comm 5402 advanced interpersonal communication fall 2010 ascan f. koerner
TRANSCRIPT
Ways of knowing Empiricism
Based on experience / senses Rationalism
Based on reason Constructivism
Based on convention
Science One way to generate knowledge Based on Empiricism & Rationalism
(logic) Assumes objective Truth
Reality independent of observer Regularity of reality (stability & laws) Observer capable of observation
Social science assumes this about the social world (at least to a degree)
Science & Theory Theories are formal articulations of
knowledge The scientific method is to gain
knowledge by deriving hypotheses and testing them (by attempting to disprove their predictions)
Thus, science is the process of developing and testing theories
Defining Theory I
Theory differs frominformal everydayknowledge by being moreexplicit, formallyorganized, and abstract.
(McGuire, 1989).
Defining Theory II
A theory is a set of interrelatedconstructs (concepts), definitions, andpropositions that present a systematicview of phenomena by specifyingrelations among variables, with thepurpose of explaining and predictingphenomena.
(Kerlinger, 1986).
Human Need for Explanation Need for theory in human mind 3 ways of experience the world
observer theorist (observer & explanation) researcher (theorist & test)
Theoretical Models Units (Variables) Laws of Interaction Boundaries System States Propositions Operationalizations Hypotheses
Ideas to keep in mind
1) No a priori limits on what theory is
about
2) A theoretical model has to be complete
3) Adequacy = internal logic
4) Validity is determined through research
5) Only testing makes a theory scientific
Preferred Theory
Is a matter of consensus- consensus about boundaries & scope- consensus about the internal logic- consensus about empirical evidence
Questions What about Truth? Does research
lead to truth? What exactly is the difference
between adequacy and validity of a theory?
Why is a preferred theory determined by consensus and not by validity?
Two Goals of Science
Prediction focus on outcomes focus on variable values focus on stability & transition of
system states
Understanding/Explanation focus on understanding of causal
relationships among units
Assignment In your group, think of an example
for the precision paradox and an example for the power paradox.
Using your examples, determine whether they really are paradoxes, and try to resolve them (i.e., explain how they are possible)
Explaining the Paradoxes Precision: deterministic
relationships among units lead to stable associations between them that can be observed
Power: theoretical models highlight significant relationships between units w/o accounting for ALL causal factors or their interactions
Units defined:
Units are mental conceptualizations that represent the parts of a theoretical model that interact with one another in specific ways.
Properties of Units Units are things or properties of things Units are plural, at least in principle Units can be attributes or variables, i.e.,
are categorical or continuous Units can be real or nominal, i.e.,
represent actual or hypothetical constructs
Units can be sophisticated or primitive, i.e., are defined or undefined
Exercise: Units = things or properties of things
Relational intimacy in a couple A person’s religious belief A group’s ethnicity Family communication patterns A person’s height
Laws of Interaction: link units of a theory do NOT require causality may be categorical may be sequential may be determinant may be negative
Efficiencies of Laws
rate of change covariance directionality presence-
absence
High Efficiency
Low Efficiency
Propositions A truth statement in regard to the
theoretical model NOT in regard to reality (i.e., no need
for empirical truth) Must follow accepted rules of logic A statement about the relationship
among units NOT a statement about unit or set
membership.
Propositions & Laws
equivalent to a law of interaction
more limited then a law of
interaction
combining two or more laws of
interaction
Empirical Indicators
Operationalization of a theoretical
construct Good Indicators are reliable and
valid
Reliability: consistency of measure
Validity: measuring the right thing.
Types of Validity in Social Science Face Validity
Does it make sense? Content Validity
Is the entire concept represented? Criterion Validity
Does it correlate with other known measures?
Construct Validity Does it behave like the construct outside
the model?
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a prediction about
the values of units of a theory (where empirical indicators are employed for the units in each proposition) that allow researchers to assess the validity of the theoretical model.
Three condition of a good test of a scientific theory
A) deducible from the theoretical model
B) improbable unless theoretical model is “true”
C) verifiable (testable)
Hypotheses Testing and Theory Development Extensive Tests: test all strategic
hypotheses Intensive Tests: test only key
hypotheses Inductive Tests: build theory from
empirical data
Assignment Define Communication: In 1
paragraph, write a definition of interpersonal communication that captures the concept (unit). Base the definition on knowledge you have from a prior course, experience, or a theoretical approach you are familiar with.
