. Students taking the class Pass/Fail will also be subjected to this policy and could fail the class solely based on absences.

For any emergency situation that arises, call the department office (257-3622) and leave a message. Or, e-mail your instructor as soon as you know about the situation.

Officially Excused Absences:

Only OFFICIALLY EXCUSED ABSENCES will be made up. Official absences are for 1)university sanctioned activities where prior notice in writing has been provided, 2)illness verified in writing by a doctor, or 3)an emergency with documentation provided through your advisor or other appropriate authority.

Written Work

You will be expected to use current APA 6th Edition style guidelines for all written work. Use of appropriate grammatical skills in your written work is very important. Your written work will be evaluated on both content and mechanics. Good writing should be reasonably free of mistakes and without composition errors, which are called gross errors (sentence fragments, run-on sentences, subject-verb agreement, misspelled words, and typographical errors which result in such errors). PLEASE proofread your papers; do not leave it up to your computer software. If a student is not able to perform these basic written requirements, the instructor may REQUIRE the student to schedule appointments with the University Writing Center. In such cases, the student is required to provide the instructor with written documentation of his/her appointment.

All of your work MUST BE TYPED (using no more than 12 point type with margins not exceeding 1 inch on top, right, bottom, nor 1.5 inches on the left) and double-spaced. Your final paper must include a proper cover page using APA style guidelines.

Submit all written assignments at the beginning of the class period on the designated due date. Failure to meet written work guidelines will result in a grade penalty.

Tutoring:In addition to contacting your instructor by phone, email, or during their scheduled office hours, the department offers additional help sources:Tutoring help with writing skills. Contact the Writing Center in the W. T. Young Library at (859) 257-1356 or online at: http://www.uky.edu/˜gscumm1/tutoring/tutoring.htm

Special Needs:Any students who need special accommodations for learning or who have special needs are invited to share these concerns or requests with the instructor as soon as possible.

Grievance Procedure:*For annotated bibliographies and final papers, students should NOT discuss grades immediately following return of the items; instead students should put their grievances IN WRITING and submit them to the teaching assistant at the NEXT class meeting. The teaching assistant will then follow-up with the student. Also occasionally, students are unsatisfied with some dimension of the course. In such cases, students should schedule a meeting, first, with the instructor. If the student and instructor cannot reach a satisfactory resolution, the students should schedule a meeting with the Director of Undergraduate Studies in Communication, Dr. Deanna Sellnow at [email protected]. Students who remain dissatisfied should schedule a meeting with the Department Chair (Dr. Nancy Harrington).

Grading

Spring 2010 Scale/Criteria*

Scale

Test One 100Test Two 100Quiz One 20Quiz Two 20Quiz Three 20Quiz Four 20Quiz Five 20Annotated Bibliography 25Final Paper 100

A 425-382B 381-344C 343-309D 308-278E 277-0

* All assignments and point values are subject to change.

Extra Credit Extra credit will be offered in the form of participation in Department of Communication research projects. These will be done in class and will be valued at approximately 1 percent of the total course grade. The extra credit will be added to your final grade at the end of the semester. Those students with excused absences will be given an opportunity to gain extra credit upon approval of the instructor.

Tests/ExaminationsThere will be a total of two examinations throughout the semester. Each examination will be a combination of multiple choice, true/false, listing/fill in the blank and short answer/essay and will consist of 50 recall and/or application questions from the chapters assigned prior to the examination. Examinations are cumulative. Review sheets and a review session will be provided prior to both examinations. The final examination will occur in your regular classroom. Please consult the final examination schedule online for day and time (which will be announced in class prior to final examination week). ALL STUDENTS MUST TAKE BOTH EXAMINATIONS. Failure to do so will result in a E for the class.

QuizzesThere will be a total of five quizzes throughout the semester. Each quiz will be multiple choice in format and will consist of ten recall and/or application questions from the chapters assigned prior to the quiz. Quizzes are NOT cumulative and will be retroactive--meaning, you will not be quizzed over material not previously covered in class or assigned in the readings. Some quiz questions may come from material in assigned readings that may not have been discussed in class.

