complete lecture note on, economic entomology · 2020. 7. 19. · green leaf hopper (glh) and brown...

Lecture note on Economic Entomology by N.B. Singh

Complete lecture note on,

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

NARENDRA BAHADUR SINGH

INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL SCIENCE

GOKULESHWOR AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL SCIENCE COLLEGE

GOKULESHWOR, BAITADI

2016


Course Code: ENT 321

Course Title: Economic Entomology

Credit Hours; 3 (2+1)

OBJECTIVES

Upon the completion of this course, the students will able to know common insect pests of crops,

their identification and management practices using novel techniques.

SYBALLUS: systemic position, distribution, host identification, nature and extent of damage,

life cycle and seasonal histories and control measures of important insect and non-insect pests

(rodents birds, mite, wild animals and others) of cereals and millets, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables,

fruits, industrial crops, spices and condiments grown in Nepal. Important storage grain pests and

their control. Introduction and management of medical and veterinary, vector borne,

polyphagous, soil hibernating and resistant insect pests.

Course Outline

A. Lecturers

S.N. Topic No. of Lectures

1. Systematic position, distribution, host identification, nature and extent

of damage, life cycle and seasonal histories of harmful insect pests

associated with different crops

4

2. Insect pests of cereals and millet crop and their management 3

3. Insect pests of pulse crop and their management 2

4. Insect pests of oilseed crops and their management 2

5. Insect pests of vegetable crops and their management 4

6. Insect pests of fruit crop and their management 4

7. Insect pests of industrial crops, spices and condiment and their

management

4

8. Important storage grain pests and their control 2

9. Introduction and management of medical and veterinary, disease

vectors, polyphagous and soil hibernating insect pests

3

10. Resistance to pests and their management 1

11. Insect vectors and their management 1

Total ([email protected]) 30

B. Practicals

S.N. Topic No. of practicals

1. Periodic visits to IAAS farm for crop pests monitoring 2

2. Farm visit for collection and identification of parasitoids, predators and

crop pollinators commonly used in biological control

2

3. Collection and identification of various insect pests of

Field crops 3

Vegetable crops 3

Fruit crops 2

Oilseed crops 1

Stored grains 1

4. Identification of rodents and mites and their management 1

Total 15


REFERENCES

Atwal, A.S. 1993. Agricultural pest of india and South-East Asia. Kalyani Publishers, New

Delhi, India.

Mathews, G.A. 1989. Cotton insect pest and their management, Longmans, Harlow.

Neupane, F.P. 2000. Bali Biruwaka Satruharu Ra Tinka Roktham (in Nepali). 4th

Edition. Sajha

Prakashan.

Panwar, V.P.S. 1995. Agricultural insect pest of crops and their control. Kalyani Publishers, New

Dehli, India.


MAJOR PEST OF RICE

1. Rice stem borer

a. Yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas)

b. Pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens)

c. Dark haded stem borer (Chilo polychrysus)

d. Striped stem borer (Chilo suppressalis)

2. Paddy Leaf and plant hopper

a) Brown Plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens; Homoptera: Delphacidae

b) Green Leaf Hopper, Nephotettix nigropictus; Homoptera: Cicadellidae

3. Rice Gundhi Bug/ Rice Ear Head Bug, Leptocorisa oratorius; Hemiptera: Coreidae

4. Rice Ear Cutting Caterpillar (Army worm) Mythimna separate; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

5. Rice Hispa, Dicladispa armigera; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

6. Rice Caseworm, Nymphula depuntalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

7. Rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

8. Rice Grasshopper, Hieroglyphus banian; Orthoptera: Acrididae

Minor pests of Rice crop

1. Pink Borer, Sesamia inference; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

2. Rice mealybugs, Brevennia rehi; Homoptera: Pseudococcidae

3. Yellow Caterpillar, Psalis pennatula; Lepidoptera: Lymantridae

4. Mole cricket, Gryllotalpa Africana; Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae

5. Wireworms, Agriotes spp.; Coleoptera: Elateridae

6. Flower beetle, Chiloloba acuta; Coleoptera: Cetonidae

7. Seed bed beetle, Heteronychus lioderes; Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

1) Rice yellow stem borers; Scirpophaga incertulas; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Stem borers are the serious pest of rice, maize and wheat. These are chronic insect pests which

are present in almost all rice fields. Stem borers cause damage mainly in warmer area in large

scale. Larval feeding at vegetative stage of plant cause the death of central whorl and symptom is

known as “Dead heart”, damage at reproductive stage of plant cause the death of emerging

panicle known as “white head”. Rice plant compensates the dead heart damage by production of

additional tillers but suffers yield losses due to compensatory tillers bearing smaller panicles.

a) Yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Yellow stem borers are specific pest of rice. Adults are yellowish white moth with orange yellow

forewing. Body length is 13-16mm with wing expansion of 25-45mm. Females have one dark

spot in the centre of yellow forewings whereas male has series of small dark spots on brown

forewings.

