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THE PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER IS TO EXPAND CON­CEPTS ABOUT TEXT AND ITS ROLE IN CONSTRUCTINGAND RECONSTRUCTING OUR WORLD,

DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMESUpon completion of this chapter you will have developed the following under­

standings:

1. Texts are delivered electronically, on paper and live.

~. Texts can be multi-modal, interactive and incorporate a range of semiotic

systems.

3. Texts can be hybrid, drawing upon a range of other texts and genres.

4. Texts construct a particular view of the world and influence our social

behaviours and interactions.

5. Texts should be interrogated as social and cultural artefacts.

ORIENTATION

The following extract serves as an orientation to this chapter and its investigations.

It is from Chapter Nine, 'How texts reconstruct reality', in M. Anstey and G. Bull

(:~oo4) The Literacy Labyrinth (2nd edition), Pearson Education, Sydney (pages

2.31 -4).

Howtexts are defined

Print texts

Eco's (1979) concept of open and closed texts and discussions about

quality literature and popular culture have traditionally focused on print

text. In this view text can be taken as meaningful units of written, or print,

language. Text in this 'narrow and formalist' position (Lankshear, Gee,

Knobel and Searle, 1997) is then merely a passage of print. In such an era

of print, text was to be found in books and in this sense it was lbounded'

(Lankshear, Snyder and Green, 2000)-that is, it was to be found bound

up in those objects known as books. The set of signs and symbols or

semiotic system that formed the basis of print text was founded on the

codes and conventions of decoding and encoding of sounds and under­

standing of the structures and syntax of sentences, or what Lankshear et

al. refer to as the lingering basics (2000, p. 63), With the advent of what

has become known as the 'information age' this notion of text as print

only might be seen as necessary but not sufficient.

With the appearance of new technology and new forms of media in the

age of information, print text is no longer the only basic. Once the 'great

debate' in literacywas seen in terms of which approach to reading (the

phonic or whole word) was most effective. Now, with the new forms of

text that are saturating contemporary. life, it becomes more a question of

which text type might be the most efficient or powerful (see Arnold in

Watson and Styles, 1996, for a discussion of this point). The diversity of

. text types includes:

• new modes of presentation, particularly those that rely on theVisual;

• a range of media texts;• multimodal texts that are the result of different combinations .. of

modes such as visual/oral/aural;• non~linear arrangements of blocks of information that are linked to

form hypertexts;• different combinations of texts or texts that borrow from one another;

• texts that originate from different social or cultural groups; and• what Zammit and Downes (2002, p. 25) refer to as 'unfUtered texts'

that may be neither authentic nor credible.

The growth in the number of different text types has created greater effi~

ciency and specificity in the production of information but has also

brought with it greater complexity in the field. Equal access for all to thenew forms of text has now become a real issue for thereisthepotentialthat some social or cultural groups will find it difficult to gain entrythrough lack of personal or financial resources. Some of the new textsrequire particular forms of language that may be culture-specific or

necessitate socially situated forms of literacy practice that are notavaH­able to some groups or individuals. Hawisherand Selfe (2000, p.53)suggest that the mere act of 'clicking on' a word may not bea connec­tion that is available in all languages. Such issues lead to questions about

how texts might be interpreted-that is, what are the>meaningsinthetext, how many meanings are there and whoaretheyavailableto7

Visual texts

The issues that are central to the great debate that wehavealreadydis~cussed originally arose around the question of popular culture. There is

widely held belief that young. children areexposedtoamuchmorevisualworld in contrast to the world of print that their parents explored atthe

same. age. The contempora rv world is full·oftext th~tis mediated throughfilm, video, advertising,. gaming and the Internet. As Watson andStyles

(1996, p.179) suggest, students are now immersed in a rangeofsel11iotic

systems SUCh. as. advertising and .various other. graphic •• texts,suc9ascomics, that they have learnt to read/view before theycometoschool.They

are highly literate/albeit visually/ well beforetheybecomeprintlit~rate. ThepopUlar nature of these media texts make them quite differetlt from the .more traditional texts of the 'canon/associated with quality literature.