Annotated Bibliography

Final PaperYour final paper will allow you to apply your knowledge of Mass Communication Theory to a modern medium. You may choose any of the theories found in the text and discussed in class (a list follows this description). Your assignment is to examine a modern medium (website, tv program, movie, cd, radio program, video games, newspaper, magazine) through the application of your chosen theory--ie how does your medium support or refute the theory. You will need to implement APA style (see written work section above) and you will need to reference a minimum of three academic sources. Your paper's text should be no less than four double spaced pages and a no more than five double spaced pages.

Theories*

Agenda Setting Theory

Explanation of Theory:

The Agenda-Setting Theory says the media (mainly the news media) aren’t always successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to think about.  

Theorist: Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw

Date:  1972/1973

Primary Article:

  McCombs, M., & Shaw, D.L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of the mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-185.

Individual Interpretation:

This theory is good at explaining why people with similar media exposure place importance on the same issues.  Although different people may feel differently about the issue at hand, most people feel the same issues are important. 

Critique:

The Agenda-Setting Theory comes from a scientific perspective, because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will place importance on the same issues.  According to Chaffee & Berger’s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, Agenda-Setting is a good theory. 

 It has explanitory power because it explains why most people prioritize the same issues as important.

 It has predictive power because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will feel the same issues are important.

 It is parsimonious because it isn’t complex, and it is easy to understand.  It can be proven false.  If people aren’t exposed to the same media, they

won’t feel the same issues are important.  It’s meta-theoretical assumptions are balanced on the scientific side  It is a springboard for further research  It has organizing power because it helps organize existing knowledge of

media effects.

Example:

Actions surrounding the O.J. case and the Clinton Scandal are both excellent examples of Agenda-Setting in action.  During these historic events, the media was ever-present.  The placement of full page, color articles and top stories on news programming made it clear that Americans should place these events as important issues.  Some people believed O.J. was guilty, and others believed he was innocent.  Some believed Clinton should have been impeached, and others thought otherwise.  Therefore, the media wasn’t extremely successful in telling us what to think on these issues, but most Americans did believe these were both important issues for a long period of time.

Cultivation TheoryExplanation of Theory: 

Gerbner’s cultivation theory says that television has become the main source of storytelling in today's society.  Those who watch four or more hours a day are labeled heavy television viewers and those who view less then four hours per day, according to Gerbner are light viewers.  Heavy viewers are exposed to more violence and therefore are effected by the Mean World Syndrome, an idea that the world is worse then it actually is.  According to Gerbner, the overuse of television is creating a homogeneous and fearful populace. 

Theorists: George Gerbner

Date:1976

Primary Article:      Gerbner, G. & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violenceprofile. Journal of Communication, 26, 76.  

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions: determanistic---X----------------free will 

Epistemological Assumptions:  Truth---X-------------------------------truths 

Axiological Assumptions:  value neutral---------X------------value laden  

Individual Interpretations and Critique:  The cultivation theory is a scientific theory.  Epistimologically speaking, Gerbner believes in one truth.  The theory does not believe television viewers have a choice in whether they are effected by media violence or not.  Lastly, Gerbner allows some of his own values to enter into the theory by deciding what to consider violence and by assigning a numerical value to heavy television viewing.  Gerber’s idea of the effects heavy television viewing is intriguing.  There is definitely support to show that those who watch great amounts of television do experience the mean world syndrome, the definition of ‘heavy’ needs

to be reexamined.  Gerbner defines heavy television viewing as watching four or more hours a day.  The idea of setting a numerical value to try to equate heavy influence to a mass populace is suspect.  While the theory does contain some holes it adequately opens the discussion dealing with effects of the media upon viewers. 

Ideas and Implications: The effects of Gerbner’s mean world syndrome can easily be seen in nursing homes.  Many occupants of nursing homes watch many hours of television per day without leaving their rooms to actually see what the real world is like.  Having only the media to guide their interpretation of the ‘real world’, nursing home residents believe that the world is a corrupt and violent place. 

CULTURAL IMPERIALISMExplanation of Theory:

Cultural Imperialism Theory states that Western nations dominate the media around the world which in return has a powerful effect on Third World Cultures by imposing n them Western views and therefore destroying their native cultures.

