com4lz seminariolenguaextranjera(hoffmann rosenfeld)2entrega

8/7/2019 Com4LZ SeminarioLenguaExtranjera(Hoffmann Rosenfeld)2entrega

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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DEL LITORALFACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES Y CIENCIAS

CICLO DE LICENCIATURA EN INGLES

COMISION 4 LOMAS DE ZAMORA

2004

Seminario lengua extranjeraProf. Maria de las Mercedes Luciani

Language:

The Tip of the Iceberg

Maria Isabel Hoffmann Diana Rosenfeld

[email protected] [email protected]

21 de Noviembre de 2004
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Abstract

Language is the manifestation of cognitive constructions which operatebetween domains. According to Fauconnier, a mental space is the domainallegedly built through discourse so as to enable reasoning and interaction withthe world. Cognitive level constructions link language to the real world, whichtrigger off real-world inferences in the individuals mind and action patterns in

his/her behaviour. Twenty three students at university level were exposed to atext which revealed an unexpected standpoint to them. The subjects read atext and answered a pre and a post-reading questionnaire. We have set out toexplore through linguistic data the addition of an element to a frame. We haveconcluded that this experiencemay have lead them to a change in their frameof the space mathematics.

Introduction

Since Aristotelian times, man has pondered on the world and his interaction with it, aswell as on the representations man makes of the world that surrounds him.Representation, Vorstellung in German, is defined as the idea or image that bears asimilitude with an object. Still, this meaning is further extended into threeinterpretations; the sense that a representation is that through which something is

known (the idea), the image in the memory (the image), and that which causes theknowledge (the object) (Abbagnano, 1999:1015). The quest to untangle the way thebrain interprets its surrounding has actually lead to investigations in many fields, toname but a few, psychology, neurology, neurobiology and even linguistics. In 1943,Kenneth Craik established that perception, imagination, or the understanding ofdiscourse give rise to mental concepts as mind constructs of reality that man uses toanticipate events. This has largely been studied in neurology as the ReptilianAmygdale, that is, our need to adapt to new environments makes the brain be inconstant alertness so as to reconstruct representations we have.

Language has been the tool to put through human cognitive constructions. When wetalk mappings are set up between cognitive domains, these mappings build and linkmental spaces, which according to Fauconnier (1994) are structured sets withelements and relations holding between them during ongoing unravelling of discourse.

There are projection mappingsby which one domain is projected onto another one, forinstance TIME AS SPACE as in Summer is around the corner. Pragmatic functionmappings through which two categories of objects are mapped onto each other by apragmatic function, for instance examples of metonymy and synecdoche: The ulcer inroom 92 wants some coffee. And finally, schema mappingswhen a general frame isused to structure a situation in context.

The notion of frame has varied through time, in 1975 Fillmore (in Ungerer 1997:208)defined it as any system of linguistic choices that can get associated with prototypicalinstances of scenes. Ten years later, he himself states that frames are specific unifiedframeworks of knowledge, or coherent schematizations of experience. In 1992,Fillmore and Atkins redefine frames as cognitive structures knowledge of which ispresupposed for the concepts encoded by the words. In recent years it has beenredefined once more as a way of describing the cognitive context which provides thebackground for and is associated with cognitive categories.

Cognitive models are of a more general nature than frames so that frames are just oneof a variety of cognitive models, thus a frame is a type of cognitive model whichrepresents the knowledge and belief pertaining to specific and recurrent situations.

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According to Lakoff (1990) knowledge is organized by idealized cognitive models(ICMs) which are structured by four structuring principles: a propositional structure, animage-schematic structure, metaphoric mappings and metonymic mappings. ICMsstructure mental spaces; in the propositional structure according to Fillmores framesemantics, a frame is defined in relation to an idealized model, different elements (inour background) help delineate a frame, for instance the frame for any day of the weekwill be structured on the basis of the notion of the existence of other days, the notion ofthere being a week which consists of work days and weekend days. Still, ICMs fit theunderstanding of the world of a specific group, there are segments of the world whichdo not have the same frame for days of the week, or the same frame of time for thatmatter.

Let us concentrate on the linguistic field and consider language as the concretemanifestation of a cognitive mechanism, to be more precise, how a text influences thismechanism and how the reading of such text may be influenced by a priori structures.When mentioning representations of a text, we may consider the linguistic aspect asregards the notion of being exposed to the language.

