COMMUNITIES IN TRANSITION

Chapter 10

THE SOCIAL LEGACY• impact of BC’s colonial past

revealedo stark contrast in income, health

and interactions in criminal justice

o dramatic gaps between First Nations and other Cdns

• key symptoms of colonialismo income

average income 70% of average of other Cdns

household income 40% lower than national average

source: First Nations living on reserves receive higher portion of income from government payments than from employment

o health poverty, overcrowding and poor housing led to chronic and acute respiratory diseases average age of death 20 years below average Cdn infant mortality rate 3x Cdn average more than 33% all First Nations death due to violence compared to 8% mainstream society

o justice and criminal law systems not entitled to vote federally until 1960 land claims activities criminalized from 1927-1951 children forcibly removed from homes and into residential school until 1970s 1996 – less than 3% total population but were 12% into federal and 20% into provincial prisons

chance of incarceration higher than any other group of Cdns• some indications of positive change

o gap in life expectancy decreasing

RULES OF EXCLUSION• “Status Indians”

o Aboriginal communities split on artificial definitions of Indian Act

person’s affiliation not on birth, but government laws

• only status allows band membership, live in reserves• Indian Act rules historically discriminated against

womeno landownership, wills, band elections, and band

membershipo before 1951, couldn’t vote for band councils

based European model and patrilineal descent

traditionally First Nations matrilineal o Indian Act made male head of householdo women and children subject to males

Status determined by man’s status woman marry non-Indian – lose status if husband enfranchised, so did the wife

o rules for men different if married non-Status, still retained status

and wife gained statuso rules in place until 1985 and passing of Bill C-31

• membership in a band controlled by Dept of Indian Affairso “Indian register” – official list of band membership to track reserve populations

did not include all entitled to membership• 1985 amendments to Indian Act under Bill C-31

o important changes of membership to align with Charter of Rights and Freedoms

ability of Dept to arbitrarily enfranchise a person was removed bands gained more control over membership women and children who lost status through marriage were able to be reinstated

GOVERNING COMMUNITIES

• colonial/Cdn governments had little regard for traditional First Nations governing systemso imposed elected municipal

system Chief Councillor and Band

Council elected for limited terms

• traditionally hereditary chiefs for life

• 1996 Royal Commission of Aboriginal Peoples identified several important characteristics of traditional governanceo important to consider for

future self-government

1. centrality to land – community’s relationship to land was basis for governmenta) political action in response to need for respect for land and stewardship of

resourcesb) result of colonial policies – First Nations had no land base or reduced territories

2. rule of law grounded in relationship with landa) laws given by Creator or out of natural worldb) underlying principles of behaviorc) in practice and passed orallyd) Euro-Cdn written in detail and based on social control

3. roles of groupsa) roles of family and groups were core to village organization and membership to

societyb) belonged to family or clan for life – important to identityc) under Indian Act membership could change

4. Elders are keepers of the language, culture and lawsa) looked to for guidanceb) marginalized by colonial government

5. Individuality and responsibility to community go hand-in-handc) self-reliance and initiative add to success of communityd) Western culture – individual achievement at odds to group successe) traditionally, leaders were accountable to communityf) Colonial elected councils accountable to majority

6. consensus decision-makingg) brings sense of unity as all work together for total agreementh) elected model splits people for majority vote

HEALTH RELATED STRUGGLES• series of epidemics devastated First Nations

communitieso including Spanish influenza following

WWI• 1900s diseases changed from short

epidemics to lingering chronic diseaseso most prevalent – tuberculosis (TB)

infectious lung or bone disease took hold when living conditions

substandard reserves, residential schools

o months/years to cureo left weakened or crippledo inequality in treatmento 1970s-1980s incidence of TB dropped

• diabeteso shift in diet to processed foods

higher sugar and starcho complications to blindness and lower

limb circulationo First Nations 3X national average

higher on reserves than offo gender difference – more women

• alcoholism o social disease introduced at contact

trade item with no immunity or social conventiono communities trapped in cycles of alcohol abuseo most successful programmes run by First Nations people with holistic approacho added issues of personal health, social and emotional effects

•HIV/AIDSonewest disease to threatenoinitiatives taken to prevent, assist, and support

VICTORIA -- Alcohol-related deaths among First Nations in B.C. are a staggering five times higher than for other British Columbians, says a prominent First Nations doctor, who argues aboriginal leaders need to start working on an alcohol strategy to save lives.

Dr. Evan Adams, aboriginal health physician adviser in the office of the Provincial Health Officer, believes First Nations need to get over their discomfort in talking about alcohol misuse.