This emphasis on the visual has focused attention on the COnnectionbetween written and illustrative or vislial text. Pullman(H~89}/ Sipe(1998)/Anstey and Bu II (2000), Lewis (2001 },Nikolajeva. and Scott (2000)

and Arizpeand Styles (2003) have aU investigated the dynamics oftherelationship between word and image inanattemptto discover how theycome together to create meaning. Certainly there is .a semiotic systemassociated with visual texts that encompasses such elements as colour,line, format, texture and shape that students need control over in orderto make meaning. Theaddedcomplicationwith visualtextisthatitcanbefoundinbothstilland moving imag.es.Theresearch that we. dis;.cussed above concentrates mainly on those visual texts that are to. be

found .in .picturebooks.VisuaItextsin the formof·mC'vingimages have •. asemioticsystern oOheir own and the new platformsslJchasJhe Internet.atldgamingsites haves high proportionoffilm/videoand cartoon.Thesemoving ... visua.l·textsare .• oftenaccompaniedby music,vQiceoversand.sQund. effects and rely· on the .. interpretation· of elements. such I3S

c;ameraangle,lighting, gesture, setting. and dress. Thisrequire~ thereader/viewer to beliterCltejnCl number of differentmodes.

Multimodaltexts

Multimodaltextsare those thatrelyontheprocessing and .interpretation·of printinformation that blends withvisual, .•audio/ spoken/nonverbal.·andother forms of expression produced .througha ••.•. rangeofdjfferenttech~nologies.•Averyusefulway.oflooking attheproductio~•.ofrnultirnodaltextisthatsuggestedby.Zammitand •• Downes (?002, p. 27),TheyproposecJaframework (see FigureA.l) .forJookingat new learning.Emvironrnents.

The framework is useful because it extends the notion of texts into new.::- ,:: . :.'~: .. ': .~.:.:. :.' ..::: "::...:.... ::.::: ::: :.-:'. : :: .. : .. :',:': :. ':.: .:.:, . ":- ':'~, ,~,' ':' ",~' ,~;:":' '~:' :,,' -, -,:" -, ,-,'~", ,':',,~ ",: - ;'; ,::' ::", ,; :"" :"" ,', ':- :,,- ::;,,:~:':',":' ,,::~, ,,' : ,:':forms and identifies the new technologies that can be employed toproduce them. It also indicates the variety of new literacies that are avail~

able to support the creation of a multiliterateperson able to participate

§(/IClz::l

~w1::-'UJ

~

Figure 4.1 Framework for new learning environments

SOURCE: Zammit & Downes (2002). published by the Australian Literacy Educators' Asaociation.Heproduced withpermission.

asan active and informed citizen in today's digital world. The variety ofplatforms (or type of·medium) such .as the.lnternet,DVDandvideothat

are now accessible. require the contemporary ciassroomtqinclud7

Cl

range of new texts that are often predicated on the .. ability ofthereader/viewer to engage with a number ofdifferentse 111 iotiG systems in

order. to make meaning.•Print.text •. is now· regulcrrlysupplel11entedvvithstill and moving images that containvoiceoversaswellasothergraphic

material. thatexpect.thestudentto.be. aware.ofsuchelerllentsascam~ra

angles,. gesture, .. music, Ijghting,djalogue.and.soi(>n .•Th~s7.hybridte)(t$are frequently non-linear(thatistheynol()n~ermove frorn Ieftto rightortop.to bottorn as do traditional forms otprintt~xt)andtheyareofteninteractive and dynamic.

''','' ..... : .... ".".':" ... ,-, .., .. ,'; .. -.,,: .. :.' ..... , ....::,::.:;.-.:..... :: .... .'.::,

With the integration of the written word with voice, film, images, graphs,photographs and symbols, the 'reader' can now select his or her pathway

through all this hypermedia in a highly individualised way to eventually

produce a hypertext. The same reader, using the same program, butmaking different choices, could construct quite a different· hypertext.