Theorists: Herb Schiller

Date: 1973

Primary Article:

     Schiller, H. J. (1973). Communication and Cultural Domination. White Plains, NY: International Arts and Sciences Press.

Individual Interpretations:

Western Civilization produces the majority of the media (film, news, comics, etc.) because they have the money to do so. The rest of the world purchases those productions because it is cheaper for them to do so rather than produce their own. Therefore, Third World countries are watching media filled with the Western world's way of living, believing, and thinking. The third world cultures then start to want and do the same  things in their countries and destroy their own culture.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:

This theory says that humans do not have the free will to chose how they feel, act, think, and live.  They react to what they see on television because there is nothing else to compare it to besides their own lives, usually portrayed as less than what it should be.

Epistemological Assumptions:

This theory explains that there is one truth and no matter what that truth never going to change.  As long as Third World countries continue to air Western Civilization's programs then the third world countries will always believe they should act, feel, think, and live as Western Civilizations act, feel, think, and live.

Axiological Assumptions:

This theory is value-neutral and objective.  It does not matter what beliefs the people of Third World may already hold the television programs from the Western World will communicate the same message and effect them in the same way.

Critique: Scientific Theory 

Explanatory Power: It explains what happens when one group of people with their own ideas sends messages through the media to a different group of people. 

Predictive Power: It predicts that Third World countries' culture will be destroyed and the people will identify with Western views. 

Parsimony: We can see a direct linear path from sender to receiver through the media channels and then watch the effects. 

Falsifiability: The theory could be proved false should the Third World countries not be effected by Western media nd they do not lose their culture. 

Internal Consistency: There is a logical flow of events and consequences within the theory. 

Heuristic Provocativeness: This theory could lead to new hypotheses such as which cultures are effected more than others (if any) or whether low context differ in the reception of messages compared top high context cultures? 

Organizing Power: This fits with what we already know about differences between Western civilization and Third World countries.   

Example:

Several people have seen the episode of Southpark where one of the students is swapped for a "starving Ethiopian." Should someone in Ethiopia watch this cartoon, the Western stereotype of Ethiopians all starving to death will tell that person that all they are are tiny black people who cannot help themselves. If the person is not effected this way the theory is proved false but the relations between American and Ethiopian individuals will still be hurt because of those stereotypes.

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY

Explanation of Theory:

In the Diffusion Innovation theory, communicators in society with a message influence/encourage people that have strong opinions through the media to influence the masses.

Theorists: P. Lazarsfeld, B. Berelson, and H. Gaudet

Date:  1944

Primary Article:

     Lazarsfeld, P., Berelson, B., Gaudet, H. (1944) "The People's Choice." New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumption: There does not seem to be free will in this case, it is fated as to what information is received to the masses, they have no choice to what they are exposed to.

Epistemological Assumption: In this sense, the theory is scientific.  There is one truth, dependent on the messages sent and received by the media and the opinion leaders.

Axiological Assumption: I feel that Diffusion of Innovations is scientific in the values sense as well.  Research being done is value neutral and not biased because what is stated is pretty much how the news is run.  The masses are fed what information is important.

Critique:

I think the Diffusion of Innovations does a good job of explaining how ideas are spread and is accurate in its conclusions.

Ideas and Implications:

The Diffusion of Innovations is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain how ideas are spread through our society from the media.

Example:

An applicable example to help illustrate Diffusion of Innovations involves Christmas time specials on TV programming.  These programs on harmful/popular toys influence either the opinion of and/or the decision of whether to purchase a specific toy to many shoppers.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY

Explanation of Theory:

There are five functional approaches the media serves users:  surveillance, correlation, transmission, entertainment, and mobilization

Theorists: Harold Laswell and Charles Wright

Date: 1948, 1960

Primary Articles:

    Laswell, H (1948). The structure and function of communication and society: The communication of ideas. New York: Institute for Religious and Social Studies,  203-243.      Wright, W. R. (1960). Functional analysis and mass communication. Public Opinion Quarterly,(24),  610-613.

