Compare and Contrast

Rise and fall of Classical Empires

Necessary preconditions for the rise of empires

• State-level Government

• High Agricultural Potential in the area

• An environmental Mosaic

• Several small states with no clearly dominant state (power vacuum)

• Mutual Antagonisms among those states

• Adequate military resources

State-level Government

Rome

• Republic

• Senate• Aristocrats

• Consuls• Had executive power

• All citizen assemblies

• Built on aristocratic landlords expanding out from a city-state

China

• Kept most of the Qin centralized government in place

• Emergence of standardization

India

• Decentralized• Regionalism• Aryan Invaders• Vedas and Upanishads

• Large estates ruled by kings

• Encourage tight levels of village organization – organized village defenses and regulate property

• Varnas – social classes

High Agricultural Potential in the Area

Rome

• Wheat

• Grapes

• Cattle

China

• Wheat

• Millet

• Pigs

India

• Cotton• Wool• Calico• Chief revenue

– tax on agriculture

An Environmental Mosaic

Rome

• Alps

• Mediterranean Sea

• Forests

• Tiber and other rivers

• Hills

China

• Tianshan Mountains

• Yellow and Yangtze Rivers

• Loess Soil

• Pacific Ocean

India

• Indus and Ganges Rivers

• Thar Desert• Deccan

Plateau

Several Small States with no Clearly Dominant State (Power Vacuum)

Rome

• Rome and other city-states on the Italian peninsula

• Surrounding Mediterranean states

• Greek States; Judea; Egypt; Carthage; Cyprus; Gaul; Sicily; Spain; etc.

China• Fall of Zhou

• Warring States period 480 BCE – 221 BCE• Confucius – wandering scholar

• Idealized strong rulers and the consolidation of power

• Sought to establish norms for all life

• Relationships and importance of art, music, calligraphy

• 221-207 BCE – Qin• Single law code, uniform tax system, appointed

governors to each district who exercised military and legal power in name of emperor

• Elixir of immortality

• Broke into smaller states

India

• Regional leadership/rule

• Dravidians

Mutual Antagonisms Among these States

Rome

• Rivalry between pastoralists in hills and agriculturalists in plains

• Perceived threats led to wars and conquest which increased the length of borders and led to more perceived threats

China

• Warring States period before Qin unification

• Perceived threats led to wars and conquest which increased the length of borders and led to more perceived threats

India

• Indo-European Invasions

• Aryans• Kushans

Adequate Military Resources

Rome

• Soldiers first recruited only from peasant class on Italian peninsula

• Population inexhaustible

China

• Soldiers recruited from peasant class within the entire empire

• Population inexhaustible

India

• Ability to make metal weapons

• Social system extremely strict –particular in choosing – warrior caste

• Relatively peaceful• Powerful army

maintained tight control

The Primary Reason a State Succeeded in Empire Building

• An ideology supporting personal identification within the state, empire, conquest, militarism

• Patriarchy

• Retained and built on key achievements of earlier societies

• Did not have to:

• Reinvent money, idea of codes of law, scientific interests

Ideology

Rome• “Republic” based on citizenship of

free men

• Citizenship ensured loyalty to the state and brought taxes into the state treasury

• Emperor-dictators had to support the idea of the republic and pretend to follow what the Senate, council of elder men decreed

• Development of bureaucracy helped run the empire

China• Militaristic Legalism

developed by Shi Huangdi continued, then softened by the Confucian system of government based on ethics, meritocracy, and concept of the Mandate of Heaven

