compaction seminar report

8/10/2019 compaction seminar report

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Compaction of soils

Department of Civil Engineering, A.I.T. Page 1

Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION

Soil compaction is the process to increase the soil (ground) density in order to make use

the ground surface for development, i.e. building, road, etc. The volume of void space is

reduced by applying high loads over a small area to force the air out of an unsaturated soil

mass. What happens to air spaces when someone steps on the soil or a piece of equipment

drivesover the soil? The soil compacts again.

InGeotechnical engineering,soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a

soil causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains.Thesoils at the given site are often less than ideal for the intended purpose. They may be

weak/highly compressible or have a higher permeability than desirable from the

geotechnical engineering point of view. In such situations, one has to try to stabilize or

improve the engineering properties of such soils. This can be achieved through

compaction [1].

The better the compaction, the better will be shear strength, density and bearing capacity

of the individual layers and with that the lasting quality of the embankment of road

construction.Rollers are used for compaction since long olden days. Over a thousand

years ago the Chinese used huge cylindrical shaped stone rollers for road works, and the

world famous builders of Rome used towed stone rollers. The self propelled road rollers

powered by steam engines were built in 19thcentury .As the time passed the development

of compaction equipments has taken place rapidly[2].

Soil compaction is one of the most critical components in the construction of roads,

airfields, embankments, and foundations. The durability and stability of a structure are

related to the achievement of proper soil compaction. Structural failure of roads and

airfields and the damage caused by foundation settlement can often be traced back to the

failure to achieve proper soil compaction. It is a standard procedure in the construction

of earth structures, such as embankments, subgrades, and bases for road and airfield

pavements. No other construction process that is applied to natural soils produces so

marked a change in their physical properties at so low a cost as compaction (when it is

properly controlled to produce the desired results) [2].
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering


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Compaction of soils


1.1 Soil Compaction

Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil.

In construction, this is a significant part of the building process. If performed improperly,

settlement of the soil could occur and result in unnecessary maintenance costs or structure

failure. Almost all types of building sites and construction projects utilize mechanical

compaction techniques.

Compaction involves an expulsion of air without a significant change in the amount of

water in the soil mass. Thus, the moisture content of the soil, which is defined as the ratio

of the Weight of water to the weight of dry soil particles, is normally the same for loose,un compacted soil as for the same soil after compaction. Since the amount of air is

reduced without change in the amount of water in the soil mass, the degree of saturation

(the ratio of the volume of water to the combined volume of air and water) increases.

When used as a construction material, the significant engineering properties of Soils are

its shear strength, its compressibility, and its permeability. Compaction of the soil

generally increases its shear strength, decreases its compressibility, and decreases its

permeability [3].

1.2 Why compact?

There are five principle reasons to compact soil:

1.

Increases load-bearing capacity

2. Prevents soil settlement and frost damage

3. Provides stability

4.

Reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction5. Reduces settling of soil

We compact (densify) fine grained soils so they absorb less free moisture. Soil tends to

absorb moisture with time and softens, promoting bearing and to reduce differential

settlement. We also compact soil and rock mixtures to increase their effective shear

strength, making them more able to resist gross deformations .Excessive settlement may

eventually lead to complete slope failure hencewe compact soils to reduce the long-term

settlement [4].


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Compaction of soils


Chapter 2:

EFFECTS OF POOR COMPACTION

Fig 1:EFFECTS OF POOR COMPACTION

In the slide above, you see six examples of structures that have been compromised

because of poorly compacted soil.

In the first example, a structure has cracked due to the soil below it failing due to lack of

compaction. In the second example, a concrete slab has cracked due to poor soil

underneath it. The third example shows the joint in a pipeline which could separate due to

poor supporting soil. The fourth example shows a foundation cracking and falling away

due to the soil settling. The fifth example shows a concrete block designed to support a

structure tipped to one side as the soil is not supporting it evenly. The last example shows

a trench settling, which jeopardizes the pipe that runs through it [4].


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Compaction of soils


Chapter 3:

SOIL TYPES AND CONDITIONS

Considering soil compaction, the two broad classifications are cohesive soils and

cohesionless, or noncohesive, soils. Cohesive soils are those that contain sufficient

quantities of silt or clay to render soil mass virtually impermeable when properly

compacted. Such soils are all varieties of clays, silts, and silty or clayey sands and

gravels. By contrast, cohesionless soils are the relatively clean sands and gravels, which

remain pervious even when well-compacted [2].

