comparing learning theories
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Comparing Learning Theories ~ Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism & Humanistichi there...^_^
Learning Theories
ComparisonAmong
L. Theories
Behaviorism Cognitivism
List of KeyTheorists
B.F. SkinnerIvan Pavlov
Edward Thorndike
John B. Watson
Jean PiagetRobert Gagne
Lev Vygotsky
Role ofLearners
Learners are basicallypassive, just respondingto stimuli.
Learners process, store & retrieveinformation for later use - creatingassociations and creating aknowledge set useful for living.The learner uses the informationprocessing approach to transferand assimilate new information.
Role ofTeachers
Instructor designs thelearning environment.
Instructor shapes childsbehaviour by positive/negative reinforcement.
Teacher presents theinformation & thenstudents demonstratethat they understand thematerial.Students are assessed
primarily through tests.
Instructor manages problemsolving & structured searchactivities, especially with grouplearning strategies.
Instructor provides opportunitiesfor students to connect newinformation to schema.
Key Concepts Behaviourism is a theory ofanimal and human learningthat only focuses on objectivelyobservable behaviours and discountsmental activities. Behaviour theoristsdefine learning as nothing more than theacquisition of new behaviour.
Experiments by behaviouristsidentify conditioning as auniversal learning process.There are two different types ofconditioning, each yielding a differentbehavioural pattern:1.Classic conditioning
occurs when a naturalreflex responds to astimulus. The most
Cognitivism focuses on the brain. How humansprocess and storeinformation was very important in the process oflearning.
Schema - An internal knowledgestructure.New information is compared to
existing cognitive structurescalled "schema".Schema may be combined,extended or altered toaccommodate new information.
Three-Stage InformationProcessing Model input firstenters a sensory register, then isprocessed in short-term memory,and then is transferred to long-term
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popular example isPavlov's observation thatdogs salivate when theyeat or even see food.Essentially, animals andpeople are biologically"wired" so that a certain
stimulus will produce aspecific response.2.Behavioral oroperant
conditioning occurswhen a response to astimulus is reinforced.Basically, operantconditioning is a simplefeedback system: If areward or reinforcementfollows the response to astimulus, then theresponse becomes moreprobable in the future.For e.g. leading
behaviourist B.F.Skinnerused reinforcementtechniques to teach-pigeons to dance andbowl a ball in a minialley.
memory for storage and retrieval.o Sensory Register- receives input
from senses which lasts from lessthan a second to four seconds andthen disappears through decay orreplacement. Much of theinformation never reaches short
term memory but all information ismonitored at some level and actedupon if necessary.
o Short-Term Memory (STM) -sensory input that is important orinteresting is transferred from thesensory register to the STM.Memory can be retained here forup to 20 seconds or more ifrehearsed repeatedly. Short-termmemory can hold up to 7 plus orminus 2 items.STM capacity canbe increased if material ischunked into meaningful parts.
o Long-Term Memory & Storage
(LTM) - stores information fromSTM for long term use. Long-termmemory has unlimited capacity.Some materials are "forced" intoLTM by rote memorizationand over learning.Deeper levels of processing suchas generating linkages betweenold and new information are muchbetter for successful retention ofmaterial.
Meaningful Effects - Meaningfulinformation is easier to learn andremember. If a learner linksrelatively meaningless information
with prior schema it will be easierto retain.
Serial Position Effects - It iseasier to remember items fromthe beginning or end of a list ratherthan those in the middle of the list,
unless that item is distinctly different Practice Effects - Practicing or
Rehearsing improves retentionespecially when it is distributedpractice. By distributing practicesthe learner associates the materialwith many different contexts ratherthan the one context afforded bymass practice.
Transfer EffectsThe effects ofprior learning on learning newtasks or material.
Interference Effects - Occurs whenprior learning interferes with thelearning of new material.
Organization Effects - When alearner categorizes input suchas a grocery list, it is easier toremember.
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Levels of Processing Effects -Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of theirphysical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of theirmeaning. The more deeply a wordis process the easier it will be to
remember. State Dependent Effects - Iflearning takes place within acertain context it will be easier toremember within that contextrather than in a new context.
How DoesLearning TakePlace
Skinner Known for operant
conditioning A stimulus is provided A response is generated. Consequence to the
response is present.Type of consequence is
present.
