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Paper ID #19816

Comparative Analysis of Technologies Used in Responsive Building Facades

Ms. Negar Heidari Matin, Eastern Michigan University

Negar Matin is currently a Ph.D. candidate in Technology at Eastern Michigan University (EMU), Yp-silanti, Michigan. Ms. Matin received her Master’s Degree in architecture from Tabriz Art University,Tabriz, Iran. She has been a doctoral fellow working on responsive facade systems since 2015. Herresearch interests are in interdisciplinary areas of cultural identities, architectural technology, buildingenvelopes, responsive autonomous intelligent facade systems and smart materials. Ms. Matin has over3 years of experience of teaching in architecture and interior design field at Azad Islamic University andEastern Michigan University. She has been LEED Green Associate since 2016.

Dr. Ali Eydgahi, Eastern Michigan University

Ali Eydgahi started his career in higher education as a faculty member at the Rensselaer Polytechnic In-stitute in 1985. Since then, he has been with the State University of New York, University of MarylandEastern Shore, and Eastern Michigan University. During 2006-2010, he was Chair of the Department ofEngineering and Aviation Sciences, Founder and Director of the Center for 3-D Visualization and VirtualReality Applications, and Technical Director of the NASA funded MIST Space Vehicle Mission PlanningLaboratory at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore. In 2010, he joined Eastern Michigan Universityas an Associate Dean in the College of Technology and currently is a Professor in the School of Engineer-ing Technology. He has an extensive experience in curriculum and laboratory design and development.Dr. Eydgahi has served as a member of the Board of Directors for Tau Alpha Pi, as a member of Advi-sory and Editorial boards for many International Journals in Engineering and Technology, as a member ofreview panel for NASA and Department of Education, as a regional and chapter chairman of IEEE, SME,and ASEE, and as a session chair and as a member of scientific and international committees for manyinternational conferences.

Dr. Shinming Shyu, Eastern Michigan University

c©American Society for Engineering Education, 2017

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Comparative Analysis of Technologies Used in

Responsive Building Facades

Abstract

Numerous factors stemming from revolutionary changes in public culture, economy, technology

and their impact on architecture initiated the idea of active facades in the 1960s. Among these

factors, technological advancements in electrical control systems, computer engineering,

information technology, artificial intelligence, cybernetics and material science have provided

opportunities for use of dynamic entities in architecture and its components.

In this paper, historical evolution of technologies implemented in responsive facade systems is

presented and five main categories of technologies used in existing cases of facades are identified.

The technologies of responsive facades can be classified as mechanical technology, electro-

mechanical technology, passive technology, information technology and advanced material

technology, based on the types of sensing, actuating, control, structural and material technologies

that have been used in the systems. Finally, the implemented technologies, their benefits and

shortcomings are compared in order to identify the reasons for utilizing a specific technology.

Based on this comparison, an integrated technology is proposed that utilizes advantages of

previous technologies with the goals of achieving better efficiency.

Keyword

Modern Architecture, Modern Building Design, Responsive Facade Systems, Facade

Technologies

Introduction

In the 1960s, multiple factors triggered the idea of active facades as opposed to the traditional

static and passive facades (Sharaidin, 2014). These factors stem from revolutionary changes in

society, economy, technology and their impact on architecture that prompted architects and

engineers to formulate innovative design theories. A machine-like, mood-sensitive and alive

building that would interact with users started to appear in science fiction (Perino & Serra, 2015)

that inspired various building designers to implement these fictions in architecture.

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The environmental movement and energy crisis during 1960s and 1970s, along with concerns for

availability of natural resources, caused the cost increase of fossil fuel energy and created a

growing public awareness about crucial environmental issues such as ecological balance, public

green culture and sustainable strategic planning (Veliko & Thun, 2013). This period also witnessed

technological advancements in structural engineering, cybernetics, artificial intelligence (Perino

& Serra, 2015), information technology, distributed systems (Ruth, 2012) and smart materials (J.

W. Park, 2013).

In 1969, the cybernetic theory of design was proposed by Gordon Pask in order to apply the

concept of cybernetics in architecture (D. Park & Bechthold, 2014). Additionally, the theory of

functionalism suggested a design of dynamic architecture rather than static designs(Pask, 1969).