What has happened is an entirely different relationship between (hyper)

text and information. Both the texts and the. information are in very realterms created by the reader.

FURTHER READING

Anstey, M. and Bull, G. (2000) 'The emergence of the modern picture book: An histor­ical perspective', Chapter Two, in Reading the Visual: Written and IllustratedChildren's Literature, Harcourt, Sydney. This chapter traces the history of thepicture book in the 20th century in Australia, the US and the UK. It shows the rela­tionship between political, social, economic and technological change in thesecountries and the way picture books (as one type of text) developed. It demon­strates how and why texts are not neutral, but construct a particular view of theworld that can influence our social behaviours and interactions. It also demon­strates why texts should be interrogated as social and cultural artefacts-becausethey are part of our social and cultural history.

Anstey, M. and Bull, G. (2004) 'How texts reconstruct', Chapter Nine, and 'Visual texts',Chapter Eleven, in The Literacy Labyrinth (2nd edition). Pearson Education, Sydney.

Bull, G. and Anstey, M. (eds) (2003) 'Reading gender and culture in media discoursesand texts', Chapter Twelve, by A. Luke, in The Literacy Lexicon (2nd edition).Pearson Education, Sydney.

INVESTIGATING LEARNING OUTCOMES ONE,TWO AND THREE• Texts are delivered electronically, on paper and live.

• Texts can be multi-modal, interactive and incorporate a range of semioticsystems.

• Texts can be hybrid, drawing upon a range of other texts and genres.

What do texts look like and how do we access them? Do we need to know more

about texts and how they are constructed in order to be able to read and write

them? If so, is this knowledge different to that which we associate with print and

paper texts?

1. We want you to reflect upon the types of texts and technologies you have usedand the purposes for which you have used them. We also want you to thinkabout the characteristics of the texts delivered by the technology. In order todo this you should complete the grid in Table 4.1, identifying the technologiesand texts you have used in the past week (or similar time period). To assist you

we have completed some rows as examples. We have also left some blanks foryou to add other technologies and texts you have used.

2.. After completing the grid look at the variety of texts and technologies youused and their characteristics. What does this tell you about texts and what weneed to know and understand about them in order to be multiliterate?

Table 4.1 Texts and technologies

Pen & paper1. Shopping Memory V

list joggerV2. Magazine entertainment

3.4.

Phone(Iandline)

Computer1. Email Arrange work2.3.

III FaxA.CII Mobile phoneuenCI CDjti DVD~w Video playerI-::;w Pager:I:I-

1V

Camera (stillphotographic)

Camera(video)

L Tape some television ads. Examine them and develop a list of the componentsthat advertisers use in these ads; for example, a jingle or testimonial from afamous person. Identify the modes and the codes and conventions of semiotic

system used in these ads; for example, music, voice, sound, colour, lighting,body position, camera angles and so forth. Did any of these ads particularlyappeal to you and why was this so?

2. After examining the ads, consider the range of modes and semiotic systemsthat were used in them. What does this tell you about texts and what we needto know and understand about them in order to be multiliterate?

1. The extract in Figure 4.2 is from the picture book Tagged (Crew, 1997). It is anexample of a hybrid text as it borrows from a range of genres and modes; forexample, picture book, strip film, comics and so forth. If you can locate thebook, examine all of it and answer the following questions. If you cannot, usethe page reproduced below to aid your investigation.

2. Tagged does not follow the conventions of publishing, as the story and pic­tures start as soon as you open the book and the title and half-title page appearafter the first page of the story. Can you think of other genres and modeswhere this is a normal convention (Le. the story beginning before the titles orcredits)? This is one of the ways in which Tagged is a hybrid text, borrowingcharacteristics outside the conventions of picture books.

3. As you view the page reproduced in Figure 4.2 try to identify the modes thetext borrows from; for example, look at the layout and organisation of the pageand the strip of screens across the middle. Again, these borrowings from othermodes and media make Tagged a hybrid text.