Group Assignment Read each definition aloud Compare and contrast the
definitions Discuss strengths and weaknesses
of each definition Synthesize a final definition of IPC Think about operationalizations of
you definition
Defining Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal Communication is any interaction between two or more persons who are aware of each other and: exchange information create meaning exert influence establish social reality Create & maintain relationships
History of IPC Explorations in Interpersonal
Communication, 1976 Created a vision for the field Emphasized dyadic relationships and
symbiosis of IPC and relationship development
Interpersonal Processes, 1987 Interdisciplinary & focusing on processes
beyond relationship development
Evolving Trends Proliferations of Identifications Globalization The Dark Side Dominant & Alternate
Metatheoretical Views Focus on Applied & Funded
Research Technology
Class Discussion Rules Discussion may start with a brief
review of core assumptions / theoretical model
Each student prepares at least one question to ask in class
Each question is answered by at least two students before I get a turn
Homework Assignment
Think of a phenomenon in interpersonal communication that is in need of a theoretical explanation (i.e., a topic for your term paper). Write a one paragraph research proposal answering the what & why questions. Due Tuesday, Oct., 12th!
The Theory of Evolution
Life evolves through the dual process of random mutation and selection, such that those changes that increase a gene’s (i.e., usually its carrier) reproductive success are passed on to future generations and spread through the gene pool, whereas changes that decrease a gene’s (i.e., usually its carrier) reproductive success are not passed on and disappear from the gene pool.
Theory of Evolution (Darwin) Variation (random change of traits) Inheritance (passing on of traits to
offspring) Selection (of advantageous traits)
- Survival- Reproduction
Inclusive Fitness (Hamilton)
Evolution understood from the
gene’s perspective(I.e., Selfish
Gene) Essentially, genes evolve
Solves “problem” of altruism
Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
solve specific recurring problems of survival or reproduction
takes in limited information uses decision rules to obtain
output output can be psychological,
physiological, or behavioral
Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) Those factors that determine
fitness and selection of an adaptation
Factors might be environmental and social
Many of the social factors might not be temporally stable
Relational Dialectics Dialogic theoretical paradigm, not
unsimilar to interpretive stance Evaluative criterion is heuristic
value Based on Hegel’s Dialectics
Meaning arises out or dialectic tension
Thesis, antithesis, synthesis However, unlike Hegel, no
synthetical resolution but continuous struggle
Process of Dialectics Located in langue use that make
reference to divergent discourses Communication is intertextual
Distal already spokens Proximal already spokens Proximal not yet spokens Distal not yet spokens
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Persons are motivated to explain &
predict social interactions
Thus, in early stages of
relationships, persons are motivated
to reduce uncertainty
Uncertainty Reduction Strategies
Passive: observing other Active: asking 3rd parties Interactive: communicating with
other Asking Disclosing Relaxing
Strategy determined by: Effectiveness Social Appropriateness
Axioms of URT Verbal Communication – Uncertainty Nonverbal Affect – Uncertainty Information Seeking + Uncertainty Intimacy – Uncertainty Reciprocity + Uncertainty Similarities – Uncertainty Liking – Uncertainty Shared Networks – Uncertainty
Relational Uncertainty Sources
Self, other, relationship Levels
Episodic & global Themes
Relationship dependent Context dependent
Uncertainty Management Theory Uncertainty Discrepancy
UD = Ud – Ua
Outcomes Process Results
Efficacies Communication Coping Target
Relational Turbulence Model Transition
Change in circumstance that create potential for relationship change
Turbulence Tumultuous experience in response to
transition Relational uncertainty Partner interference
Relational Turbulence Model
RelationshipUncertainty
Partner Interference
RelationshipChange
Cognition
Emotion
Behavior
Workplace relationships Membership negotiation:
the process of transforming individuals to organizational members
Ongoing communication and evaluation resulting in acceptance or marginalization
Assimilation vs. socialization
Organizations Context of workplace relationships Comm. practices constitute
structure and culture of organization
S&C guide and constrain workplace communication
Workplace relationship and friendship
Similarities Progression & continuity, role
expectations, multidimensionality Differences
Formed & dissolved involuntarily Affect financial livelihood Affect professional growth &
advancement Expectation of task performance
Membership Negotiation Familiarizing with others Acculturation & adaptation Increasing involvement Receiving recognition Acquiring job skills Role negotiation
IPC theory and the workplace Expectancy violation Social exchange Attraction research Relational framing
Comforting Messages Messages alleviating or lessening
emotional distress of others Type of supportive communication,
i.e., comm. designed to aid others
Person Centered Comm. HPC: acknowledges, elaborates,
legitimizes, & contextualizes feelings and perspective of distressed person
LPC: deny feelings and perspective of other, criticize, make illegitimate, prescribe how to feel and act
Theory of conversationally induced reappraisals Based on appraisal theory of
emotion Is limited to explain function of
HPC messages only
CognitiveProcessing
Dual Process Model of Supportive Communication
MessageContent
ContextCues
PsychologicalResponse
Ability to process
Motivation to process
Demand / Withdraw Pattern of Communication where
one partner makes demands and the other withdraws
D/W associated with dissatisfaction Historical Explanations
Gender difference Social structure (men more powerful) Conflict structure (one desiring
change demands)
Caughlin’s research HDWW & WDHW correlated within
couples Power in parent/adolescent
relationship NOT correlated to withdrawal
Attempts at influence associated with demand
Multiple Goals perspective Primary Goal
Goal at content level of conversation Goal used to label interaction Goals that motivate comm behavior
Secondary Goals Other relevant goals that are pursued
simultaneously in interaction Self & relationship goals (primarely) Constrain communication behavior
Types of demand/withdraw Discuss/exit Socratic question/perfunctory
response Complain/deny Critisize/defend
Deception detection Consistent findings
Just above chance of accuracy (54%) Deception detection only 47%
People overestimate their detection ability, unrelated to actual performance
Consistent truth bias
Why poor detection? No consistent cross situational
cues for deception People pay attention to wrong cues People rely on wrong heuristics Small effect of familiarity Research ignores contextual cues
Interpersonal Deception Theory
Deception is goal directed, intentional, & interactive (dynamic & interdependent)!