The use of dynamic entities in components of an architecture such as the building envelope offered

enriching interactions between humans and their environment. Simultaneously, the concept of

responsive adaptive architecture was formed based on the theory of interaction, the theory of

conversation and the adaptive-conditional theory, which defines a building as a self-adjusted

system that is operated by feedback from occupants and the environment (Kolarevic & Parlac,

2015).

Based on the U.S. Energy Information Administration, residential and commercial buildings are

responsible for approximately 41% of all energy consumption and 72% of electricity usage per

year (Energy Information Administration, 2016). As 20 to 60% of all energy used in buildings is

affected by the design and construction of building envelope (International Energy Agency, 2013)

, considering sustainable strategies for energy efficiency of building envelope are very important.

Moreover, characteristics of a traditional static facade provide a limited energy performance in

various seasonal conditions (Selkowitz & Aschehough, 2003).The traditional facade limitations,

which affect static facade energy performance (Sorensen, 2013) consist of a high rate of heat

transmission (conduction/ radiation/ convection) (Kim & Jerratt, 2011), high rate of daylight

admittance, high rate of moisture migration and limited aesthetic expression. The daylight and

visual performance of a static facade could be improved by reducing the window glare discomfort

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effect, by decreasing demand of high energy for artificial lighting, by optimizing internal daylight

levels, and by providing external shading screens.

To overcome the limitation of existing traditional facades, the idea of an active facade as a

systematically adapted entity has been proposed, which exploits potential benefits of advanced

technology in the design of a multifunctional facade system. An active facade can manage internal

environments by dynamically modifying characteristics of a building envelope and responding to

external environmental parameters (Millard, 2015).

The building envelope characteristics are modified by using a building control system, which

allows the building envelope to be capable of controlling, managing and adjusting the light level,

glare discomfort effect, lighting energy efficiency, thermal resistance value, solar heat gain co-

efficiency, heat energy efficiency, response to solar patterns, occupant comfort level, and passive

ventilation. Studies have shown that these modifications can improve the performance of the active

facade by 40 to 65% in comparison with the static facades (Dewidar, Mahmoud, Magdy, &

Ahmed, 2010). The responsive facade system was initiated as a sustainable response to

environmental stimuli so that the building occupants are provided with thermal and visual

satisfaction.

Review of existing responsive facade systems used over the past seventy years reveals the use of

various control technologies. These control technologies can be classified as hand-operated

systems, manual switched systems, centralized control systems, decentralized control systems and

material-based control systems. In addition to control technologies, the sensing and actuating

technologies have also evolved in recent years. Systems with various sensors such as systems with

no sensor-users preference, systems with no sensor-preset algorithms, systems with sensor-

switchs, systems with central sensors, systems with decentralized sensors and systems with

material sensors have been developed. Also, advancements in the actuating components have been

presented by mechanical actuators, electrical actuators, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic actuators

and material actuators.

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The existing facade systems were defined as second layers on the main building envelope, which

included vertical and horizontal plywood panels for wood structures. Progress in structural

technologies and material sciences has led to implementation of various structural technologies

such as cable network, cable structure, structural glass facade/stick/curtain wall, space frames and

self-loading structures. The structural evolution has been toward inventing a single layer of light

weight and self-loading envelopes for responsive buildings.

A literature review of existing responsive building facades reveals the absence of a clear

classification for implemented technologies in building facade systems. Therefore, the main

objective for this study was to consider the historical evolution and classification of technologies

used in responsive building facades over the past seven decades. A comparative analysis of

existing facade systems provides a useful resource for educators and researchers and offers benefits

to their educational and research activities.

In this paper, technologies used in twenty-nine systems that are substantial representation of

existing responsive facade systems are considered for classification. These systems are classified

based on their criteria for control, sensing, actuating, material and structural technologies as shown

in Figure 1.

The proposed classifications provide historical evolution of various responsive facade systems

during the past decades. As presented in Figure 1, the historical evolution identifies advances made

from basic manual systems to intelligent advanced material systems in control, sensing and

actuating technologies during the past seventy years. In addition, depending on the type of

electrical power used in the facade systems, the responsive systems are identified as either passive

or active systems. Based on the active or passive technologies used in responsive systems, control

can be a closed-loop or open-loop system.