Reinforcement isprovided which could bepositive or negative.
Pavlov Known for classical
conditioning. A spontaneous reaction
that occurs automaticallyto a particular stimulus.
To alter the naturalrelationship between astimulus & a reactionwas viewed as a majorbreakthrough in the studyof behaviour.
Thorndike Thorndike concluded that
animals learn, solely, bytrial & error, or rewardand punishment.
- All learning involves theformation of connections,and connections arestrengthened accordingto the law of effect.
Intelligence is the ability toform connections and
humans are the most
evolved animal becausethey form moreconnections than anyother being.
- The "law of effect"stated that when aconnection between astimulus and response ispositively rewarded it will
be strengthened and when it is
Piaget Human intelligence & biological
organisms function in similar ways. They are both organized systemsthat constantly interact with theenvironment.
Knowledge is the interactionbetween the individual and theenvironment.
Cognitive development is thegrowth of logical thinking frominfancy to adulthood.
Vygotsky
Vygotskys components of Cognitive Development: Mastering symbols of the culture
and developing the culturalforms of reasoning.
Complex functions begin as socialinteractions between individuals;gradually acquire meaning andare internalized by the learner.
Speech and other symbols are firstmastered as a form ofcommunication and eventuallystructure & manage a childsthinking.
Zone of Proximal Developmentfocuses on interactive problemsolving.
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negatively rewarded it will be weakened.Thorndike later revised this "law" whenhe found that negative reward,(punishment) did not necessarily weakenbonds, and that some seeminglypleasurable consequences do notnecessarily motivate performance.
- The "law of exercise"held that the more anSR(stimulus response)bond is practiced thestronger it will become.
As with the law of effect, the law ofexercise also had to be updated whenThorndike found thatpractice without feedback does notnecessarily enhance performance.Looking more specifically at academiclearning, i.e. the content of a lesson,rather than managing the behaviourwithin it,-Thorndike's "Theory of
Transfer of IdenticalElements" represents thecentral behaviouriststance, that the amount oflearning that can begeneralized between afamiliar situation and anunfamiliar one isdetermined by the numberof elements that the twosituations have incommon. He concludedthat education does notgeneralize easily and thatif it is to be preparation for
life beyond school, then itshould be as life-like aspossible.
Also Thorndike maintainedthat a skill should be introduced when alearner is conscious of their need for itas a means ofsatisfying some useful purpose.-Regarding material,Skinner specified that toteach well, a teacher mustdecide exactly what it isthey want to teach - onlythen can they present theright material, know whatresponses to look for andhence when to givereinforcement that usefullyshapes behaviour.
He suggested 3 principles whichteachers should use to promote effectivelearning:1) present the information
to be learned in smallbehaviourally defined
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steps.2) give rapid feedback to
pupils regarding theaccuracy of their
learning (learning beingindicated by overt pupilresponses)
3) allow pupils to learn attheir own pace.Building on these
development - problemsolving skills of taskscan be placed into 3categories:
Those performed independently by thelearner.Those that cannot be performed evenwith help.Those that fall between the 2 extremes,the tasks that can be performed withhelp from others.Seymour Papert
Matheticsthe art of learning. Guidelines for the art of
learning.1
stprinciple-Give yourself
time.2
ndprinciple-discussion.
3rd
principle-look forconnections.
The building ofknowledge is the goal.Decrease amountof teaching and increasestudent projects.proposed an alternativeteaching technique
called programmedlearning/ instruction &also a teaching machinethat could presentprogrammed material.
WatsonWatson believed that humans are bornwith a few reflexes and the emotionalreactions of love & rage.All other behaviour is establishedthrough stimulus-responseassociations through conditioning.
Relevance to
Educational
Technology/Implications
Identify possible
reinforcers by observing
behaviours of learners Select Stimulus Identify and describe the
terminal objectiveobservable behaviour
By a process of shaping& smaller steps achievegoals
Mastery learning is an egff behavioural approach
Cognitivists believe learners
develop learning through receiving, storing andretrieving information.
With this idea, it is important forinstructional designers to thoroughly analyse &consider the appropriate tasks needed in order forlearners to effectively & efficiently process theinformation received.