Every soil type behaves differently with respect to maximum density and optimum

moisture. Therefore, each soil type has its own unique requirements and controls both in

the field and for testing purposes. Soil types are commonly classified by grain size,

determined by passing the soil through a series of sieves to screen or separate the

different grain sizes.

There are three basic soil groups:

1.

Cohesive

2. Granular

3. Organic (this soil is not suitable for compaction and will not be discussed here).

Cohesive soil:

Cohesive soils have the smallest particles. Clay has a particle size range of .00004" to

.002". Silt ranges from .0002" to .003". Clay is used in embankment fills and retaining

pond beds.

Granular soil:

Granular soils range in particle size from .003" to .08" (sand) and .08" to 1.0" (fine to

medium gravel). Granular soils are known for their water-draining properties.


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Compaction of soils


Organic soil:

These are partly decomposed vegetable matter. These make soil unsuitable for

construction purposes, and needs to be removed and replaced with suitable soil.

Most soils are made up of a mixture of these basic soil types and are classified as sandy

clay, clayey sand, sandy silt etc. Study of the properties of these types of soil greatly

helps in selection of proper compaction equipment [6].

3.1 Soil Properties Affected By Compaction

Principal soil properties affected by compaction include-

1. Settlement.

2. Shearing resistance.

3.

Movement of water.

4. Volume change.

Compaction does not improve the desirable properties of all soils to the same degree. In

certain cases, the engineer must carefully consider the effect of compaction on these the

desire to hold volume change to a minimum may be more important than just an increasein shearing resistance.

Settlement: It is the decrease in surface elevation of the fill material within the

embankment. A principal advantage resulting from the compaction of soils used in

embankments is that it reduces settlement that might be caused by consolidation of the

soil within the body of the embankment.

Shearing resistance: It is the soils ability to resist slippage when a force is applied.

Increasing density by compaction usually increases shearing resistance. This effect is

highly desirable in that it may allow the use of a thinner pavement structure over a

compacted subgrade.

Movement of water: When soil particles are forced together by compaction, both the

number of voids contained in the soil mass and the size of the individual void spaces are


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Compaction of soils


reduced. This change in voids has an obvious effect on the movement of water through

the soil. One effect is to reduce the permeability, thus reducing the seepage of water.

Volume Change: Change in volume (shrinkage and swelling)is an important soilproperty, which is critical when soils are used as subgrades for road sand airfield

pavements. Volume change is generally not a great concern in relation to compaction

except for clay soils where compaction does have a marked influence. For these soils, the

greater the density, the greater the potential volume change due to swelling, unless the

soil is restrained [6].


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Compaction of soils


Chapter 4:

TYPES OF COMPACTION

There are four types of compaction effort on soil or asphalt:

1.

Vibration

2. Impact

3. Kneading

4.

Pressure

Each of these types is carried out using one of two types of forces: static or vibratory.

Static force relies on the weight of a machine to apply downward pressure on soil, thus

compressing the soil particles. Adding weights to, or removing them from, the

compaction machine can adjust the amount of pressure. Although effective, static

compaction is best suited for the upper soil layers. The types of compaction that fall under

static are kneading and pressure

Vibratory forces, on the other hand, uses mechanically driven force to apply downward

pressure in addition to the weight of the machine. The mechanically driven force is an

applied vibratory force that rotates the eccentric weight of a piston and spring

combination .Compactors achieves compaction through the use of delivering rapid blows,

or impacts, to the surface. This is effective in that it not only compacts the top layers, but

the deeper layers as well. With vibration, the particles are set in motion and moved closer

together to form a high density [7].

4.1 Lab Compaction Test

Tests to determine optimum moisture content are done in the laboratory. The most

common is the Proctor Test, or Modified Proctor Test. A particular soil needs to have an

ideal (or optimum) amount of moisture to achieve maximum density. This is important

not only for durability, but will save money because less compaction effort is needed to

achieve the desired results.