The utilized technologies are categorized in five groups: mechanical technology, electro-

mechanical technology, passive technology, information technology and advanced material

technology. This categorization is based on the types of actuating technologies used in responsive

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Fig.1: Sensing, actuating and control technologies used in responsive facade systems

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facade systems. Also, a system with integrated technology is proposed by integrating passive and

active systems, which utilizes the advantages of both systems.

Mechanical Technology and Responsive Facades

The previously discussed factors triggered the need for transition from traditional static facades to

automated facades. The common architectural slogan in the 1960’s was “make a building as a

system,” which resulted in design of a building envelope as an independent entity (Moloney,

2012). This approach considered design to be as a mechanism which meets multiple purposes

under the influence of mechanical principles. These systems consisted of interdependent

mechanical elements that would change the magnitude, direction, and application point of forces

such as pulleys, wheels, hinges, rollers, cables and gears. Implementation of these intricate, bulky

and exotic mechanical components was the direct legacy of industrial revolution (Decker &

Zarzycki, 2013), which utilized external forces to make translational, rotational or combined

movements in facade mechanisms (Schumacher, Schaeffer, & Vogt, 2010).

In cases that environmental stimuli are used as external forces, the facade system is called

responsive instead of kinetic, active, or automated (Sharaidin, 2014). A hand-operated blind with

a mechanism of gears, pulleys, and cables was the first responsive facade system. Horizontal types

of blinds (venetian blinds), which stemmed from ancient Persia, were patented in Great Britain in

1760. Vertical blinds were invented in the United States two centuries later in the 1960s (Wallace,

2015). Implementation of manual blinds designed by Richard Neutra as a part of building envelope

system appeared for the first time in the Kaufmann House in 1947 (Khoo & Salim, 2013), as shown

in Figure 2. Such a hand-operated facade system could be composed of a rack-pinion gear system,

which converts linear movement to rotational movement. The movement of these aluminum

louvers were controlled based on the user’s thermal and visual preferences for coping with

undesirable natural light, air-flow, and dust (Neutra, 1998).

Tom Kundig is an architect who still utilizes lever pulleys, cranks, gears, and cogs for designing

facade mechanisms (Kundig, 2015a). In 2002, he designed a hand-cranked mechanical contraption

for an active window of Chicken Point Cabin by using a counter balance principle with a set of

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gears to minimize input forces (Kundig, 2015a), as shown in Figure 2. Kundig also used an active

curtain wall for California Gallery utilizing a hand wheel to actuate a series of gears and pulleys

for facade movement in 2012 (Frearson, 2014), as shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2: Historical evolution of mechanical technology in responsive facade systems

A recent example of mechanical technology implementation in design of responsive facade is a

Penumbra system by Tyler Short in 2014, as its computer simulation is presented in Figure 2. The

Penumbra system is a hand-operated mechanism actuated by two interdependent cog and gear

Project

Kaufmann House

Chicken Point Cabin California Gallery Penumbra

Year 1947 2002 2012 2014

Location

Palm Springs, California

Chicken Point, Idaho Los Altos, California

A computer

simulation

Architects / Designers

Richard Neutra

Tom Kundig Tom Kundig Tyler Short

Implemented

Technology Mechanical Technology

Mechanical

Technology

Mechanical

Technology

Mechanical

Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Kroll, 2011) (Kundig, 2015) (Frearson, 2014) (Rogers, n.d.)

Control System

Technology Hand-operated

Hand-Operated Hand-Operated

Hand-

Operated/Computer

Operated

Sensing Technology No-Users’ Preferences

No-Users’ Preferences

No-Users’ Preferences

No-users’ Preferences

Actuating Technology Rack-pinion Gear

System

Hand-crank Contraption

Gears System

Hand-Crank

Contraption

Gears and Pulleys

System

Hand-Crank

Contraption

Gears and cogs

System

Facade Material

Aluminum

Glass/Steel

Glass/Steel Wood

Facade Structure

Horizontal Panels Curtain Wall Curtain Wall Suspended blades

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systems in order to convert a vertical configuration of louvers to horizontal for controlling the sun

glare effect (Rogers, n.d.).