Likewise, designers must consider the relevant learnercharacteristics that will promote or impede the
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Behaviourism stillcontinues to play a largerole in motivation,classroom management,and special educationneeds.
Implications of Skinners OperantConditioning Theory in Teaching &Learning
1. Newly learned skill ortechnique ought to begiven continuousreinforcement.
2. Use of positivereinforcement whichglues present result ismore effective.
3. Extinction process bymeans of OperantConditioning & can be
used to modify pupilsundesirable behavioure.g. to withdraw thereinforcement which hasbeen given before.
4. Guide pupils to masterthe concept ofdiscrimination throughthe operant conditioningprocess so that they willacquire the knowledge &skill accurately.
5.Negatively reinforcementis also suitable & can beused to achieve and
desired behaviour.(Ifthe pupils did not followthe rules or discipline inthe classroom).
cognitive processing of information. Do task analysis & learner analysis Create tests Create learning materials
according to any one of theInstructional Design Models
Implications of cognitive theories:- Cognitive processes influence
learning.- As children grow, they become
capable of increasingly moresophisticated thought.
- People organize the things theylearn.
- New information is most easilyacquired when people canassociate it with things they havealready learned.
- People control their own learning.
PossibleLearningActivities
Instructional cues to elicitcorrect response
Practice paired withtarget stimuli
Reinforcement for correctresponses
Building fluency (getresponses closer andcloser to correct
response)
Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice)
Discrimination (recallingfacts)
Generalization (definingand illustrating concepts)
Associations (applyingexplanations)
Chaining (automaticallyperforming a specified
Explanations Demonstrations Illustrative examples Gestalt Theory Matched non-examples Corrective feedback Outlining Mnemonics Dual-Coding Theory
Chunking Information
Repetition Concept Mapping Advanced Organizers Analogies Summaries Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation Interactivity Synthesis Schema Theory Metaphor
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Learning Theories
procedure) Generative Learning Organizational strategies Elaboration Theory
ComparisonAmongL. Theories
Constructivism Humanistic
List of KeyTheorists
John DeweyJerome Bruner
Merrill Lev Vygotsky
Seymour Papert
Abraham Harold MaslowCarl Rogers
James F.T Bugental
Role ofLearners
Learning is an activeprocess in which learners
construct new ideas orconcepts based upontheir current/pastknowledge, socialinteractions & motivationaffect the construction.
- Learning is an activeprocess/pupils participate
actively in Learning activities- Pupils determine the learning
materials, method of learning,quantity of learning & values
- making a right or wrongchoice is entirely the pupilsresponsibility
Role ofTeachers
Educators focus on makingconnections between facts& fostering newunderstanding in students.Instructors tailor theirteaching strategies tostudent responses and
encourage students toanalyse, interpret & predictinformation.Teachers also rely heavilyon open-ended questionsand promote extensivedialogue among students.
Constructivism calls for theelimination of astandardized curriculum.Instead, it promotesusing curricula customizedto the students' priorknowledge. Also, itemphasizes hands-on
problem solving.
- facilitator and organiser tomotivate pupils to use theirown learning strategy toachieve self-perfection
- be aware of pupils needhelp pupils to acquireknowledge
- guide pupils so that theirpotentials can be develop tothe optimal level
- create non-threateningenvironment / condition
- teaching and learningstrategy should be designedto follow individual needs andemotional development
- teaching and learningactivities should be related toactual life experience to instilvalues of living skills amongpupils
- school provide opportunity
for pupils to discoverthemselves and masterreflective thinking skill toaccess their own self and toacquire the ability for selfdiscipline
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Key Concepts Constructivism focuses on how learnersconstruct their own meaning. They askquestions, develop answers and interactand interpret the environment.By doing these things, they incorporatenew knowledge with prior knowledge tocreate new meanings.
1. Multiple perspectives andRepresentations ofconcepts & content rpresented& encouraged.
2. Goals and objectives arederived by the student orin negotiation with theteacher or system.
3. Teachers serve in the roleof guides, monitors, coaches, tutors&
facilitators.4. Activities, opportunities,
tools &environments areprovided to encouragemetacognition, self-
analysis - regulation, -reflection & - awareness.
5. The student plays acentral role in mediating& controlling learning.
6. Learning situations,environments, skills,content & tasks arerelevant, realistic,authentic &represent thenatural complexities of the'real world'.