III

~UlCI

j~ffi!::...J

UJ:cI-

Figure 4.2 Extract from Tagged

SOURCE: Extract from Tagged © 1997, Gary Crew & Steven Woolman, Era Publications, Australia.

SYNTHESISThe purpose of this set of investigations was to examine the ways in which texts

have changed and will continue to change. Clearly classroom literacy instruction

cannot be devoted to paper texts alone, nor can we allow the printed word to domi­

nate literacy instruction. Students need to be able to use many semiotic systems

and to be able to engage with and construct texts that require different ways of

reading and interacting. The issue of change is a particularly important one in

terms of selecting appropriate pedagogies and ways of engaging with texts in the

classroom. Our investigations have shown that texts do not always proceed in a

linear fashion, that they may require interaction and decision-making by the reader

in terms of what to read when (the notion of hypertext) and that texts are seldom

pure (the concept of hybrid texts). Therefore our pedagogy must prepare students to

engage with new texts, texts that are different and changing. Certainly our students

will require knowledge about semiotic systems and language structures but they

will also need strategies and problem-solving skills to use when texts evolve and do

not always resemble those they have known. Therefore our literacy teaching prac­

tices must achieve a balance between knowledge and strategies.

INVESTIGATING LEARNING OUTCOMESFOUR AND FIVE• Texts construct a particular view of the world and influence our social

behaviours and interactions.

• Texts should be interrogated as social and cultural artefacts.

What is the difference between knowing how to make meaning of a text and

understanding about the origins of the text, its authenticity and the effect it can

have on your social and cultural values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours? What

does this have to do with social power, access and equity?

In investigation one you identified the range of texts and technologies you had

engaged with over a period of time and the purposes for using them. In this

investigation we want you to go back to your grid from investigation one

(Table 4.1) and review it in terms of the purpose and context for which these texts

and technologies were used.

1. Did any of these activities involve engaging with different social and culturalgroups?

If so, did you know or need to learn:

specific cultural or social behaviours;. appropriate body language; and/or. specific conventions of speech

in order to complete the activity successfully?

2. Did your behaviour, speech or body language change depending upon whetheryou were using electronic, print or live text?

1. Find and view two versions of a film that has been remade several times. Tryto find two that have been remade some years apart. Examples of films youmight view are The ThomaA Crown Affair, Romeo and Juliet, The Italian Joband Ocean'.1J Eleven.

2. List the similarities and differences between the two versions in terms of plot,characterisation, setting, costuming, props etc. The following questions willhelp you begin the comparisons.

a. Has the plot changed in any way, and if so how?

b. Are there particular social practices that are different from one version toanother (e.g. smoking, sexual relationships, recreational activities)?

c. Has the role and character portrayal of the women or men changed in anyway?

d. How are cultural or ethnic groups portrayed in each version?

e. How are particular social groups portrayed in each version?

f. How are workplaces and the interactions of people within them portrayedin each version?

g. Consider the country in which the versions are set. How is the country andits culture portrayed in each version?

Consider these two beginnings to a text:

Herman the frog had lived for a long time in Frog's Hollow and it had always

been a quiet, clean and restful home. He had many friends among the

animals, birds and insects who lived there and they all lived together har­

moniously. They shared their foods and played together in the evenings.

Recently, however, some of them had got sick ...

Frogs are an excellent indicator of the state of health in our environment,

particularly the water. Scientists have discovered that often the first sign

of pollution is a decrease in the frog population. Many species of frogs are

now close to extinction in parts of Australia. In particular ...

1. Think about how each of these texts might continue and try to complete eachone.

2. How easy or difficult was this task for you?3. What knowledge did you need-knowledge about the social, political and eco­

nomic purpose of the text, the context in which it would be used, its potentialaudience, knowledge about the genre, knowledge about the topic?