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Automated Proctor Equipment Manual Proctor Test

Fig 4 Proctor Test


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4.2 Field Compaction Tests

It is important to know and control the soil density during compaction. Following are

common field tests to determine on the spot if compaction densities are being reached .

Fig 5 Field density Test

Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556-90)

A small hole (6 x 6 deep) is dug in the compacted material to betested. The soil is

removed and weighed, then dried and weighedagain to determine its moisture content. A

soils moisture is figuredas a percentage. The specific volume of the hole is determined

byfilling it with calibrated dry sand from a jar and cone device. Thedry weight of the soil

removed is divided by the volume of sandneeded to fill the hole. This gives us the density

of the compactedsoil in lbs per cubic foot. This density is compared to the maximum

.Proctor density obtained earlier, which gives us the relative densityof the soil that was

just compacted. [See Figure 6] [8].


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Fig6

Nuclear Density (ASTM D2922-91)

Nuclear density meters are a quick and fairly accurate wayof determining density and

moisture content. The meter usesa radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137) at the soil

surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed into the soil (directtransmission). The isotope

source gives off photons (usuallyGamma rays) which radiate back to the meters detectors

on thebottom of the unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loosesoil and thereadings reflect overall density. Water content (ASTMd3017) can also be read, all within

a few minutes. A relativeProctor density is obtained after comparing maximum density

withthe compaction results from the test. [See Figure 7] [9].

Fig 7


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Compaction of soils


Chapter 5:

COMPACTION IN FIELD OF CIVIL

In earlier days, embankment design and construction were not given adequate attention.

Embankments were constructed and left for compaction by natural process. Due to loads

imposed by heavier axle loads, very high degree of sub-grade support have become

necessary in present scenario which requires fast and heavy compaction by suitable

compacting equipments. Initially its application was restricted to pavement materials such

as fine crushed rocks, gravels and soft rocks but this has been extended to control of

earthworks in general.

Presently compaction is used in various fields of civil engineering like-

Railways.

Airfield pavements.

Earth structures, such as embankments.

Subgrades, and bases for road.

Harbours.

Foundations of structural buildings etc

Compacting gravel subgrade for runways The main embankment

Bouquet CanyonDam

Compacting flexible pavements Coarse gravel compaction in railways


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Compaction of soils


5.1 Types of Compaction Equipments

A large variety of mechanical equipments is available for compaction of soil but soil type

and moisture condition will often dictate the type of equipments and method of use [7].

Some important compacting equipment are given below: -

1. Light compacting equipments (Rammers/Plate compactors)

2. Smooth wheel rollers

3. Sheepsfoot rollers

4. Pneumatic tyred rollers

5. Vibratory rollers

6. Grid rollers

7. Dynamic compaction

8. Vibrofloatation

9. High-Energy Impact Roller Compaction

The details about various types of rollers and equipmentsare given as below: -

Rammers:

Rammers are the light compacting equipments used for small areas, which provide impact

load. These may be hand or machine operated.

The area of base is normally 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more. Free fall rammers

can be heavier type also weighing 2 or 3 tonne lifted and dropped by cables to a height of

1 or 2m to compact large rock fragments

Fig 8


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Smooth Wheel Rollers:

These rollers have one large steel drum in front and two steel drums on the rear. The

gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonne. The performance of a smoothwheel roller depends upon its load per cm width and diameter of the roll.

Fig 9

Sheepsfoot Roller:

For compacting heavy clays and silty clays, sheepsfoot rollers are found to be very

effective. These rollers are employed in road and rail projects. They consist of steel

drum/s on which projecting legs are fixed which may apply pressure up to 14kg/sqcm or

more.

Fig 10

Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:

Pneumatic tyred rollers are used in both earthwork and bituminous work. These rollershave wheels on both the axles but they are staggered so that they can compact the layers


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Compaction of soils


with uniform pressure throughout the width. The front axle may have four pneumatic

smooth wheels where as there can be five wheels on the rear axles.

Fig11

Vibratory Rollers:

Latest specifications of earthwork invariably recommend vibratory rollers. These rollers

are helpful from several considerations like:-

(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work

(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths

(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers

Vibratory rollers are similar to smooth wheel rollers with the modification that the drum

or drums are made to vibrate by employing rotating or reciprocating mass.