Focus on both sender & receiver Focus on cognition, emotion, and
behavior
IDT & detection accuracy Result of actor, relationship, &
interactional factors Skills & performance Medium Suspicion Situational constraints
More heavily influence by late judgments than earlier judgments
Levine’s research Veracity effect: truth bias makes
truth accuracy higher than lie accuracy
Park-Levine probability model AT = at*pt + al*pl
Hurtful Communication Hurt
Complex emotion Negative & painful (adverse) Relational transgression &
devaluation Vulnerability Future loss
Moderating Variables Cognitive
Perceived intent Perceived causes Habituation & Sensitization
Individual Differences Attachment orientation Self-esteem Rejection sensitivity
Moderating Variables (cont.) Relational
Relationship Type (voluntariness) Satisfaction Structural Commitment Emotional Context
Functions of hurtful comm. How can HC be used? What effects does it have?
On individuals? On relationships?
How strategic are people when using it?
Culture & Relationships Relationships situated within
cultures, i.e., speech communities Contradictory to defining
interpersonal relationships as based on knowledge of individual psychology (Miller, 1978)
IP Communication Norms = expectations Premises = unstated (i.e., shared)
assumptions about meaning of behavior
Contingent = open to interpretation/influence
Coeribles = behaviors not usually open to influence
Methods for studying IPC Emphasis on interact (sequence)
rather than act Interpretation vs. coding “Theory” internal to case vs.
universal “Experience near” vs. “experience-
distant” concepts Writing as part of the method
Hmm? “The conceptual objective of
ethnographies of speaking is to show what is truly universal about interpersonal communication by showing what is specific to particular groups of people.” (p. 259)
Tips for Papers Follow Assignment
Label all parts of the theory Have a clearly defined theoretical
model Literature Review
Should be holistic (unifying & recurring themes, commonalities and differences)
Do NOT summarize individual articles Should inform theoretical model
Follow APA guidlines
APA Styles Is a formal, scientific style of writing
No contractions, slang, directly addressing the reader, etc.
Consistent appearance Everything double spaced, all same
font size, all same font except italics Headings organize paper Facts matter, not opinions
Support claims with evidence
In text references According to Smith and Miller
(2001), families with two or more children...
Families with two or more children are more conflicted (Smith & Miller, 2001).
Paraphrase, do not quote unless it cannot be paraphrased
If quote, then p# (Miller, 2001, p.13)
References Ritchie, D.L. (1991). Family communication
patterns: An epistemic analysis and conceptual reinterpretation. Communication Research, 18, 548-565.
Ryss, D. (1981). The family's construction of reality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Steod, J. M., & Chaffee, S. H. (1972). The construction of social reality. In J. Tedeschi (Ed.), The social influence process (pp. 50-59). Chicago, IL: Aldine-Atherton.
Aggression / Violence Content:
TV is violent medium, esp. Children Programming
Relational aggression often verbal Effects
Aggressive tendencies Fear Desensitization
Gender Roles Content
Males overrepresented Communication styles sex-
stereotyped Relationship roles stereotypical
Effects May contributed to sexist beliefs Parents may moderate such effects
Sex & Romance Content
Increasingly sexual Sex is recreational Sexuality stereotypical
Effects Some evidence for greater sexual
activity