Electro-Mechanical Technology and Responsive Facades

The facade mechanisms were advanced due to the availability of electrical components and

controls in the 1960s (Ahmed, Abdel-Rahman, Bady, Mahrous, & Suzuki, 2016). The Kaufmann’s

hand-operated facade was the basis for the development of motorized mechanism blinds that were

used in the Los Angeles County Hall of Records and the Santa Ana Courthouse (Neutra, 1998).

The aluminum louvers located on the south site of the Los Angeles County Hall of Records, as

demonstrated in Figure 3, was designed by Neutra and represents a use of switch control technique

in responsive facade system (Khoo, 2013).

The United States pavilion at Montreal Expo 67, as shown in Figure 3, was considered a

futuristic (Sharaidin, 2014) responsive facade. The technology used in this responsive facade was

a soft self-regulated shading system with cable structure, which was operated based on a roller

blind mechanism (Khoo, 2013). Its mechanical actuators consisted of 600 conventional motors,

sets of shade cables, and sets of fixed cables and rollers, which pulls and wraps sets of shade

cables to individually open and close the facades’ shutters (Massey, 2006). For the first time,

these electromechanical actuators were integrated with light sensors to thermostatically control

the interior environment of a structure(Sharaidin, 2014). The facade shutters were linked to a

central computer with computerized feedback loops to track the sun’s movement.

Jean Nouvel’s Institute du Monde Arabe, as shown in Figure 3, was completed in 1989 in Paris

and uses an iris mechanism to activate 30,000 photosensitive diaphragms to control light levels

(Ahmed et al., 2016). In this system, photovoltaic sensors have been integrated with linear

hydraulic actuators to control the centralized structure, which permits only 10 to 30% of daylight

to penetrate inside the building and also prevents solar glare (Decker & Zarzycki, 2013).

In 2007, the responsive facade of the Kiefer Technic Showroom by Ernst Giselbrecht (Khoo, 2013)

was designed to optimize internal climate situations based on outdoor environmental conditions,

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users’ preferences and facades’ appearance appeals. The perforated aluminum panels of the facade

are controlled centrally by using light sensors and regional climate data. As shown in Figure 4, the

linear actuators of the facade actuated by 56 motors to create various configurations in the facade

hourly.

Fig. 3: Historical evolution of electro-mechanical technology in responsive facade systems

The Flare Frame system is another type of responsive facade system by WHITEvoid Design that

uses electro-mechanical technology with various rotational metal flake bodies to control individual

components of the facade (WHITEvoid, 2010). As illustrated in Figure 4, it contains pneumatic

Project

Los Angeles Country

Hall of Records U.S. Pavilion Montreal

Expo.

Institute du Monde

Arab

Hypo surface

Year 1962 1967 1989 2001

Location

Los Angeles,

California

Montreal, Canada Paris, France

Boston,

Massachusetts


Richard Neutra Backminster Fuller Jean Nouvel

Raphael Crespin and

dECOi Architects

Implemented Technology Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Salazar, 2012) (Veliko & Thun, 2013) (Winstanley, 2011) (Poucke, 2008)

Control System

Technology Switch Control Central Control

Central Control

(CBM)

Central Control

User-Based

Control/Programming

Sensing Technology No-Preset Algorithm

Based

Light Sensors-central

Based Photovoltaic Sensors Touch Sensors

Actuating Technology Pivotal Rotational

Actuators Motors Hydraulic Actuators Pneumatic Actuators

Piston

Facade Material

Aluminum

Silver Coating Acrylic Panels Glass Steel

Aluminum

Facade Structure

Horizontal Panels Cable-Space Frame Curtail Wall Steel Support

Structure

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pistons that work with environmental data provided by a sensor system inside and outside of the

building (Khoo, 2013).

The Tessellate responsive facade system was designed by Perkins Eastman in 2010 using the

concept of transparency changes to regulate the level of natural light inside of a building (Kolarevic

& Parlac, 2015). As shown in Figure 4, this facade system consists of perforated stainless steel

panels that are centrally controlled. This control system utilizes temperature sensors, light level

sensors, and time of day sensors to change opacity of light by using linear actuators.


Project

Council House 2

Building

Showroom Kiefer

Technic Tessellate Flare Media Facade

Year 2006 2007 2008 2008

Location

Melbourne, Australia

Bad Gleichenberg

Austria

Stony Brook,

New York

Rotterdam,

Netherlands


Mick Pearce,

DesignInc.