Fig12


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Compaction of soils


Grid Rollers:

These rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a network of steel bars

forming a grid with squire holes and may be ballasted with concrete blocks. They aregenerally towed units and can operate at speeds between 5 and 24 kmph. Typical weights

vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes ballasted [7].

Fig 13

Deep Dynamic Compaction(DDC):

Fig14

Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) densifies marginal materials using high levels of

impact energy at the surface.A tamper with a weight of 5 to 40 tons is dropped using a

crane from a height of 30 to 120 feet. The tamper is dropped in a systematically

controlled pattern on a coordinate grid layout. The impacts are spaced at a distance

depending on the depth of the compressible layer, the depth to the groundwater, and grain


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Compaction of soils


size distribution. Five to 15 blows per grid point are applied. The first phase is the high-

energy phase to improve the deeper layers. This is followed by a low-energy phase to

densify the upper layers. In the low-energy phase, the tamper is only raised 15 to 20 feet.

Backfilling the craters and additional passes may be required [10].


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Compaction of soils


Vibroflotation:

Fig 15

Suitable for granular soils

Practiced in several forms:

1. Vibrocompaction

2. Vibro-replacement


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Vibro-Compaction:

The vibrator penetrates to design depth, aided by water and/or air flushing. The vibrator is

then raised in discrete increments following a pre-determined holding time or until abuild-up of resistance at each level indicates that the desired degree of compaction has

been achieved. If the objective is to maintain original site elevation, additional material

may be introduced to compensate for surface lowering induced by the process.

Vibro-Compaction ground improvement has been effective in treating suitable subsurface

conditions to depths greater than 125 feet, with a more practical limit of around 70 feet

for crane-mounted systems and 28 feet for excavator-mounted systems.

Vibro Replacement:

Vibro replacement was used for a similar process using water as the jetting medium with

the addition of a graded stone aggregate added down the probe hole and forced out

laterally into the formation soils, to create stone columns. Latterly, Vibro replacement is

also done using compressed air for jetting in clayey soils above the water table.

Columns are constructed by the introduction of natural or recycled aggregate backfill to

the tip of the vibrator. The horizontal action of the vibrator displaces the stone laterally to

form a dense structural element. As successive stone columns are formed, the intervening

soil is densified, creating an integrated soil/stone matrix capable of supporting high,

vertical loads.


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Compaction of soils


Stage1 Vibrator makes a hole in weak ground.

Stage 2 hole backfilled

Stage 3 and compacted

Stage 4 Densely compacted stone column

Vibro Stone Column (Bottom feed method):Method does not require water for

penetration thus avoiding the disposal of large quantities of muck and also making

environmental friendly.

Rig used: Vibrocat, operational advantage is it is able to exert a pull down force

improving penetration speed

Vibrocat feeds the Coarse granular material to the tip of vibrator with the aid of

pressurized air.Installation method consists of alternate step of penetration and retraction.

During retraction gravel runs into the annular space created and then compacted using

vibrator thrusts and compressed air.

VIBROFLOTATION PROBE SPACING

Spacing of the grid varies depending on soil type, density to be achieved and

probe/vibrator characteristics, but generally lies in the range of 1.5 to 3.5m[11].

High-Energy Impact Roller Compaction:


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Compaction of soils


Figure 16

High-energy impact rollers (IR) have been increasingly used for earthworks by

compacting on-site soils. The IR applies high energy to the ground and densifies deeper

soils than conventional rollers and plate-type compactors. A trial program was

implemented on the third runway of the Shanghai Pudong International Airport in China

to validate the performance of the IR technology. Field monitoring and in-situ testing

were undertaken during or after the IR compaction. The cone penetration data indicated

that significant improvement in soil properties was measured up to a depth of 4 m after 20

to 25 passes of compaction. However, the improvement of the properties of the very softsilty clay at the depth of 1 to 2 m was limited. The vibration monitoring data suggested

that the IR compaction with 12-ton impact module would not cause damage to buildings

at a distance of 9.5 m away from the boundary of the compaction path.