Damage: Caterpillars of yellow stem borer are destructive in nature causing direct damage to

plant. Eggs are laid on the tip of the leaves. After hatching caterpillar enter into the rice stem

after wandering 1-2 hours on rice plant. It feeds on soft part of stem for about a week and


hollows out stem completely. Damage at vegetative stage causes death of central whorl and

symptom is known as “Dead heart”, while damage at reproductive stage of plant cause the death

of emerging panicle known as “White head”. This could be easily pulled out. Peak infestation

occurs in October where deep water rice affected more as compared to upland rice.

Identification: Eggs of yellow and striped borers are usually laid on the upper half of a leaf,

those of the pink borer and dark headed borer on the inner side of the leaf sheath. The larvae of

yellow borer are yellowish white with brown head whereas stripes on the body and dark head in

striped borer while in pink borer it is pinkish. Larvae and pupae are usually found in the leaf

sheaths on culm at any height from below ground to the panicles.

Life cycle

Eggs 5-7 days Larva 3-6 weeks Pupa 8-14 days Adult

Eggs are laid on tip margin leaf part in dorsal side. The egg mass is covered by brownish hairs.

The pupation takes place inside the stem by forming silken cocoon. In the harvested paddy straw,

it hides inside the ratoon tillers from where adults are emerge out.

b) Pink borer (Sesamia inferens; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Host: rice, maize

Pink borer is polyphagous insect. It is 20-26mm in body length with forewing brown in color.

Three black distal dots and intermediate brown stripe is present on forewing. The caterpillars are

pinkish brown dorsally and white ventrally.

Life cycle

Eggs 1week Larva 25-54 days Pupa 8-36 days Adult

Damage: Caterpillars alone are destructive causing direct damage on plant. They feed within the

plant stem. Damage at vegetative stage is called “dead heart” killing central shoots.

MANAGEMENT:

1. FIELD SANITATION:

Field should be neat and clean.

Remove the plant having symptoms of dead heart, destroy egg masses and remove

infested seedlings from nursery to prevent the population buildup of rice borers in further

generation.

2. CULTURAL PRACTICES:

Collect and destroy all the rice stubbles at the time of first plowing after harvesting to

prevent incidence of insects to the next year.

Dip all rice stubbles after harvest in the field stagnating water for 5-7 days to kill

population of insects in a particular crop field.


Increase seed rate of maize by 50% for sowing in the borer endemic field to compensate

plant population after borer infestation.

Napier grass is an effective catch crop for controlling stem borers. When Napier or

elephant grass is planted round maize or sorghum fields, the stem borers are attracted to

the grass and damage to the crop is minimized. The Napier however can still be cut and

fed to livestock. Plant a row of Napier grass all the way round maize fields.

Generally early planting of maize and rice escape from borer infestation.

Sudan grass, also a commercial fodder grasses, can provide natural control to stemborers

by acting as trap plants for stem borers, and as reservoirs for their natural enemies.

Planting Sudan grass around maize field reduced stemborer infestation on maize and also

increased efficiency of natural enemies.

Silverlea (Desmodium uncinatum), a high-value, commercial fodder legume, when

intercropped with maize, repelled ovipositing gravid stemborer females, and suppressed

striga by more than 40 times

Molasses grass, when intercropped with maize, not only reduces the infestation of crops

by stemborers, but also increased parasitism particularly by the native larval parasitoid,

Cotesia sesamae.

3. USE OF RESISTNT VARITIES:

Maize varieties such as Rampur-1, Arun-1, and Rampur composite are moderately

resistant to borers (NARC 1999).

Grow rice varieties such as IR-20, Taichung-176, chinung-142, Palung, Khumal-4,

Chandina which are moderately resistant to stem borer complex.

Rice varieties having tight and extensive leaf sheath are not favored for oviposition by

borers.