First, we would like to make a brief revision of some of the mechanisms triggered off bybeing exposed to a text. According to Van Dijk (1983), understanding is an on lineprocess through which the structure of a sentence abstractly given a priori will trigger inthe user a tentative interpretation of it, even before it has been fully heard or read. Thismechanism has been largely used, for instance in computational writing devices, evenin modern technological mobile devices such as message sending in cell phones. Whatis different for the language user when being exposed to a text is that he/she will haveto consider both text and context information at the same time, and even work out thephonologic, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels in order to interpret the text.

This process involves representations and meaning in the workings of the memory.Information is stored in Short Term Memory (STM), which like a computational memoryneeds to be emptied once and again to make room for new information. Thisinformation that is removed is then processed, interpreted and stored in the Long TermMemory (LTM), where the information may be accessed according to the need of theuser. LTM includes an Episodic part which is the representation of the persons ownexperiences.

Another important element present in representations is knowledge. The user

presupposes the social-cultural 'world' knowledgewhich will enable him/her to definecoherence in relations between linguistic elements so as to understand the text. Schank and Abelson (1977) make reference to this same issue but name them'scripts'. The scripts are the abstract way in which people organize their knowledgeabout stereotypical events, for instance, eating out or driving. So as to make sense of atext, these scripts are activated and language users select the relevant informationneeded in the construction of a Text Representation in Episodic Memory. Later,together with Kintsch, Van Dijk added the notion of a situationmodel. This notionpoints out that language users do not just build a semantic representation of the text intheir episodic memory, but they add a representation of the event, or a situation thetext is about, that is to say the context. This aided to define a model by whichsentences would make up a coherent sequence. In like manner, the structures of thetext are related to higher macrostructures of models, which will actually explain how aperson resorts to memory, and at times will even falsely recall data that was not

stated in the text. We may interpret this as the fact that, in their attempt to understand,people build models of an event, which may be derived from previous socioculturalknowledge, then these 'presupposed' recalls may be interpreted as a modelconstructed for a text. To be more precise, what people remember is not the content of

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the information in a given text, but rather the model built about the event the text isabout, which in turn is what might give rise to a new model.

Many linguists have considered it relevant to study how linguistic manifestation may bethe surface manifestation of cognitive mechanisms. As Fauconnier has put it words are

just the tip of the icebergof cognitive construction (Fauconnier, 1994:xviii) There aredomains appearing, abstract mappings operating, focus shifts, spreads, our reasoningis supported by abstract, mental creation, and the grammar is just the tool that guides it.

Language does not carry meaning, it guides it, the words in themselves do not sayanything independent of the detailed knowledge and powerful cognitive processes(Turner, 1991). Likewise, Fauconnier (1999) mentions that any language expression ismeaning potential and will become meaning bearer only within a complete discourseand in context, the grammatical information is applied to an existing cognitiveconfiguration. In this constant unfolding of discoursethere is one cognitive configurationafter another, which the context and the grammar pressure on. These configurationsare pragmatically elaborate and partition information relative to other different domains;that is domains are constructed in subordination to an existing space which is in focus.Thus space is generated by discourse in some kind of ordered repetition of patterns, alatticewhere there is a baseand a space which is in focus.

Space builders are manifested through prepositional phrases (in the morning),adverbials (early), conjunctions (and), subject/verbs (Mary believes). Names (Mary) anddescriptive nouns and adjectives (the teacher, the mean teacher) set the new elements.Tense and mood determine what space is in focus. Presuppositional constructions,which propagate to neighbouring spaces, are manifested through aspectuals, cleft andpseudo-cleft sentences. The connectors between spaces are carried out thorugh trans-spatial operatorssuch as copula verbs (be) and copulative verbs. The most importantelement is the Access Principle, a.k.a. Identification Principle since one element in onemental space is used to access a counterpart of that element in another mental space (ibid:41)

In previous times, it was considered that a linguistic manifestation could have acontext-independent truth-conditioninal meaning. Fauconnier posits that there are threedynamic notions: the Base, the starting point of the mental space which will constantlybe gone back to, the Viewpoint, the point from which others are accessed andstructured, and the Focus, which is structured internally. These three elements areunder constant construction, therefore, at times they may not be distinctly

distinguished.The relationship of the linguistic manifestation, discourse, and the ongoing cognitiveconstruction is presented by Fauconnier as follows:

Elements and spaces structure a space internally by following latticespaces, external connectors link those spaces so as to indicate thefocus (i.e. mood, tense). Some structures may be transferred tohigher spaces (i.e. presupposition), elements are accessed (i.e.names and descriptions). The last steps involve implicatures such asroles to the preset values, deductive reasoning (i.e. settingconditions) and canceling default (i.e. contrast, concession).