Ernst Giselbrecht and

Partner

Hoberman Association

and BuroHappold

WHITEvoid Design

Implemented Technology Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Chapa, 2007) (Lomhallt, 2016) (Hoberman Associates,

2012)

(WHITEvoid, 2010)

Control System

Technology

Central Control

Computer Control

Program (BAS)

Central Control

Individually

Central Control

Single Computer

Processor

Central Control

Individually

Sensing Technology

Temperature Sensors

Light Sensors

Light Sensors-central

Based

Light, Temperature,

Moisture Sensors

Light Sensors-Central

Based

Actuating Technology Hydraulic Actuators Motor-Based

Actuators Motor-Based Actuators

Pneumatic Actuators

Piston

Facade Material

Cycled Timber

Aluminum CNC-cut Metal Stainless Steel

Facade Structure

Truss-Aluminum

Posts

Aluminum Posts and

Transoms

Self-contained

Steel framed screen

Aluminum Posts and

Transoms

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In addition, the Fritting facade system was invented by the Hoberman Association and

BuroHappold to control facade transparency (Tashakori, 2014). The facade panels in this system

consist of multiple layers of clear acrylic glass, which shift over each other to align and diverge

facade patterns. Layered movement is driven by servomotors.

As Figure 5 illustrates, Al-Bahar Towers uses the largest computerized facade with a height of 150

meters (Kolarevic & Parlac, 2015). This responsive facade consists of 1,049 hexagonal panels with

four linear hydraulic actuators that are connected to a building management system (BMS)

(Wilkinson & Wood, 2012). Sensors implemented in each hexagonal panel individually interact

with the BMS system. The BMS system provides real-time wind speed, light intensity, rain levels,

folding positions of panels, and faults in a panel to the operator (Karanousha & Kerberb, 2015).


Project

Strata Adaptive Fritting Q1 Headquarters

Building Al-Bahar Towers

Year 2009 2009 2010 2012

Location

Madrid, Spain

Harvard Graduate

School of Design,

Boston, Massachusetts

Essen, Germany

Abu Dhabi, UAE


ABI collaboration with

A. Zahner Company Hoberman Association

JSWD Architekten

and Morel et Associes

Aedas

Implemented Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Kmsky, 2011) (Kmsky, 2011) (Kmsky, 2011) (Erne, n.d.)

Control System

Technology

Central Control

Central Control

Motorized Control

Central Control

Individually

Central control

HMI & BMS

Sensing Technology Light Sensors-Central

Based


Based


Based Sensors-Central based

Actuating Technology Motor-based actuators Motor-Based

Actuators

Motor-Based

Actuators Hydraulic Actuators

Linear Actuators

Facade Material

Metal/Plastic/wood/glass Fritted Glass

Graphic Patterns

Chromium-Nickel-

Molybdenum

Stainless Steel

PTFE

Fiberglass

Facade Structure

Freestanding Curtain Wall Cantilevered Slats-

Studs Space Frame

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The Institute du Monde Arabe and Al-Bahar Towers are considered significant examples of high-

performance facade systems that are designed based on traditional motifs accepted by Arab nations

as Islamic-Geometric Patterns. These buildings are considered a convergence between culture and

modern facade system technologies.


In 2012, Wilkinson Eyre implemented cable technology to activate retractable sail sunshades for

the facade system of Singapore’s new botanical garden, Garden by the Bay (Kuipers, 2015), shown

in Figure 6. In this system, linear motions of cables are converted to rotational motions of shafts,

Project

Garden by the Bay

One Ocean Pavilion

RMIT Design Hub

Year 2012 2012 2012

Location

Marina Bay, Singapore Yeosu, South Korea Melbourne, Australia


Wilkinson Eyre Soma Sean Godsell


Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Electro-Mechanical

Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Grant Associates, 2012) (Soma, 2012) (Godsell, 2012)

Control System

Technology

Central Individual

Control

Self-Learning Algorithm

Central Control

Individually

Central control

Programmed based on

weather (BMS)

Sensing Technology Sensors-Central Based/ Light Sensors

Temperature Sensors Light Sensors

Actuating Technology Motor-Based Actuators

Screw Spindle

Motor-based actuators

Motor-based actuators

Facade Material

Glass-Steel-Fabric

GFRP

Glass-Fiber Reinforced

Polymer

Sandblasted glass

Aluminum

Steel

Facade Structure

Cable System-Grid Shell

Vertical flexible beams

Curtain wall

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which hold the rolled shades, by using external forces of motors. The system uses sail sunshades

that roll up in the lower section of the structure’s arches and are individually controlled by an

intelligent self-learning algorithm (Kolarevic & Parlac, 2015).