Individual Interpretations:

The mass media serves many functions for our society. The five elements the theorists put together describe the audience's use for the media. Surveillance means that the media provides news and information. Correlation means that the media presents the information to us after they select, interpret, and criticize it. The cultural transmission function means that the media reflects our own beliefs, values, and norms. Media also entertains us in our free time and provides an escape from everyday life. Mobilization refers to the media function of promoting society's interest especially in times of crisis.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:

This theory assumes that humans have a certain amount of free will.  They can use mass communication for any variety of functions but they have to use it for something.  Humans can make a choice in what to watch for any variety of reasons even if it is just for noise.

Epistemological Assumptions:

The knowledge is universal and it is one truth that mass communication functions as a part of our society.  It is a main source of surveillance, entertainment, correlation, transmission, and mobilization.

Axiological Assumptions:

This theory is objective and value-neutral.  It does not matter what person is going to watch the television because everyone watches it for a reason.

Critique: Scientific Theory 

Explanatory Power: It explains our society's use for media and mass communication.

Predictive Power:   It predicts that people will use the media for specific functions.

Parsimony: It is simple because the audience has a need and the media fulfills that need.

Falsifiability: The theory could be proved false should the media become dysfunctional or nonfunctional.

Internal Consistency: The theory makes sense in that there are several functions of the media and they are not in conflict with one another. Some people can use the media for more than one function at different times.

Heuristic Provocativeness: Is there a way that the media is dysfunctional? Does the media serve the same functions now as it did 30 years ago?

Organizing Power: We know that human beings have needs so we look for ways to fill those needs. This theory organizes how the media fits in to this equation.

Example:

You have had a really long day at school and at work. You have ten things to do this week before you go home to see your parents who are convinced that you just pretend to be busy. You can not find any one to work for you and your teachers want everything perfect and now. You turn on the television to your favorite show and for half an hour you are entertained and you have no worries. The media functioned to entertain you and relieve you of your worries (temporarily).

HUMAN ACTION APPROACH

Explanation of Theory:

Human behavior can be predicted because people make choices with a purpose about their actions.  Behavior is chosen by individuals to reach certain goals.

Theorist: P. Winch

Date:  1958

Primary Article:

      Winch, P. (1958). "The idea of a social science and its relation to philosophy," Atlantic HIghlands, NJ. Humanities Press.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumption: There is some fate concerning this theory, although free will does rule behavior which can be predicted when goals are observed. 

Epistemological Assumption: Since there can be many different goals assessed for a person's behavior, there are many truths that could be possible for this humanistic theory.

Axiological Assumption: Values definitely play a part in this humanistic theory- which ones are more important to an individual are the ones that goals will be modeled after and could be used to track behavior.

Critique:

This theory is used as a measure to provide better understanding of behavior that has already occurred, it says nothing about future behavior.

Ideas and Implications:

The Human Action Approach is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain behavior that has already occurred.  Studying historical events or known past experiences could use the Human Action Approach.

Example:

An applicable example to help illustrate the Human Action Approach is a group of people listening to a persuasive speech about smoking and lung cancer.  Fear appeals had nothing to do with changing people's minds.  They were presented with new information- that stopping smoking increases life expectancy even for former smokers- that was what led the audience members to quit.  There was a change in behavior because the audience saw living longer as a goal.  

Media Dependency Theory

Explanation of Theory:

This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person.

Theorist: Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur

Date: 1976

Primary Article:       Ball-Rokeach, S. J., & DeFleur, M.L. (1976). A dependency model of mass media effects. Communication Research, 3, 3-21.

   

Individual Interpretation:

This theory is based on the Uses and Gratifications Theory and ties into the Agenda Setting Theory.  Uses and Grats identifies how people use and become dependent upon the media.  People use the media for many reasons.  Information, entertainment, and parasocial relationships are just a few of them.  The Dependency Theory says the more a person becomes dependent on the media to fulfill these needs, the media will become more important to that individual.  The media will also have much more influence and power over that individual.  If someone is so dependent on the media for information, and the media is that person’s only source for information, then it is easy to set the agenda.  The individual falls victim to Agenda Setting.  As you can see, these three theories intertwine quite a bit.  

Critique:

Media Dependency Theory is Relatively Scientific in nature.  It predicts a correlation between media dependence and importance and influence of the media, but each person uses the media in different ways.  Also, the media affects each person in different ways.  According to Chaffee & Berger ‘s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, this theory is a pretty good one.  