One disadvantage of this technology is that the high-impact forces disturb (i.e., loosen)

the top 0.25 to 1.5 ft of the surface so the top layer needs additional compaction with

conventional rollers. The vibrations caused by the impact rollers and their effect on


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Compaction of soils


nearby structures (e.g., underground utilities/pipe lines or nearby building structures) are

important to consider with this technology[12].

COMPACTION: ASSOCIATED COSTS

From the graph we can say that High-energy impact rollers is effective and economical up

to a depth of 4m. Deep Dynamic Compaction is effective up to 6m andVibro compaction

is best suited and economic for depth more than 10 to 12m [11].


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Compaction of soils


Equipments Most suitable soils Typical applications

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5.2Factors Affecting Compaction inthe Field

Compaction of a particular soil is affected by following given factors

(i) COMPACTIVE EFFORT

In modern construction projects, heavy compaction machinery is deployed to provide

compaction energy. Types of machinery required are decided based on type of soil to be

compacted. Different type of action is effective in different type of soils such as for

cohesive soils; sheepsfoot rollers or pneumatic rollers provide the kneading action. Silty

soils can be effectively compacted by sheepsfoot roller/pneumatic roller or smooth wheel

roller. For compacting sandy and gravelly soil, vibratory rollers are most effective. If

granular soils have some fines, both smooth wheel and pneumatic rollers can be used.


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Compaction of soils


(ii) MOISTURE CONTENT

Proper control of moisture content in soil is necessary for achieving desired density.

Maximum density with minimum compacting effort can be achieved by compaction ofsoil near its OMC (Optimum Moisture Content). If natural moisture content of the soil is

less than OMC, calculated amount of water should be added to soil with sprinkler

attached to water tanker and mixed with soil by motor grader for uniform moisture

content. When soil is too wet, it is required to be dried by aeration to reach up to OMC.

(iii) SOIL TYPE

Type of soil has a great influence on its compaction characteristics. Normally, heavy

clays, clays and silt offer higher resistance to compaction where as sandy soils and coarse

grained or gravelly soils are amenable for easy compaction. The coarse-grained soils

yield higher densities in comparison to clays. A well-graded soil can be compacted to

higher density.

(iv) LAYER THICKNESS

The more the thickness of layer of earth subjected to field compaction, the less the energy

input per unit weight of soil and hence, less is the compaction under each pass of the

roller. Suitable thickness of soil of each layer is necessary to achieve uniform thickness.

Layer thickness depends upon type of soil involved and type of roller, its weight and

contact pressure of its drums. Normally, 200-300 mm layer thickness is optimum in the

field for achieving homogeneous compaction.

(v) CONTACT PRESSURE

Contact pressure depends on the weight of the roller wheel and the contact area. In case

of pneumatic roller, the tyre inflation pressure also determines the contact pressure in

addition to wheel load. A higher contact pressure increases the dry density and lowers the

optimum moisture content.


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Compaction of soils


(vi) NUMBER OF ROLLER PASSES

Density of the soil increases with the number of passes of rollers but after optimum

number of passes, further increase in density is insignificant for additional number ofcases. For determination of optimum number of passes for given type of roller and

optimum thickness of layer at a predetermined moisture content, a field trial for

compaction is necessary.

(vii) SPEED OF ROLLING

Speed of rolling has a very important bearing on the roller output. The greater the speedof rolling, the more the length of embankment that can be compacted in one day. Speed

was found to be a significant factor for vibratory rollers because its number of vibrations

per minute is not related to its forward speed. Therefore, the slower the speed of travel,

the more vibrations at a given point and lesser number of pass required to attain a given

density [5].

5.3How Much Compaction Is To Be Done?

With the help of field compaction trials, the appropriate type of roller for particular type

of soil, optimum depth of layer of soil to be compacted and optimum moisture content of

the soil to be used for compaction can be determined. For this, a ramp of following

dimension is prepared. Each strip is rolled with using different moisture contents, type of

roller and different thickness of lift of soil. Finally, by plotting the graph between various

parameters used, the desired parameters are determined [13].


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Compaction of soils


The number of passes needed to achieve the desired compaction depends on the liftthickness, contact pressure, and soil moisture content.

Number of passes versus average settlement (compression) in inches for various modern

compactors ( study report on compaction equipments and construction machinery) [13].