Electro-mechanical technology used in responsive facades is a mature technology. Electro-

mechanical technology is considered to be reliable technology, which possesses significant

advantages such as standardization of parts, modularized design components, inexpensive initial

cost, and centralized monitoring and control (Decker & Zarzycki, 2013). The drawbacks of this

technology include complexity of heavy mechanical parts (Tashakori, 2014), high potential failure

of material fatigue (Kolarevic & Parlac, 2015), difficulty in parts replacement, high costs in

maintenance and repairing (Adriaenssens et al., 2014), limited components durability (Khoo,

2013), dependency on electrical powers (Adriaenssens et al., 2014), high energy consumption

(Chun, 2007), incapability in generating green electrical energy (Khoo, 2013), and invariable

control by single actuators (Decker & Zarzycki, 2013). Thus the drawbacks of this technology

have urged designers to promote other technologies (Tashakori, 2014).

Between 2001 and 2012, electro-mechanical actuators such as pneumatic actuators, hydraulic

actuators, and servomotors were common devices as facade components in response to climatic

situations. As represented in Figures 3, 4, and 5, facade systems such as Hypo surface, Council

house 2 building, Q1 headquarters buildings, and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology

(RMIT) design hub are operated by centralized control systems that are programmed based on

regional weather data and data provided by different types of sensors, such as touch sensors,

temperature sensors, and light sensors.

Passive Technology and Responsive Facades

The first alternative technology was the use of passive approach in the design of responsive facade.

Based on this design approach, the dependency of a facade system to electrical and manual power

was eliminated and natural resources such as wind, water, and sunlight were used as a power

sources.

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As shown in Figure 7, a facade of a parking garage in Charlotte, North Carolina called “Wind

Veil” was designed by Ned Kahn in 2000. This system is an early example of passive responsive

facades composed of 8000 small aluminum panels that are hinged to sway by wind power. The

motion of this amorphous and liquid-like facade system not only projected light and shadow, but

also provided ventilation for the interior of the parking structure (Kahn, 2012b).

Another relevant project by Kahn, in collaboration with Koning Eizenberg is represented in Figure

7, which is the facade of the children’s museum, Pittsburgh designed in 2004, which consists of

thousands translucent plastic squares that are fluttered by the wind to change the optical quality of

interior space (Kahn, 2004).

Fig. 7: Historical evolution of passive technology in responsive facade systems

Project

Charlotte Parking

Garage

Pittsburgh Children

Museum

Marina Bay Hotel

Year 2000 2004 2011

Location

Charlotte,

North Carolina

Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania

Singapore, Republic of

Singapore


Ned Kahn Ned Kahn Ned Kahn


Passive Technology

Passive Technology Passive Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Kahn, 2012b) (Kahn, 2012a) (Kahn, 2012b)

Control System Technology

No Control No Control No Control

Sensing Technology

No Sensors No Sensors No Sensors

Actuating Technology

Wind Wind Wind

Facade Material

Aluminum

Polycarbonate Aluminum

Facade Structure

Cable Net

Frame-Stainless Steel

Rods

Cable Net

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Kahn’s design for the “Wind Arbor” at the Marina Bay Sands Hotel in Singapore in collaboration

with Moshe Safdie, as shown in Figure 7. The glass frame was covered with 260,000 hinged resin

flaps that are attached to a cable net structure. The flaps sway in the wind and block 50% of the

sunlight and heat (Khoo, 2013).

The advantages of a passive responsive facades are their independency from mechatronics powers,

numerous aesthetic expressions provided by environmental variables and minimalist artwork

presentations.

Information Technology and Responsive Facades

Information technology has changed the way control system of electro-mechanical systems are

implemented (Decker & Zarzycki, 2013). The idea of a distributed control system is utilized in

responsive facades to control the interconnected panels by microcontrollers (Grobman & Yekutiel,

2013). The local sensors provide the data to the microcontrollers for processing and coding for

executions by actuators (Yekutiel & Grobman, 2014).