• Development of bureaucracy helped run the empire

• Tribute system for foreign relations

India

• Hinduism as a uniting force

• Enforcing strict social system• Caste

Methods of Political Control

• Government Organization

• Social Organization

• Military Organization

• Economic Organization

• State sponsored religions/philosophies

Government OrganizationRome

• Emperor• Preserved the senate but it was

meaningless

• Local autonomy and tolerance with common laws

• Had to pay taxes

• Political intensity and localism

• No single or cohesive set of political institutions

• Civil Service

China• Centralized bureaucracy

• 1st Civil Service Exam

• Clearest unity and focus to society

• Divinely sanctioned• Mandate of Heaven/Dynastic

Cycle

• Political culture

• Pay tribute to Xiongnu

• Standardized Language

India• Decentralized• Regionalism

• Geography made full political unity difficult

• Political structure existed – less cohesive and important

• Maurya• 16 powerful regional states –

some monarchies – some republics

• 322 BCE – Chandragupta Maurya – unified much of subcontinent – substantial bureaucracy – postal service and roads

• Ashoka – all but southern tip

Government OrganizationRome

• Citizenship to elites

• Laws applied to all

• Latin did not replace other written languages

• 100 CE – Pax Romana

• Peace, strength, road building, law, cities, trade

China

• Organized research in astronomy and historical records

• Strong local units never disappeared

• Relied heavily on tight knit patriarchal families, village authority surmounted family rule, landed nobles provided courts of justice and organized military troops

India• No standardized language• Sanskrit was used by the elite only• Gupta

• No individual influencial leaders• Preferred to negotiate with local

princesses and intermarry with their families

• Claimed appointment by gods • No extensive bureaucracy

• Local leaders – differ to Gupta dominance

• Stationed a personal representative to watch ruler’s court to ensure loyalty

• Spread uniform law codes• Little formal political theory

State Sponsored Religion/Philosophy

Rome• Polytheistic

• Division between upper class and popular belief

• Low class wanted a spiritual passion, “mystery religion”, secret rituals, fellowship

• State sponsored festivals to honor gods and goddesses

• Civic religious festivals

• Encouraged loyalty to the state

• Tolerance if it does not conflict with loyalty

• Christianity

• Missionaries

• 100 CE Christians were initially persecuted as undermining the state

• Opposed to slavery

China

• Absence of a single religion (limited monumental building)

• Ancestor Veneration

• Confucianism – filial piety

• Virtue of respect for one's father, elders, and ancestors

India• Polytheistic• Hinduism – key religious

values to cement civilization

• Patriarchal• Gives hope through

incarnation• Buddha opposes

• Offered something not so rigid

• Better life for women• Buddhism spread by

Ashoka using Stupas

Social Organization

Rome• Emperor, Large

Estate owners, merchants, peasants, slaves

• Greek slaves – valued as household servants and tutors

• Could be better than “free” life of a poor peasant

China• Social class based on literacy

• Lower classes were not able to take the Civil Service Exam

• Higher classes were knowledgeably qualified to take this exam and become bureaucrats

• Mean people • Unskilled

• Not slaves but given the jobs that the rest of the population did not want

• Transport

• Performing artists

• Punished more harshly for crime

• Had to wear a green scarf to identify themselves

• Used culture to justify social inequality – Confucianism

• Some household slaves – not depended on for agriculture

India• Caste system based on

skin color (initially from Aryan invaders)

• Created the idea of racial division by placing the lighter skinned people in the higher social classes

• Untouchable class – unskilled – not slaves but given jobs the rest of the population did not want

• Peasants less constrained by landlords trying to tke their land – village controlled most of the land

Social Organization

Rome

• Wealthy land owners

• Slaves – 1/3 of the population

• Inequalities between men and women

• Inequalities between rich and poor

• “Bread and Circuses”

China

• Inequalities between men and women

• Inequalities between rich and poor

• Tenant Farmers

• Corvee – state required service

• Built roads, walls, canals

India

• Warrior governing class and priestly class

• Traders and farmers• Common laborers• Untouchables• Inequalities between men and

women• Inequalities between rich and poor• Elaboration of caste system – jati

• Regulates social relationships and work roles

• Outright slavery avoided• 1st loyalty to the caste

Cultural Organization

Rome• Valued active participation in

politics for the “good life”• Contributed to a sense of political

interest and responsibility

• Cultural achievements involved a small percentage of the population

• Demonstrate power and achievement

• Roads, aqueducts, sewer systems, colosseums

• Buildings of great size, domes added to rectangular buildings

China

• Importance of family and local units

• Confucianism

• Invention of paper

India• Gupta supported

Hinduism, math, and science “Golden Age”