SYNTHESISThe purpose of investigations four, five and six was to develop further under­

standings about the relationship between text and power. We found that texts are

products of their origins and reflect social and cultural knowledge and history and

have political and economic roles in society. This is why we refer to texts as cul­

tural artefacts and why we need to learn to interrogate texts, to ensure that we are

aware of their origins and authenticity, and the ideas, beliefs and attitudes they

contain. In this way we become empowered and in control ofthe text and its under­

lying messages rather than simply becoming passive consumers of the text. We

also learned that if we did not understand and know how to use the appropriate

language and behaviours around text then we could not achieve our purpose in

using it. In other words, being literate depends upon your ability to access and use

the literate practices and behaviours appropriate to the purpose and context in

which you find yourself.

Because of their cultural and social ongms some texts are more powerful

than others in particular groups or contexts. Membership of a particular social or

cultural group may mean that it is difficult to access certain texts. Because of

this, some group members may find themselves silenced or marginalised. An

example of this is the representation (or lack of) of Aboriginal Australians or

other people of colour in print texts or other forms of media such as film, video,

TV or magazines in Australia. Although these are powerful forms of text they are

not equally accessible to all members of Australian society.

On a larger scale terms such as the World Wide Web and global texts are mis­

leading. The Web is only 'world wide' in a geographical sense and is not freely

available to all. Similarly 'global' texts are not accessible to everyone. This is true

in Australia but even more so in other countries that are not as economically

developed or even in countries where the first language is not that particular

form of English used on the Internet.

STIMUL.US FOR FURTHER REFLECTION

The advertisements in Figures 4.3 to 4.6 have appeared in a variety of

magazines ranging from National Geographic, to colour supplements in

national newspapers, to monthly periodicals for men and women. Similar

advertisements are to be found in live and electronic form. They are

examples of texts that can be:

· multi-modal, interactive and draw on and incorporate a range of

semiotic systems;

hybrid texts because they draw on a range of other texts and genres;

· representative of a particular view of the world; and

· directed towards a particular social or cultural group.

The first two advertisements (Figures 4.3 and 4.4) are advertising Canon

cameras.

1. Examine the two ads and consider which one is directed at men and

which one at women. What is it about the ads that helps you make that

decision?

2. How do the different contexts in which the models are placed affect the

meanings that are conveyed by the two images?

3. Consider the costuming and body positions of the models and how

much of their body you see (Le. head and shoulders or whole body). Why

do you think they are different? What is the effect?

4. It is interesting that the camera is actually concealed in the image.

Why do you think that is so? Consider where it is concealed in each

image. Could the concealed item be something other than a camera?

Figure 4.3 Canon camera advertisement, female model

MInlI).T

canooDigital MV550i.The

Figure 4-4 Canon camera advertisement, male model

nwerShot

The 'go anywhere' PowerShot DigitallXUS V2.

DIClITAL

Canon

5· What do you think the messages about cameras and the people who use

them are in these ads? How did you come to those conclusions?

6. How are these advertisements attempting to shape your behaviour,

values and attitudes?

7. What knowledge and experience has helped you answer these

questions? Is it social, cultural, political, or economic?

8. Compare the two ads. Consider whether you think either would

encourage you to buy Canon cameras. Why or why not?

The second two advertisements (Figures 4.5 and 4.6) are promoting the

sale of motor vehicles, a van and a four-wheel drive.

1. What do you think the purpose of the cardboard sign and its message is?

2. What knowledge and experience do you need to make sense of this

sign?

3. How does it construct Australia and immigrants?

4. What is the relationship between the ideas about immigration and

encouraging us to purchase the van?

5. Would everyone view this ad in the same way and make similar

interpretations? Consider how an immigrant or refugee might view

the ad.

6. This is an ad designed for and used in an Australian context (an

Australian artefact). Would it work in the country where Kia vans are

made or in other countries?

Examine the second ad, which is for a four-wheel drive.

1. The ad is designed for and used in an Australian context (an Australian

artefact). Would it work in the country where Mitsubishi four-wheel

drives are made or in other countries?

2. How does the ad portray four-wheel drive owners?

3. Why do you think the ad portrays the four-wheel drive as a toy? How is

this achieved?

4. Does the ad portray a particular view of males, and if so what is it?

5. This ad does not appear to be designed to appeal to women? Why do

you think women are excluded?