The advantages of decentralized control are separate responses to local environmental conditions,

easy substitution among multi-connected panels, efficient time calculation of environmental data

in each panel, low cost facade components, and functional and compositional freedom. However,

as these systems are dependent on computers, their operations are vulnerable to computer failure

and cybersecurity risks (Decker & Zarzycki, 2013).

The ICT-Media Building, as shown in Figure 8, was designed in 2011 by Enric Ruiz Geli, and is

the first facade with a decentralized control system (Khoo, 2013). Its control system consists of

Arduino-based microcontrollers and pneumatic cushions (Kolarevic & Parlac, 2015). The ethylene

tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) air cushions are embedded with distributed sensors to sense the heat

and the light of the sun. The sensors responses can be inflation, deflation, and increased density of

nitrogen filled in cushions. These factors influence the appearance of the facade (Mondia, 2014).

Computer simulation of a Soft Modular Pneumatic System (SMoPS) is presented in Figure 8,

which is one of the projects that uses a dynamic pneumatic interface. Each panel of this system

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consists of photo and UV sensors, pneumatic pressure sensors, soft body actuators, and

microcontrollers, which are embedded in a soft body to respond to the brightness or the UV light

from the sun. Based on environmental data that are detected by sensors, the microcontrollers

control flow of pressurized air into the soft body. The air causes deformation in the geometry of

the soft body, which dynamically regulates facade opacity (Park & Bechthold, 2014).

Fig. 8: Historical evolution of information technology in responsive facade systems

Material-based Technology and Responsive Facade

Advancements in material science have provided opportunities for other approaches to design of

responsive facade design. The material-based actuations provide the opportunities for utilizing the

material itself to replace mechanical or electro-mechanical components (Kolarevic & Parlac,

Project

ICT-Media Building Soft Modular Pneumatic System

Year 2011 2013

Location

Barcelona, Spain

A computer simulation


Enric Ruiz Geli

Daekwon Park


Information Technology

Information Technology

Facade Image

Reference (Baan, n.d.) (D. Park & Bechthold, 2014)

Control System Technology

Decentralize

Control/Microcontrollers Decentralize Control

Sensing Technology

Temperature Sensors

Network of Sensors

Photo/UV Sensors

Pneumatic Pressure

Sensors

Actuating Technology

Pneumatic-Based

Actuator Material-based Actuators

Facade Material

ETFE Polydimethylsiloxane

(PDMS)

Facade Structure

Space Frame Self-loading

17

2015). The material-based actuators operate based on molecular changes in the material structures

when they are stimulated by external signals such as photons of lights, temperature changes,

chemical substances, magnetic field forces, and electricity flows. The material motions are created

by changes in volume, shape, color, fluidity, and electric currents (Decker & Zarzycki, 2013).

Several smart materials, such as shape memory alloys, shape memory polymers, electro active

polymers, and phase changing materials, could be used as actuators and sensors in structure of

responsive facades (Khoo & Salim, 2013). As sensors, actuators, and control systems are all

merged into body of a material (D. Park & Bechthold, 2014), the material-based technology does

not require any sensors, actuators and external energy resources (Perino & Serra, 2015). The

responses of smart materials to environment stimuli are fixed, limited, and not programmable

(Decker, 2013).

Thermo-bimetal is a type of shape memory alloy fabricated with two thin sheets of metals. Each

sheet in this material displaces specific level of expansion and contraction at various temperatures

and can be considered for material actuation in passive facade systems (Khoo & Salim, 2013).

Figure 9 shows the Bloom project, which was designed by Sung in 2012. This system is a sun

shading and air ventilation installation with 14,000 pieces of thermo-bimetal (Furuto, 2012).

Thermotropics polymers are a type of smart material, which demonstrate molecular phase changes

to specific temperature level. Based on the temperature, the material automatically changes from

translucent to transparent, which is used to control interior glare and glazing discomfort

(Tashakori, 2014).

Figure 9 illustrates a shipping container pavilion, which was developed by Chris Leung and

Stephen Gage in 2008 using phase changing materials (PSMs) (Khoo, 2013). This responsive

facade uses a hydraulic pump system with paraffin wax for the opening and closing action. The

phase-changing process of paraffin wax, due to specific temperatures, controls penetration, and

loss of heat in the system (Leung & Gage, 2008).