According to Fauconnier, grammar is the visible link between cognition and thebehaviour of human thinking organism. For there to be thinking and communicationactivity, elaborate constructions resort on conceptual capacities, highly structured

background and contextual knowledge, schema-induction and mapping capabilities.Language does not, by any means, build cognition, it is just what provides us with cluesthat there are domains and principles causing the construction of a model in a givensituation. These clues are combined with configurations, cognitive principles andbackground framings, which have been constructed at a previous stage. We areunaware of the constructions we are constantly performing and the vast amounts of

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pre-structured knowledge, which have been selected implicitly by the context,necessary to form any kind of interpretation.

Language is the manifestation of cognitive constructions which operate betweendomains. Projections take place over these domains. A mental space is the domainbuilt allegedly through discourse so as to enable reasoning and interaction with theworld. This implies that linguistic forms aid in the construction at a cognitive level ofdomains which are interconnected. That is to say, cognitive level constructions link

language to the real world, which triggers off real-world inferences in the individualsmind and action patterns in behaviour.

Considering that lexis, or a lexical structure for that matter, bears no meaningwhatsoever unless it is immersed in discourse and in context, one may deduce thatthere is a cognitive configuration, made up of clues that are linguistic, contextual andsituational, which are the meaning generators. This configuration is, in fact, asuccession of configurations by which one cognitive configuration will give rise toanother one which will contain some of the elements of the one that gave rise to it. Thisis a never ending process.

It is our intention to show through a case study that subjects exposed to new notionsmight use different linguistic elements in their answers which might lead us to believethat the frame might have been altered in some way.

Subjects

Twenty-three students of the School of Philosophy and Letters of the University ofBuenos Aires took part in this study. They attend their first level of the ReadingComprehension Course in English, they belong to different fields of study, that is,History, Geography, Education, Letters, Philosophy and Anthropology.

In the Reading Comprehension Courses in English, students read academic texts andreformulate them in Spanish through writing the main idea as well as drawingparagraph conceptualization. The texts are chosen on the basis of their relevance tothe fields of study, their text structures and their conceptual and lexical complexity.Students go through three different stages during the reading process. First, theanticipatory stage, in which students, based on their prior knowledge, their allegedmental representation and the organization of the text, predict and hypothesize thecontent of the text. Then, in the verifying stage, they confirm or correct theirhypotheses and read the text thoroughly. Finally, in the internalizing stage, theyreformulate the text by writing the main idea. Once, they have finished these threestages, they go through a metacognitive process in which they develop a readingportfolio.

Method

The data for this study were obtained from the reading of a text taken from the bookletused in the course. The students worked with an excerpt of Western Mathematics byAlan Bishop (Appendix A). The work was organized in a similar way as the exercisesstudents regularly do in the course, that is to say, it was divided into the three stagesexplained above. The only different procedure was that before starting to read, theywere given a questionnaire (Appendix B) in which they were asked to look at thebibliographical data, to define the term mathematics and to predict the authors

intention when writing about Western Mathematics. This questionnaire was designed inorder to analyze the students mental representation of the term mathematics beforebeing exposed to a text in which the author deals with that term but from a point of viewwhich we assumed was different from our students. Then, the subjects were requestedto solve the tasks presented in the anticipatory, verifying and internalizing stages asthey usually dealt with them. The subjects were given 2 hours to fulfill the reading, and

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once they handed in their work, they were asked to answer a second questionnaire(Appendix C) in which they were required to express their opinion about the excerptand to make comments about the fact of having considered on the authors position.These answers helped us compare the previous and the post reading information andanalyze if there had been some alteration in the linguistic data used by them in theanswers after being exposed to new information.

Results

The answers given to question 2 in the pre-reading stage show that most of theparticipants in this study defined the concept mathematicsas universal, whether as ascience or as a paradigm. This idea is repeated twenty-two times in statements suchas: utiliza operaciones lgicas y abstractas, desarrolla el razonamiento, puedeaplicarse a teoras / ciencias, una herramienta esencial del conocimiento. Somesocial aspects are mentioned seven times, stated in the three different ways, asfollows: estudia una porcin de la realidad, es importante para la organizacin delindividuo, interviene en la economa. The fact that it is either something difficult or amystery is mentioned twice.