7. Primary sources of dataare used in order toensure authenticity & real-
world complexity.8. Knowledge construction &
not reproduction isemphasized.
9. This construction takesplace in individualcontexts and throughsocial negotiation,
collaboration & experience.10.The learner's previous
knowledge constructions,beliefs and attitudesare considered in theknowledge constructionprocess.
11. Problem-solving, higherorder thinking skills anddeep understanding areemphasized.
12. Errors provide theopportunity for insight intostudents' previous
knowledge constructions.13. Exploration is a favoured
approach in order to
Humanism focuses onrecognising humancapabilities in areas such as creativity,personal growth and choice.
1. Main concept: Humannature basically good &noble.
2. Theory of hierarchicalneeds is basically themotivation theory inhumanistic psychology.
3.Main core: Theory of Self-Actualization:
4. Education developmentshould be pupil-centred.- Teaching emphasized onindividual potentials ratherthan reading materials.- Meaningful & useful learning
experiences. Fostering of
true, sincere &mutual trustbetween teacher & pupil.
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encourage students toseek knowledgeindependently and to
manage the pursuit oftheir goals.
14. Learners are providedwith the opportunity for
apprenticeshiplearning in which there isan increasing complexityof tasks, skills andknowledge acquisition.
15. Knowledge complexity isreflected in an emphasison conceptualinterrelatedness &interdisciplinary learning.
16.Collaborative andcooperative learning arefavoured in order toexpose the learner toalternative viewpoints.
17. Scaffolding is facilitatedto help students performjust beyond the limits oftheir ability.
18. Assessment is authenticand interwoven withteaching.
Implication of constructivism- in teaching & learning the
role of the teacher is anadvisor, facilitator,planner,motivator and assistant
- the most suitable methodis to use cooperative andcollaborative model
- pupils knowledge &awareness are importantfactors that influence theprocess of cognitivedevelopment
- assist pupils to use theiracquired knowledge torelate & apply to thelearning of new knowledge
- foster intrinsic motivationfor pupils to learn on theirown initiative
- traditional evaluation isnot suitable
- the format and instrumentof evaluation used forknowledge acquisitionmust be constructed byteacher & pupils together
- pupils are encourage touse critical & creativethinking skills to solve
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problems- metacognitive skills are
emphasised- reflective thinking to
control, assess & makereflection on the result &achievement
How DoesLearning TakePlace
Constructivism promotes a more open-ended learning experience where themethods and results of learning are noteasilymeasured and may not be the same foreach learner.
Piaget
All knowledge is a humanconstruction.
The learner starts with ablank slate.
Not logical thinking.
1. Learning is an internalprocess that occurs in themind of the individual.
2. Cognitive conflict isessential to the learningprocess.
Dewey
Educations connectionwith society, outside world,life.
What we learn should havemeaningful relevancy.
Instruction should centrearound the childsexperience
Bruner Learner constructs new
ideas or concepts basedupon their current /past knowledge
Learning by discoverythrough developmentalstages.
Benchmarks reveal eachstage of childs
development, interaction &
discovery is learning. Education relevant to
students need, stages incognitive development
Merrill knowledge is constructed
from experience learning is a personal
interpretation of the world learning is an active
Bugental (1976)- Human experiences
psychology are different fromanimals
- Main team of research followclosely to the aim ofmeaningful human living.
- study of human behaviourscover subjective internalprocess & explicit behaviours.
- Humanistic psychology isbase on psychology theory& application of psychology.
- Basic consideration is
emphasize on individualdifferences.
- Research based on the ideaof contribution which willchange human living to become meaningful, peaceful &well being.
Carl Rogers- Every individual experience is
a logical phenomenon.- Form his own unique concept
through self-belief which aredifferent from others.
- Individual explicit behaviour isin accordance with his own self concept & belief.
- Experience & knowledgeacquire from the environmentwill enable the individual toform self concept (positive &negative).
- Behaviour which has beendisplayed reflects individualself concept & belief.
Principles Of Rogerss Approach InEducation.- Emphasize on learner
centred education.
- Emphasize on freedom tolearner.
- Rational & approach are :Learning is considered as acuriosity to know.
- Can only occur if the learningmaterials are meaningful aswell as with the objective.