• Concept of zero• Numbers • Pi• Circumference of

Earth• Earth’s rotation• Plastic Surgery• Predicted eclipses

Military Organization

Rome• Citizens served in the

military

• 63 CE – forced dissolution of Jewish State after a local rebellion – Romans took over

• Need for slaves encouraged military conquest

China

• Assimilation – expansion – send farmers to colonize and set up schools

• Local landlords

India

• Maurya• Large armies• Chariots• Elephant borne

troops• Kushan invaders

overthrow and adopt Buddhism

• 220 CE Kushan collapse

Economic Organization

Rome• Agriculture is important

• Latifunda – Agricultural Estate

• Based on slave labor and tenant farmers and paid laborers

• Free farmers could not always compete

• Silver coins

• Production technology lagged

• Government regulated some branches of commerce to secure vital supplies of grain

• Public works

• Dominated Mediterranean trade – traded with Egypt and Africa

China• Agriculture is the most important

• Canals are built to transport grains from one end of the empire to the other

• Government control of salt and iron industries

• Standardized currency, weights, measures – facilitated trade

• Silk production

• Roads to promote trade

• Silk Road

• Public works

• canal

• Regulate agricultural supplies – storing grain and rice

• Agricultural innovations

• Damns, Canals, Ox-drawn plows, collar, Iron mining pulleys, winding gear, and lamps, water powered mills

India• Increased trade• Crossroads of trades

routes• Indian Ocean is a

critical trade route• Had the widest

economic reach• Ashoka – improved

trade and communication; extensive road network with wells and rest stops

Major Rewards of Empire

• Economic rewards, reaped especially in the early years and redistributed to the elite and often to all levels of citizenry

• Population increase, often supported by the government and its ideology

Economic Rewards

Rome• Citizenship led to

recognition of place in society

• Possible government and military positions of leadership

• Opportunities for merchants

• Roman-style urbanism for new towns and cities

China

• Land for supporters

• Expansion of established cities

• Creation of new capital storehouses for food when supplies fell

India

• Advances in arts and sciences, mathematics, iron use

• Trade increased

Population Increase

Rome

• Population increased as new lands with more people were conquered

China

• Population increased as new land was colonized by Chinese farmers

India

• Population increased with prosperity and young marriage of women

Empires Fall Because

• Ideology of expansion and conquest fueled attempts at conquest beyond practical limits

• Failure to continue conquest indefinitely and to continue to bring home its economic fruits eroded faith in the ideology that supported the empire

• Revolutions toppled the empire

Internal Problems Facing Empire

Rome

• Population decreases• Upper class Romans stop

having babies

• Becomes difficult to collect taxes

• Plagues spread from international trading (China) decimates population

• Cultural life decreases – new knowledge is not happening

China

• Confucian intellectual tendency – became less creative

• Central governments control became diminished as bureaucrats became corrupt

• Factionalism at court

• Taxes increased

• Free peasants began to work for local landlords

• Greater concentration of land ownership

India• Ability to control local

princes decreased• Tendency to dissolve

into political fragmentation

• Invaders integrated into the warrior caste – new ruling group of regional princes

Internal Problems Facing Empire

Rome

• High, uneven taxes

• Factions

• 235-284 CE “Barracks Emperors”

• As many generals as emperors

• Patriotism decreases

• Decentralization of political and economic authority

• Inflation• Decreased money for defense

China

• Peasants had to sell kids

• Disease epidemic – ½ population dies

• Spread of Buddhism

• Trade decreases because it is not safe

• Conflicts with people of the north - Xiongnu

India• Buddhism decreases• Hinduism increase• ++Economic prosperity

does continue

Attempts to Fix Problems

Rome

• Diocletian – tries to reverse the tide (284-305)