When asked, in question 3, which words they relate to Western Mathematics, the ideathat it is a notion in close relationship to the geographic West is mentioned twenty-threetimes, for instance, metodologa del mundo occidental, matemtica occidental,enseanza y aprendizaje en la zona oeste, conocimiento de occidente, modelosmatemticos de occidente. The idea that there might be a contraposition betweenEast and West is mentioned twice, contraposicin este-oeste matemtico, otroaspecto del mundo de la matemtica. The concept that mathematics is a tool ismentioned eight times: influencia de occidente en oriente, poder a partir de lamatemtica, neoliberalismo, independencia de la ciencia, cultura econmica. Onesubject mentioned its everyday aspect and another one stated matemtica correcta.

Four different kinds of responses were given to question 4, in which they were requiredto justify the authors reason for entitling the text Western Mathematics and not justMathematics. In the first group, it is mentioned fourteen times that the notion ofWestern Mathematics is that of a geographical notion of west in opposition to east,stated as follows: la matemtica en general y la matemtica en un lugar particular,nfasis en la matemtica del oeste, diferencia entre saberes de Europa y Oriente.

The notion of a different kind of mathematics is stated seven times, as existe otro tipode matemtica or marca una diferencia. Another notion mentioned seven times isthat maths is a tool of control; es un arma para colonizar otras culturas, occidenteexport su manera de ser, aprender/ensear matemtica, modo de dominacincultural, idea de pelea de vaqueros, ciencia occidental que se impone en el mundo,and that maths is linked to economy is mentioned three times.

In question 5, the subjects were requested to express their perception of the authorsintention. That maths is used as a tool of control is mentioned fourteen times inexpressions such as un arma de dominacin, relacin entre el imperialismo y lamatemtica, vnculo entre la ciencia y la poltica, y desarrollo de imperios. Anothergroup mentions that the author will concentrate on differences: diferencia entre unamatemtica y otra, entre la cultura de oriente y occidente, y entre dos sistemaseconmicos. This idea is mentioned five times. A third group believes it will be about

the importance of mathematics, this is referred to in two instances, and there is onlyone instance that considers that it will be about a criticism; crtica a la importanciaotorgada a todo aquello que viene del mundo occidental.

When the subjects were asked in question 6 if they supposed the author would show adifferent position, 16 subjects (70%) answered affirmatively, 2 subjects (8 %)answered negatively and 5 subjects (22%) did not know.

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The answers to the second questionnaire, that is, after having read the text, show that18 subjects (79%) agreed with the authors position explaining that la matemtica noes independiente de una posicin cultural, el imperialismo impuso la lengua y lareligin, porque no la matemtica, imposicin de matriz de pensamiento, imposicinde categoras y concepciones del mundo; 3 subjects (13%) disagreed and 2 (8%)stated they did not know.

In answer to whether had it ever crossed their mind that there might be other kinds of

mathematics, 5 subjects (21%) answered affirmatively, while 18 subjects (79%)answered in a negative form.

Discussion

Some subjects consider maths as having a social edge. This is reinforced by thespatial answer given by the subjects (fourteen times) as there being a geographicallimit between areas determined by the west and the east. Some subjects (7 times)have interpreted this as a tool of influential power of one spatial element on the other.Both these notions are restated in the answers to question 4 of the pre-reading section,in which many of the subjects made a distinction of western mathematics andmathematics in a spatial relation in which geography and culture are intertwined.

The fact that mathematics is mentioned by most of the participants as a universal

notion leads us to believe that the subjects may have an element in their frame, amathematics and b universal, thus the outcoming relation between both elements isthat BE ab, that is to say mathematics is universal.

Since ICMs fit the understanding of the world of a specific group and since there are segments of the

world which do not have the same frame we, thus, might suppose that the subjects who took part in this

case study at the University of Buenos Aires might be proof of having an ICM whereby mathematics is

universal, for instance, in comparison to that of an indigenous individual in the middle of Africa or in a faroff land where there is no contact with formal education as such, the concept of mathematics will vary

largely with that of a University student in a city. Nevertheless, it is interesting to note that although most

of the participants (95 %) consider maths universal, apparently their answers seem to show that they were

open to think of other posible views, 70 % admit they supposed they would be exposed to a different

position (Appendix D). It is also noteworthy that not only 79 % of the subjects show, in thepost-reading answers, they had never thought of the possibility of viewing mathematicsfrom another perspective, but the same percentage also agrees with the idea of maths

being culturally-loaded (Appendix D). Moreover, we find it important to remark that mostof the participants mention their interest in delving deeply into this different viewpoint.