6. Think about this ad as a text portraying attitudes, beliefs and ideas

about women, men, recreation and four-wheel drives. What are the

messages?

7. Compare the two ads. Which do you think would be more successful

and why?

Figure 4.5 Motor vehicle advertisement for a van

THE PREGIO VAN AND THE K2700 TRUCK. ONLY $22,500*

When you're the new kid In town you've got to provo yourself. Which is oxactly

whot tho 1.25 tonne Prcgio van and 1,5 tOlinc K270a tilt cub trucl< are out them

doing. They've both got a gutsy 2.7 litre diesel engine with rear wheel drive for

better load stability. For the driver there arC comforts like air, CO, power

windows and remote central locking. And for added reassurance YOu get access

to RU<Jdr,!dC Assi!itnncc and a CourtC!sy Vehicle Program'. All for an amazingly

low $22.500', with generous fleet dlscounfS available, Call Kia on 1800 600

010 to test drive the best value fully spec'd van and light truch In Australlfl,

"HllUlnllllt~fldmj 'HI'ill Ilril.'P., f!\'lflu"L f''f:r;tlJdw, df:!iltW dtllivery ill'!rJ r!.oVlmmlp.nt chmgHl>' MHaJ!jf; ;;In(J

IYlil:<l pc1im CAlt/). 'ConrJlrJol18 '1J)ply. Sen your deniM for t1Ctllil.~.

STA RT SOM ETHI NO

Figure 4.6 Motor vehicle advertisement for a four-wheel drive

THE ALL-A(T ION (H ALL ENG ER.To the adventurous, the bold and the ·restless - here's some serious fun. The MltsUblshl Challenger 4WD.

This 3.0 litre, 24 vahle, multi-point fuellnjetted V5 hoas what It takes and then same. Its stack of standard gear Includes

oversized i1l1oys, power steering/wIndows/mirrors. du.al alfbag's, flexible seating layout and pocl<ets for everythIng.

Talk to your local Mltsublshl Dealer and test drive the Challenger. Recommended for children 16 andover.

REFERENCES

Anstey, M. and Bull, G. (2000) Reading the VLoual: Written and Illu.otrated Children';, Literature.Harcourt, Sydney.

Anstey, M.and Bull, G. (2004)The LiteracyLabyrinth (2nd edition). Pearson Education, Sydney.

Arizpe, E. and Styles, M. (2003) Children Reading Picture;,; Interpreting VLoual Text;,. RoutledgeFalmer, London.

Bull, G. and Anstey, M. (2003) The Literary Lexicon (2nd edition). Pearson Education, Sydney.

Crew, G. (1997) Tagged (illustrated by Steven Woolman). Era, Flinders Park, South Australia.

Eco, U. (1979) The Role of the Reader. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana.

Hawisher, G. E. and Selfe, C. L. (:woo) Global Literacie;, and the World-Wide Web. RoutlEidge,London.

Lankshear, C., Gee, J. P.,Knobel, M. and Searle,C. (1997) Changing Literacie;,.Open UniversityPress, Buckingham.

Lankshear, C., Snyder, I. and Green, B. (2000) TeacherAand Techno-literacy: Managing Literacy,Technology and Learning in SchooU. Allen'" Unwin, Sydney.

Lewis, D. (2001) Reading Contemporary Pictureboolu..Routledge Falmer,Lon<lon.

Nikolajeva, M.and Scott, C. (2000) 'The dynamics ofpicturebookco~1l.ll1l,lI1ication',jnChildren),Literature in education, 31, 225-39.

Pullman, p. (1989) 'Invisible pictures', in Signal, 60.160-86.

Sipe, LoR. (1998)'How picture books work: asemiotically framed theoryships', in Children'l.Literature in education, 29, 97-108.

Watson,V. and Styles. M. (eds) (1996) lUl:K:tfU./ Pirf,JrOA' P"rfrwil,l

and Stoughton, London.

Zammit, K. and Downes,framework for. educators'25-36.