• Splits empire in half

• Persecutes Christians

• Constantine (306 -313-337)• Creates a second capital –

Constantinople

• Adopts Christianity in an attempt to unify the empire

• Regulating the economy reduced economic initiative and decreased production

China• Confucian intellectual tendency –

became less creative

• Central governments control became diminished as bureaucrats became corrupt

• Taxes increased

• Free peasants began to work for local landlords

• Peasants had to sell kids

• Disease epidemic – ½ population dies

• Spread of Buddhism

• Trade decreases because it is not safe

India• Ability to control local

princes decreased• Tendency to dissolve

into political fragmentation

• Invaders integrated into the warrior caste – new ruling group of regional princes

• Rajput• Buddhism decreases• Hinduism increase• ++Economic prosperity

does continue

Impractical Conquest

Rome• Military became less desirable as

soldiers lost land

• Difficulty recruiting effective loyal armies – loyal to their leader – hire mercenaries (Germanic Soldiers)

• Recruits of “foreigners” to keep numbers of soldiers up led to dissatisfaction

• Tax revenues fell

• Government failed to pay soldiers fully

• Safety within empire and borders declined

China• “barbarians” continued to

demand more concessions in the tribute system

• Recruits of “foreigners” to keep numbers of soldiers up led to dissatisfaction

• Tax revenues fell

• Governments failed to pay soldiers fully

• Safety within empire and borders declined

India

• Military unable to hold out against constant attacks

• Lost many lives• Fighting between

regional rulers for territory

Failure to Continue Conquest

Rome

• Tenant farmers looked to landowners of Latifundas for security

• Soldiers’ loyalty shifted to generals and officers rather than the state

China

• Tenant farmers looked to landowners for security

• Bandits and rebels attacked government officials and facilities

India

• Local princes refuse to work together

External Problems Facing Empire

Rome

• Germanic Invaders being pushed into the empire to avoid Attila and the Huns

• Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths

China

• Outside Invasion

• Huns

India

• Kush invade and topple the Mauyran

• White Huns invade and topple the Gupta

Revolutions Topple

Rome

• Germanic tribes sacked cities near borders and finally Rome

• Political instability within Rome itself

China

• Yellow Turban Rebellions – Daoist leaders

• Soldier rebellions

• Peasant rebellions

• Political instability

India

• White Huns invaded and over ran the empire

• Politically decentralized

• Unwillingness to help each other

Severity of Collapse

Rome• Political power is not the only

“glue” that holds a civilization together

• No religious unity – Christianity became official religion during 400 CE – too late to be a unifying force

• Political and military power failed

• Migration of Huns caused pressure on Rome to move out as they expanded

China• Confucianism lost much of its

credibility

• Many people turned towards Daoism and Buddhism instead

• Fall had less impact because the philosophies went beyond China’s Politics and rulers

• Chinese civilization continued to reassert power after 135 years of chaos

India• Regional

princes dominate

• Gradual decline of Buddhism – spreads to China

Severity of Collapse Contd.

Rome

• When one trade route weakened – Silk Road- all were affected

• Diseases spread

• People were killed

• Money used to build churches could have been used to maintain the Roman Empire

• Death rates increased in the wealthy class because water was being transported through lead pipes

China

• 220 CE – 589 CE Regional kingdoms, warlords, disorder

India

• White Huns invaded and over ran the empire

• Politically decentralized

• Unwillingness to help each other

Severity of Collapse Contd.