- Effectiveness will only occurwhen pupils take their own
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process in which meaningis developed on the basisof experience
conceptual growth comesfrom the negotiation ofmeaning, the sharing ofmultiple perspectives & the
changing of our internalrepresentations throughcollaborative learning
learning should be situatedin realistic settings; testingshould be integrated withthe task and not a separateactivity
Vygotsky's theory presentsthree principles:1. Making meaning
the community places acentral role, and thepeople around the studentgreatly affect the way he
or she sees the world.2. Tools for cognitive
development - the typeand quality of these tools(culture, language,important adults to thestudent) determine thepattern and rate ofdevelopment.
3. The Zone of ProximalDevelopment
problem solving skills oftasks can be placed intothree categories:
i. Those performed
independently by thelearner.
ii. Those that cannot beperformed even with help.
iii. Those that fall betweenthe two extremes, thetasks that can beperformed with help fromothers.
Seymour Papert Matheticsthe art of
learning. Guidelines for the art of
learning.1
stprinciple-Give yourself
time.2
ndprinciple-discussion.
3rd
principle-look forconnections.
The building of knowledge
initiative & fully involvethemselves in the learningactivities.
Rogerss view on education- pupils participate actively in
learning activities.
- Pupils take their own initiativeand involve themselves fullyin learning activities thenlearning result attained wouldbe optimal.
- The most effective learning islearn the way how to learn(pupils acquire knowledge bymeans of own learning & notmuch from teacher.
- Learning materials ,method oflearning , quantity of learning& values should be determineby the pupils themselves.
- Teacher has to respect pupils
opinion & choice.- Games with creative
elements & art educationshould contain high ethical &aesthetical values.
- Activates the feeling &emotional of pupils , thusenable them to develop theirpotentials completely.
- School should provideopportunity 4 pupils 2 discoverthemselves $ master reflectivethinking skills 2 asses theirownself as well as 2 acquirethe ability 4 self-disipline.
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is the goal. Decreaseamount of teaching andincrease student projects.
Relevance toEducationalTechnology/Implications
As opposed to an objective approach tolearning, constructivism is moreopen-ended in expectation where theresults and even the methods of learning
themselves are not easilymeasured and may not be consistent witheach learner. Case-Based Learning Authentic situations Multiple cases to build
cognitive flexibility Social interactions,
collaborations Assessment of activity Shift teachers role to
scaffolding, modelling,coaching of learners.
Experiences are critical Shift from behavioural
objectives to activity goals Advance organizers- in teaching & learning the
role of the teacher is anadvisor,facilitator, planner,motivator and assistant
- the most suitable methodis to use cooperative andcollaborative model
- pupils knowledge &awareness are importantfactors that influence theprocess of cognitivedevelopment
- assist pupils to use theiracquired knowledge torelate & apply to thelearning of new knowledge
- foster intrinsic motivationfor pupils to learn on theirown initiative
- traditional evaluation isnot suitable
- the format and instrumentof evaluation used forknowledge acquisitionmust be constructed byteacher & pupils together
- pupils are encourage to
use critical & creative
thinking skills to solveproblems
- metacognitive skills areemphasised
- reflective thinking tocontrol, assess & makereflection on the result &achievement
- stresses the importance ofdeveloping individualpotentials
- strategy & method for
teaching & learning shouldbe orientated towards pupil-centred
- individual teaching method- inquiry-discovery- practical approach- enrichment and remedial
activities
Possible Modelling - Individual learning
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Behavioural psychologists
1. Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as motivation to learn and to accomplish
school requirements.
2. Students should be graded according to uniform standards of achievement which the teacher sets
for the class.
3. Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that are carefully sequenced.
Cognitive psychologists
1. Teachers need to determine what students are thinking about while solving math problems.
2. The teacher should help students to monitor and control their own learning behaviour.
Humanistic psychologists
1. Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or choices in what
they learn at school.
2. Students should set their own individual standards and should evaluate their own work.
3. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their peers
LearningActivities
Collaborative Learning Coaching Scaffolding Problem-Based Learning Authentic Learning Anchored Instruction Cognitive Flexibility
Hypertexts Object-based Learning
- group activity with teacher asfacilitator.
- inquiry-discovery (science-observing the life cycle of afrog)
- discussion- brainstorming
- problem solving- simulation