5.4 Intelligent Compaction (IC)

Intelligent Compaction is an innovation continuous compaction control process that

measures material stiffness during the compaction process, analyzes the information

being collected, makes an adjustment of vibratory roller parameters, and executes the

change to optimize the compaction effort.


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Compaction of soils


Vibratory rollers with a feedback control measurement system

Measures material stiffness , Control system automatically changes parameters

(amplitude and frequency) based on the measured material stiffness

GPS-based documentation system

Continuous monitoring materials stiffness and corresponding roller locations .Real-time

displaying color-coded mapping of stiffness

Fig17

Easy to find out uneveness of stiffness, soft and very stiff spots.


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Compaction of soils


Intelligent compaction can greatly improve the quality and uniformity of compaction

which are critical for long-lasting performance of pavements

When and how much of compaction is achieved, avoiding under or over compaction .

Where compaction is achieved or not achieved can easily be known [14].

Currently (Empirical Pavement design, R Value)

Specific Relative Density (Proctor Test)

Specific Moisture Limits (Proctor Test)

Test Rolling (optional)

Future (Mechanistic Pavement Design, Modulus)

QC: Intelligent Compaction Equipment

QC/QA: Continue to Specify Moisture

QA: Specify Modulus and Strength

(QC Quality Control, QA Quality Assurance)

QC Testing (verified by LWD),QA Testing (verified by PLT ).

Intelligent compaction benefits

Cover 100% of the rolling area, resulting in better control of density and its uniformity.

Replace conventional proof rolling ,identify soft spots in real time ,improve pavement

performance ,improve site safety [14].

CMV


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Compaction of soils


Chapter 6:

CONCLUSION

Compaction is the densification of an unsaturated soil by the reduction in the voids

volume filled with air, the volume of solids and water content essentially remaining the

same. The important factors which govern the compaction process are the moisture

content, the soil type. This paper has discussed these factors in detail. Various

improvements in the engineering properties of soil that are achieved through compaction

are critically evaluated. This paper has discussed how the laboratory compaction test

results can be extended to achieve the required field compaction.

Soil Compaction is very critical for any development. Failure to make sure the

effectiveness of an entire process may cause disaster in future. Developers, consultants,

local authorities and the contractor must aware the bad consequences that probably

happen if neglecting any aspect in the process and should be responsible to the scope of

works that delegated to them by the users. Hopefully this short presentation will benefits

to the viewers in understanding the basic principles in Soil Compaction theory that can be

useful. THANK YOU


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Compaction of soils


Chapter 7:

REFRENCES

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York.

[2] Rattan Lal,Manoj K. Shukla (2004). Principles of Soil Physics. MARCEL

DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK

[3] Das, Braja M. (2002). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. first edition, Pacific

Grove, CA

[4] ME Sumner (1999). Hand Book of Soil Science. CRC Press , MULTIQUIP INC.

Boca Raton, Florida.

[5] Kumar Neeraj Jha (2011). Construction Project Management :Theory and Practice

.Pearson Education India.

[6] Hamza M.A, Al-Adawi S.S, Al-Hinai K.A. Effects of combined soil water and

external load on soil compaction.Soil Research, 2011, 49, 135-142

[7] Study Report on Compaction Equipments and Construction Machinery (2005)

Report.No.Ge- R-76.Geotechnical Engineering Directorate Research Designs &

Standards OrganizationLucknow-11

[8] ASTM, Standard Practice for Quality Control of Soil Compaction using (D1556-90,

D1557-91, D2922-91,d3017) American Society of Testing and Material. USA.

[9] Selim ALTUN, Alper SEZER. Investigation of Parameters of Compaction Testing

Turkish J. Eng. Env. Sci. 32 (2008) , 201209.

[10] Lukas, R.G. (1986). Dynamic Compaction for Highway Construction Volume I:

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[11] UMASS Lowell (2013) 14.330. Soil Mechanics and Soil Compaction A Basic

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news-record.Vol. 111, No. 9, 245-248.

[14] George Chang, Qinwu Xu,Accelerated Implementation of Intelligent Compaction

Technology for Embankment Subgrade Soils, Aggregate Base, and Asphalt Pavement

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[15] Kyu-Sun Kim, Dante Fratta, and Haifang Wen. Field Measurements for the

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compaction seminar report

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