18

Electro active polymers (EAPs) are a group of ultra-lightweight, fixable, and smart materials that

change their size and shape based on environmental conditions (Decker, 2013). These materials

are composed of a polymeric membrane that is sandwiched between two electrodes. Applying a

Fig. 9: Historical evolution of material technology in responsive facade systems

19

high voltage to these materials causes deformation in the polymer because of electrostatic forces

that exist between the two electrodes (Mondia, 2014). As illustrated in Figure 9, the Decker

Yeadon LLC has utilized the adaptation features of EAPs to design a prototype to control daylight

penetration of a Homeostatic facade system in 2011. This system contains a flexible core covered

with EAP-actuators that are capable of bending based on expansion and contraction of the material

(Minner, 2011).

The EAPs have been utilized in converting electricity into movement in the Shapeshift

architectural installation in 2010 (Khoo, 2013). Shapeshift panels, as illustrated in Figure 9, consist

of three layers. The middle layer material is a pre-stressed thin acrylic film with conductive powder

painted on both sides. The upper and lower layers are silicon. As electricity transmits through the

conductive coatings of the middle layer, the material expands to form the shape of a panel (Kretzer,

2010).

Another smart material, Veneer Composite, was used in responsive facade of Hygroskin-

meteosensetive pavilion in 2013 (Decker, 2013) by Achim Menges Architect with Oliver David

Krieg and Steffen Reichert, as shown in Figure 9. In this system, apertures embedded in the

pavilion’s body react to relative humidity deviations of 30 to 90%, which represents an

environmental humidity range for sunny to rainy days. The porosity through this facade is

controlled by elastic bending behavior of thin plywood sheets (Furuto, 2012).

Integrated Technology and Responsive Facades

The developments of new technologies have influenced features of the facade systems, such as

longevity, utilized space, weight, reliability, independency from power source, flexibility, solidity

and softness. Moreover, due to changes in types of actuating components, the motion of facade

components has changed from sliding (vertical/horizontal), rotating (vertical/horizontal) and

retracting to self-adjusting and elastic (expansion/contraction) movements. The use of a new

control technology provides further efficiency, flexibility in design, controllability,

responsiveness, individuality and variability in control systems.

20

Fig. 10: Integrated technology used in responsive facade systems

21

Based on a historical evolution reviewed in this paper, the mechanical and electro-mechanical

components of the facade system provided an active sustainable approach toward the design.

However, this primary active approach has been replaced by a passive artistic approach due to the

drawbacks of mechanical or electro-mechanical systems. Thus, due to lack of controllability in

passive systems, a new integrated system is suggested by integrating passive and active systems

with advantages of both systems as presented in Figure 10.

This integrated technology uses the strengths of electro-mechanical, information and material-

based technology for physical characteristics and control. In this type of system, sensors, actuators

and control systems are all infused into the body of advanced materials.

Capabilities of advanced materials also provide opportunities for input stimuli signals that are from

wide range of climatic variables in the integrated systems. However, due to controllability

limitations in material-based technology, a responsive integrated technology facade system may

have to utilize external centralize and/or decentralize control systems.

Conclusions

In response to the lack of a clear classification for implemented technologies in responsive facade

systems in the literature, a comparative analysis of the historical evolution of facade systems and

their implemented technologies since the 1960s have been presented. The classification of

implemented technologies for twenty-nine existing responsive facade systems has been

categorized into five groups based on their control systems, sensors, and actuators. The five

identified groups are mechanical technology, electro-mechanical technology, passive technology,

advanced material technology and information technology. The comparison of implemented

technologies with their advantages and shortcomings for each technology and reasons for

switching between technologies have also been provided in this study.

Based on the presented historical evolution, advances in technology, such as smart materials,

wireless sensors, smart actuators, and microprocessors, enable the facade designers to have real-

time control of the environmental changes such as light, temperature and humidity in interior

spaces based on thermal and visual’ satisfactions of the users.

22

It has been shown that cultural-regional motifs also have influence on the design of responsive

facade systems. The use of innovative technology and regional socio-cultural identities in

responsive facade require further investigation.

Acknowledgment

The authors are thankful to anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions.

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