Another aspect that called our attention is the fact that a large number of subjectsassociated the idea of politics to the notion of maths. It is not just politics but the idea ofimposition which, we suppose, has been triggered off by the caption in the title CulturalImperialism, which is further delved into by stating that:

la matemtica no es independiente de una posicin culturalel imperialismo impuso la lengua y la religin, porque no lamatemtica?

la imposicin de matriz de pensamiento, la imposicin de categoras yconcepciones del mundo.

un arma de dominacin, relacin entre el imperialismo

la matemtica, vinculo entre la ciencia y poltica, y desarrollo deimperios.

Some statements given by the subjects after reading the text on Western Mathematicsbear the following phrases:

Es cierto que...

Deleted: . Fauconnier nunca hablade openess, tal vez omitiria despuesdel ) yo buscara otra palabra si teparece (por ejemplo attitude?) pero

creo que el comentario vale la penaya que es parte de la discusin y noes solo la descripcin de losresultados.


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A mi entender ...Considero que ...No hay dudas de que

These phrases might show that the subjects might have resorted to grammaticaldevices which according to Fauconnier are space builders, the use of such verbs asthink, hopeor wantand the lexis maybe(pienso, creo, tal vez, quizs) , among othersare examples of a space having been built. Therefore, we might assume that thislinguistic evidence might be proof of the process undergone by the students after

having been exposed to an uncommon point of view to them.

Conclusions

This study has proved to be most enriching in the sense we have seen how subjectsgoing through a new situation, in this case reading a text exposing them to anunexpected standpoint, may have lead to an alteration in their frame.

We are aware that this is just a sample that applies to a group of students who havevolunteered to undergo this case study. Our aim here has just been to show thatlinguistic data might be a way of revealingalterations at cognitive level in the ongoingprocess of discourse. Moreover, we consider that our study is very limited consideringthe wealth of information available through it and propose furhter study is compulsoryconsidering this far reaching developing field.

A further enriching aspect of this paper is that, unawares, we have noticed that theconcept of mathematics has given rise to the implications of it being a tool of imposingpower and culture, thus we also suggest further study should be carried out to state ifMATHS IS POWER may be considered a conceptual metaphore.

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Deleted: We are aware that this is

just a sample that applies to a groupof students who have volunteered toundergo this case study. We considerthat there is need for further study tosee if this concepts can displace theentreched idea that maths is universaland if the frame has actually beenadapted to become a new base.


Deleted: YO PREVIAMENTE HABIAPENSADO LA CONCLUSIN ASI,VOS PASASTE PARTE DELPARRAFO DE LOS BLENDS PARALA INTRODUCCIN PERO CREOQUE PUEDE QUEDAR EN AMBOSLADOS. DE TODOS MODOSDEJALO COMO TE PAREZCAThis study has proved to be mostenriching in the sense we have seenhow subjects going through a newsituation, in this case reading a textexposing an unexpected standpoint tothem, may have lead to a new spacein their cognitiveelements/strategies/structures, whichwill in turn lead to a change in theirmental representation. Understandinga text means being able to constructa model for the text, taking intoaccount amounts of socio-culturalworld knowledge (Van Dijk, 1983) andadapting them to the new situation.We are aware that this is just asample that applies to a group ofstudents who have volunteered toundergo this case study. We cannot

avoid mentioning that we have nottaken into account the differentblends and projections and crossspace mappings that may arise in thisprocess, but that is material we willhave to consider in another research.Our aim here was just to show thatmental spaces do undergo changes,and we consider these changes arenever ending in view of the constantbombardment of information we areexposed to. Moreover, we considerthat there is need for further study tosee if the new concept can displacethe entreched idea that maths isuniversal and if the frame has actuallybeen adapted to become a new base.A further enriching aspect of thispaper is that unawares we have

noticed that the concept ofmathematics has given rise to theimplications of it being a tool ofimposing power and culture, thus wesuggest there should be further studycarried out to state if MATHS ISPOWER may be considered aconceptual metaphore.


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Appendix A

The scanned copy has not been included because of its virtual weight. We include axerox of it in the paper copy.