"It's hard to bring it up in a safe way without sounding as if you are (buying in) to stereotypes," Adams said. "It has to be initiated by us - as First Nations - and it needs to happen at every level.“

An alcohol strategy would look at availability of alcohol on reserves, the cost of buying booze and whether it should be increased, education around alcohol misuse and abuse, dangers of binge drinking and the possibility of more reserves banning alcohol.

Under the Indian Act, chief and council, with a majority of voting band members, can pass bylaws prohibiting the possession and sale of intoxicants and prohibit anyone on a reserve from being intoxicated.In B.C., 17 bands out of 203 have an intoxicant bylaw.

The Provincial Health Officer's report on the health of aboriginal people, released earlier this year, shows that in 2006, the rate of aboriginal alcohol-related deaths was 15.1 per 10,000, compared to 3.4 per 10,000 for other residents.Between 2002 and 2006, more than 40 per cent of First Nations deaths in vehicle accidents were alcohol-related, compared to 19 per cent for other B.C. residents.

While there are strategies for dealing with illicit drugs, alcohol is seldom mentioned because it is legal, Adams said. "We forget that alcohol is one of the biggest killers.“

Adams said there's no evidence of a genetic basis for First Nations alcohol abuse. He believes a more credible explanation lies in social problems such as poverty, stress, overcrowding, unemployment and unhealthy housing.

Victoria Times Colonist

However, aboriginal societies did not traditionally use alcohol and, until contact with Europeans, most had no alcohol-making abilities. That means communities have had to develop social norms around alcohol use within a few generations, while in other societies, it has taken centuries, Adams said.

A major concern is binge drinking among young people, he said, adding suicides are more common when young people have been misusing alcohol. Chronic drinking by adults also takes a toll, he said.

"When you have been drinking you do things you would normally never do - sleep around, hit your kids, cut yourself or cry for someone you would never cry for in your right mind.“

Michelle Corfield, who stepped down last month as Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council vice-president, said any alcohol strategy would have to look at social issues that cause people to drink.

Corfield, who would like to see intensive alcohol education start in elementary school, said youth binge drinking often leads to victimization of women and young girls.

Andrea Elliott, health manager on the Tsartlip First Nation near Victoria, said alcohol abuse isn't just a First Nations problem.

"I tend to agree there should be a strategy, but I don't think there's much difference between native and non-native cultures," said Elliott, who wants to see more funding to train counsellors and more efforts to address underlying issues of poverty and overcrowded housing.

"There are going to be people who drink because they need to escape those stresses.“

Victoria Times Colonistjlavoietc@canwest.com© Copyright (c) Canwest News Service

REBUILDING FAMILIES

• key to community is strength of family

• agents of colonialism shattered bonds of family in pursuit of assimilation

• lasting effects of residential schoolingo divided families, nearly destroyed

First Nations languages, created social problems

o First Nations communities built on extended families

o institutions split boys and girlso siblings not allowed to talk to

each othero feelings of alienation when homeo lost parenting skills o lack of skills for own communities

and for life in Euro-Cdn society

o emotional, physical, and sexual abuse shame and guilt lawsuits filed by survivors

apologies from different churches and the Cdn government (2008) compensation from federal government (2008) apology from Pope Benedict (2009)

o problems compounded by poverty and discrimination substance abuse, violence and neglect

• 1950s, 60s, 70s provinces to take over responsibility of Aboriginal social welfareo social workers “scoop-up” childreno into foster homes or adoptive families

• fighting to regain control over child custody and welfareo care within own communities

ADJUSTING TO URBAN LIVING• trend for Aboriginal people to move to urban areas

increased since 1970s• in BC, between 1979-1999 percentage of First

Nations living on reserves decreased 9%o nearly half of First Nations registered living off

reserves – primarily in urban areas• many reasons to move to cities

o greater opportunities for education and employment

o get away from negative situations poor housing, family breakdown, abusive

relationships• some successful and part of multicultural mix

o others face economic hardship – particularly in Vancouver

as many problems as had on reserves poor housing and districts, substance

abuse and criminal behavior more visible to general public

reinforced negative stereotyping and prejudice

Sixty percent of children living on First Nations reserves do not graduate from high school.

• maintaining cultural identity a challengeo if in city several generations, may have lost contacto others wanting to escape abuse and violence, purposely do not want contact

• in most urban areas have diverse First Nations people and hard to maintain sense of own distinct cultural identity

o created urban locals• First Nations in cities do not receive federal benefits as those on reserve

o includes health care, housing assistance, counselingo some organizations established to assist Aboriginal people living in towns and cities

Friendship Centres offer support, including education, child care, youth drop-ins and assistance to homeless