It has explanatory power, but more of predictive power because it predicts how dependency on the media correlates with importance of the media to a certain person.

 It is relatively simple to understand, so it is parsimonious.  It can be proven false.  If a person is not dependent on the media, media will

not be of great importance to that individual.  It is internally consistent, with meta-theoretical assumptions on the same

side of the continuum.   It is a springboard to further research, especially so, since it came from other

theories.  It helps to organize and relate other media effect theories.

Example:

Let me introduce you to Sunny, a friend of mine from Los Angeles who now resides in Lexington, KY.  When Sunny lived in L.A., he would ask his mother what the weather was going to be for the day.   It was usually sunny.  Now that he lives in Lexington, where the weather is sporadic, Sunny uses the media for information about the weather.  Every morning, he gets up and turns on the weather channel on the television, reads the paper, and checks the internet, all for the local forecast for the day.  He has become very dependent on the media.  One month, Sunny forgot to pay the electric bill, and his service was disconnected.  He didn’t know what to do.  He had no idea what to put on for the day, because he relied so heavily upon the media for information.  Sunny could have easily looked outside or called a friend, but he was depending on the media to provide him with the information he needed.

Media EquationExplanation of Theory: This theory predicts why people respond unconsciously and automatically to communication media as if it were human.  

Theorist: Byron Reeves and Clifford Nass

Date: 1996

Primary Article: 

     Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Individual Interpretation:

This theory looks at interpersonal communication between an individual and the media.  We talk back to our computers, and we use the same personal spacing techniques with media as we would if that particular medium were a real person.  We unconsciously act as if the media are people.  There’s something unique about this theory.  It is relatively new, and considers new forms of interpersonal communication  

Critique:

This theory is scientific in nature, and according to Chaffee & Berger’s 1997 criteria for scientific theories, it is an okay one.   

It predicts that people will treat the media (according to interpersonal theory) as they would treat a real person.

 It explains ways the audience is active.  It is relatively simple to understand. It is internally consistent on the scientific side (one truth, determinism, value

nuetral). It helps organize knowledge about the action of the audience.

Example:

When the television you are watching is real small, you tend to sit closer, and when it is large, you tend to sit further away from it.  Ask a friend to randomly watch you when you are watching someone you like, admire, or think is attractive on television.  You can do the same for them as well. I notice that I tend to sit closer to the television, smile, and keep eye contact when I am watching someone I like on television.  However, I walk away, make ugly faces, or ignore people I don’t like when I am watching television. 

Spiral of Silence Theory

Explanation of Theory:

The Spiral of Silence theory explains why people often feel the need to conceal their opinions/preference/views/etc. when they fall within the minority of a group.

Theorist: Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann

Date:  1984

Primary Article:

      Noelle-Neumann, E. (1984). The Spiral of Silence.  University of Chicago, Chicago.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumption: In this sense, the theory is extremely scientific.  Spiral of Silence believes that there is fate- opinions are dependent on the  majority opinion of the group. 

Epistemological Assumption: The theory is also quite scientific in the relationship between the research being done and the researcher.  What is researched is not dependent on the observer, there is one truth; an absolute if you will concerning the Spiral of Silence.  People are quiet with their opinions and that is that.

Axiological Assumption: I feel that Spiral of Silence  is scientific in the values sense as well.  Research being done is value neutral and unbiased on the researchers' behalf since they would have no reason or means to skew the findings in any way.

Critique:

The Spiral of Silence theory is a scientific theory that for the most part is quite sound in situations in which opinions are not of great consequence.  For example, if my opinion is a strong conviction and I am unwilling to bend in my beliefs then the theory may not apply to me to such an extent.  Also, if I am an opinion leader, (from the Diffusionof Innovations theory) that is I am the one voicing my opinion and affecting other people; then I also may not bend in my opinions either.

Ideas and Implications:

The Spiral of Silence is useful to apply in situations when trying to explain why people cover up or change their opinions when in a group setting especially when they think they are alone in their opinions.

Example:

An  example to help illustrate the Spiral of Silence theory is a person going out with a new group of people or on a date with someone you do not know very well.  When

ordering pizza for this theory, I would conform to the mushroom lovers because I feel I am in the minority since I do not like mushrooms and i think everyone else does.  Therefore I do not want to be rejected or alone in my opinions. 

TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM THEORYExplanation of Theory:

Technological Determinism state that media technology shapes how we as individuals in a society think, feel, act, and how are society operates as we move from one technological age to another (Tribal- Literate- Print- Electronic).

Theorists: Marshall Mcluhan

Date: 1962

Primary Article:

     Mcluhan, M.  (1962). The Gutenberg Galaxy: The making of Typograhic Man. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Individual Interpretations:

We learn and feel and think the way we do because of the messages we receive through the current technology that is available. The radio required us to only listen and develop our sense of hearing. On the other hand, television engages both our hearing and visual senses. We then transfer those developed senses into our everyday lives and we want to use them again. The medium is then our message.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:

Humans do not have much free will at all.  Whatever society as a whole is using to communicate, they too will use to communicate.  Therefore they will adapt to the medium they are using so that they can send and receive messages like everyone else.

Epistemological Assumptions:

We know that there is one truth by observing what has happened over time.  As the medium changes so does society's way of communicating.  People can only use the medium for which it was created (phone for talking over lines or electronic mail for talking via computer).  If the medium is impersonal (television) then the message too is impersonal.

Axiological Assumptions:

This theory is objective in that everyone will act and feel the same no matter what the medium they are using provided that they are using the same medium.  Values are not involved because evidence is seen strictly through observation.

Critique: Scientific Theory 

Explanatory Power: It explains when new systems of technology are developed, the culture or society is immediately changed to reflect the senses needed to use the new technology.

Predictive Power:  It predicts that with every new system of media technology, society will change and adapt to that technology.

Parsimony: There is a simple cause and effect analysis between the introduction of new technology and the changes in society's way of thinking, feeling, acting, or believing.

Falsifiability: The theory could be proved false if a new technology is invented and nothing changes.

Internal Consistency: There is a logical flow of proof evidenced over time.

Heuristic Provocativeness: Would this theory only work in the USA or would it vary culture to culture within or outside the United States? Does it vary in the electronic age between those who can afford the new technology and those who can not?

Organizing Power: We know that we have developed and we know that we have changed. This theory provides a way to see why this has happened.

Example:

With everyone electronically mailing each other today, there is no longer a need to write a joke down to remember it. You can just forward it to a friend. We also do not communicate with distant friends as over the telephone anymore. We have started to only communicate through the impersonal use of the e-mail system

USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORYExplanation of Theory: 

Blumler and Katz’s uses and gratification theory suggests that media users play an active role in choosing and using the media.  Users take an active part in the communication process and are goal oriented in their media use.  The theorist say that a media user seeks out a media source that best fulfills the needs of the user.  Uses and gratifications assume that the user has alternate choices to satisfy their need.

Theorists:   Blumler and Katz

Date:  1974

Primary Article:       Blumler J.G. & Katz, E. (1974). The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Metatheoretical Assumptions:

Ontological Assumptions:  Deterministic----------------X---free will 

Epistemological Assumptions:  Truth------------------------------X----Multiple Truths 

Axiological Assumptions:  value neutral-----------------X----value laden   

Individual Interpretations and Critique:  Uses and gratifications theory takes a more humanistic approach to looking at media use.  Blumler and Katz believe that there is not merely one way that the populace uses media.  Instead, they believe there are as many reasons for using the media, as there are media users.  According to the theory, media consumers have a free will to decide how they will use the media and how it will effect them.  Blumler and Katz values are clearly seen by the fact that they believe that media consumers can choose the influence media has on them as well as the idea that users choose media alternatives merely as a means to and end.  Uses and gratification is the optimist’s view of the media.  The theory takes out the possibility that the media can have an unconscience influence over our lives and how we view the world.  The idea that we simply use the media to satisfy a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of the media in today’s society.

Ideas and Implications: Uses and gratification theory can be seen in cases such as personal music selection.  We select music  not only to fit a particular mood but also in attempts to show empowerment or other socially conscience motives.  There are many different types of music and we choose from them to fulfill a particular need.  

*These are but a few theories, you may choose others upon approval of the instructor or teaching assistant.