Rome• Unable to keep political grasp amongst vast

land

• Disputes between large landowners and peasants

• Rise of Islam in areas close to Rome created tension and a new movement of religiously driven and bound forces that would eventually become a dominant power in parts of Europe, ME, Asia

• Monetary trouble was also a contributing factor – the central Roman state collapsed because the migrants forcibly stripped it of the tax base which it used to fund its armies

China

• 589-618 CE - Sui Dynasty

India

• Rajput dynasties dominated northern India

• The many petty Rajput kingdoms there were among the main obstacles to the complete Muslim domination of Hindu India

Differences of the Falls

Rome

• Western Roman Empire totally collapsed

• Much more commerce in Roman Empire

• Proportion of slaves in Roman Empire hurt the economy; less productive but more people to feed

China• System took some time to

recover - Common culture (Chinese script, Confucianism, assimilation) prevented as drastic a collapse as in Rome

• Economy was based more completely on crop agriculture; cities and commerce played a lesser role in China than in the West

India

• India’s system was not based on political unity (Hinduism remained

Effects of the Falls

Rome• Europe dissolved into various

political systems involving kings, with little authority, nobles, knights, vassals, city-states in Italy, and small territories ruled by princes, bishops, or the pope

• Farmers chose to work for large landowners to avoid taxes (beginnings of

manorialism/feudalism)

China

• China was once again under a single emperor

• China still governed by a merit-based bureaucracy

• China’s Confucianism still ordered the society

India

• India’s system was not based on political unity (Hinduism remained

Religious Effects

• Surge in the Great Religions – Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam expanded as the great empires decline; political and economic instability, plus the impact of devastating epidemic prompted individuals to seek new spiritual answers

• In the west, religion, particularly Christianity, was left to slowly develop authority and the Roman Catholic Church became increasingly institutionalized

Effects of the Falls

Rome

• Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians

• Established standardized hierarchy of church officials

• The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader

• As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation

China

• Buddhism spread into China as competition to Confucian traditions

India

• India’s system was not based on political unity (Hinduism remained

Magnitude of the Fall

Rome

• the most devastated

• civilization depended on the ability of the government and military to control the area

• Christianity emerged in Europe too late to provide an unifying factor

• Area fragmented into small parts and developed unique characteristics

China• Loss of the dynasty meant

loss of centralized government resulting in disorder from the loss of authority

• Chinese society very hierarchical; dynastic cycles that followed the dictates of the Mandate of Heaven were well defined in China, and the Confucian traditions continued to give coherence to Chinese society

India• Had the least impact,

partly because political unity wasn’t the rule anyway, and partly because the traditions of Hinduism and the caste system (the glue that held the area together) continued after the empire fell.

What Came Next

Byzantine Empire • Christianity spreads more

widely, becomes more centralized, bureaucratic, hierarchical, powerful, development of papacy

• Patriarchy – women legally disadvantaged

• Slavery

• Eastern half of the Roman Empire

• Lasted over 1000 more years

China

• Survived during this time period because of a strong philosophical background

• Buddhism became more popular coming in on the Silk Road

India

• Hinduism remains predominant religion

• “Southernization” cultural influences from India to SE Asia

• Caste System

What Came Next

Byzantine Empire • Sat on Bosporus Strait –

wealth from trade

• Had a strong central government

• Justinian – code of law – strong, codified laws

• Replaced Latin with Greek

• Schism – Eastern Orthodox Church

• Emperor was in charge of the church and church leaders

China• Resurgence of Daoism

• Confucianism continued but became more fragmented

• Patriarchy, filial piety, ancestor veneration

• Sui Dynasty 589-618 CE• Examination system became

more open to non elites under

• Continued expansion of Great Wall

India

• Indian Ocean trade remained important

• No centralized empire replaced it until much later

• Patriarchy and child marriage

Global Effects

• Political disunity in the Middle East forged the way for the appearance of a new religion in the 7th century; by 600 CE Islam began expanding

• Trade was disrupted but survived, keeping intact the trend toward increased long-distance contact; trade on the Indian Ocean increased as conflict and decline of political authority affected overland trade

• Urban centers decrease in importance