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Appendix BPre reading questionaire

Nombre: Fecha:

Cuestionario

A) Datos personales

Carrera:

Fecha de ingreso a la carrera:

Cantidad de materias cursadas:

Cantidad de materias aprobadas:

Conocimientos previos de ingls: (indique lugar, cantidad de aos y nivel

alcanzado)

Edad:

Estudios previos: Secundario estatal / privado Capital Federal / Provincia: ......

Otros estudios:

B) Western Mathematics

B.1. Anticipate

1. Lea la bibliografa, ttulo y subttulo.

2. Qu es para Ud. la matemtica?

3. Qu ideas / palabras puede relacionar al leer Western Mathematics?

4. Por qu cree Ud. que el autor titula este texto Western Mathematics y no solamenteMathematics?

5. Qu supone usted que el autor intentara demostrar?

6. Considera que el autor postula una posicin diferente con respecto de lamatemtica?

SI - NO - NO SE


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Appendix C

After reading questionaire

Western Mathematics

B.2. Think Aloud

1. Coincide Ud. con la postura del autor? Si / No Por qu?

2. Haba pensado Ud. con anterioridad este planteo? Si / No. En casoafirmativo, cul haba sido su pensamiento al respecto?

3. Por favor, explyese en cuanto a su punto de vista con respecto al planteo delautor.

Muchas gracias por la colaboracin


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Appendix D

Answers given in the pre and post reading stages

Student # Considera que el autorpostula una posicin

diferente? (pre-reading)

Coincide con la posturadel autor? (post-reading)

Haba pensado conanterioridad este planteo?

Si No Nosabe

Si No Nosabe

Si No Nosabe

1 X X X

2 X X X

3 X X X

4 X X X

5 X X X

6 X X X7 X X X

8 X X X

9 X X X

10 X X X

11 X X X

12 X X X

13 X X X

14 X X X

15 X X X

16 X X X

17 X X X

18 X X X

19 X X X

20 X X X

21 X X X

22 X X X

23 X X X

Total 16 2 5 18 3 2 5 18

Percentage

%

70 8 22 79 13 8 21 79


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References

Abbagnano, N.; (1999) , Diccionario de Filosofia, Mxico: Fondo de culturaeconmico.

Bishop, A.; (1995) , WesternMathematicsin Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., Tiffin, H. eds,

The Post-Colonial Studies Reader. London: Routledge.Craik, K., Mental Models, URL:

http://www.tcd.ie/Psychology/Ruth_Byrne/mental_models/(23-06-04)

Fauconier, G.; (1994) , Mental Spaces. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fauconier, G.; (1999) , Mappings in Thought and Language. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Lakoff, G.; (1990), Women, Fire and Dangerous Things:The University of ChicagoPress, Chicago and London.

Schank, R.C. & Abelson, R. , ScriptTheory, URL: http://tip.psychology.org/schank.html(12-07-04)

Turner, M.; (1991) , Reading Minds. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Ungerer, F.& Schmid, H.-J.; (1997) , An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Londonand New York: Longman.

Van Dijk, T.; From Text Grammar to Critical Discourse Analysis, URL:http://www.discourse-in-society.org/beliar-e.htm (28-06-04)

Bibliography

Dirven, R. & Verspoor, M.; (1998) , Cognitivve Explorations of Language andLinguistics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Bensjamins Publishing Company.

Fouch, J.; Using Mental Models as an Evaluation Tool in the Beta Testing of aMultimedia Tutorial, http://www.hagar.up.ac.za/jf/mentmod/mentmod.htm#Table6, (28-0604)

Laverick, S., Hilton, J. & Johnston, K.; Using resource-based learning to integratelectures and independent study time, URL:http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/bus4.html (8-07-04)

Scott, D.; What are Mental Models?, URL:http://www.boxesandarrows.com/archives/whats_your_idea_of_a_mental_model.php(8-07-04)

Deleted: economico

Deleted:
http://www.tcd.ie/Psychology/Ruth_Byrne/mental_models/http://tip.psychology.org/schank.htmlhttp://www.discourse-in-society.org/beliar-e.htmhttp://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/bus4.htmlhttp://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/bus4.htmlhttp://www.discourse-in-society.org/beliar-e.htmhttp://tip.psychology.org/schank.htmlhttp://www.tcd.ie/Psychology/Ruth_Byrne/mental_models/

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