Clip tips (2.5-3 cm) of the seedlings just before transplanting to prevent incidence of the

borer to the main field since the moths lay eggs near the tip of the leafs (particularly in

nursery).

Synchronize planting time over a large area to prevent congregation of large

4. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHOD:

Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based formulations such as DIPEL or BIOLEP @ 3 g

per litre water during evening hours, repeat application at 10 days interval (NARC,

1999).

Trichogramma can be very effective and economical control as it can eliminate the pest

in the egg stage (Bournier, 1982; Somchoudhury and Dutt, 1988).

Release Trichodergma chilonis for 6 times @ 50,000 – 100,000 parasitized eggs per

week soon after appearance of moths in the crop field (NARC, 1999). Try to create

suitable environment for biological control by encouraging natural enemies through

appropriate technique. Conserve spiders, water bugs, mirids, damselflies, dragonflies,

trichogramma, bracon etc.

5. CHEMICAL CONTROL:

Spray pesticides like Dursban 20% EC (chlorpyrifos) @ 2 ml per liter water three times

at 30, 50 and 75 days after transplanting if more than 10% dead hearts appear in the fields

or apply Carbofuran or Phorate @ 1 – 2 kg a.i per hectare in the rice field. Before


application of chemical insecticides in the soil, repair all the bund or ridges of the field

and then drain water from the field while after application pesticides in the soil, do not

allow to drain water through the field for 4 – 5 days. While in maize, apply 1 – 2 granules

of above mentioned insecticides, in the plant whorl at 4 – 5 leaves stage of plant

(Neupane, 2001).

2. Paddy Leaf and plant hopper

Paddy Leaf and plant hoppers are serious and destructive pest of rice plant. Hoppers

which suck sap from leaves are known as leaf hoppers and which suck sap from leaf sheath and

leaves are known as plant hoppers.

Green leaf hopper (GLH) and brown plant hopper (BPH) are economically important pest in

Nepal.

a) Brown Plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens; Homoptera: Delphacidae

It is most destructive pest of rice. Both adult and nymph suck cell sap from leaf sheath and

leaves. Body length measures 3.5-4.5mm. Adults are brown in color with hyaline wing having

brown marking and dark veins. Excess population causes „hopper burn‟ usually observed in

patches of the ripening phase of the crop. Its activities in rice field starts from the middle of

August and under favorable environmental conditions of drought. It also transmits „Grassy

stunt‟ virus disease. Adults and nymphs are dull colored, usually brown in case of former and

yellowish black with white triangular markings in case of the latter.

Host: Rice

Life cycle

Eggs 5-8days Nymph 10-15 days Adult

Female lays eggs in batches inside the leaf sheath by lacerating the plant tissue. Mass of eggs

contains at least 62 eggs. Hatching occurs after 7 to 11 days and nymphs are brownish black in

color and have grayish-blue eyes. A single female lays 100 to 200 eggs in their life-cycle. BPH

completes its life-cycle in 28 to 32 days at temperature of 250c

b) Green Leaf Hopper, Nephotettix nigropictus; Homoptera: Cicadellidae

Host: Rice, millet, grasses

Greenleaf hopper (GLH) is an important insect pest of rice. Rice plant is major host while other

grasses are alternate host. The species Nephotettix nigropictus also transmit plant viruses e.g.

yellow dwarf and transitory yellowing disease.

The adult is greenish in color and it is 4-5 mm in body length which have black distal end on

each forewings. Males have black spot on the forewing while female lacks this spot on forewing.

The distal end of female is dark brown in color. Females are larger in size than that of males.

Adult hoppers are small green with inverted „V‟ shape and spine on legs. Nymphs are white later

turn into green.

Life cycle: Adult female lays eggs in the inner surface of leaf sheath in groups. Eggs are banana

shaped and they are 8 to 16 in number in single mass. After hatching (6-9 days) nymph starts to

suck cell sap from plant. They are also greenish in color. After 4-5 molting nymph becomes adult

in 16-18 days.


Damage Symptom of hoppers

Both adult and nymph are destructive in nature. BPH sucks cell sap from leaf sheath and leaves

while green leaf hopper sucks cell sap from leaf. Infestation during early stage of plant growth

reduces the number of tillers, plant height in general. Under severe infestation leaves appear dry

and brown. Heavy infestation produce symptoms of “hopper burn” i.e. leaves become dry and

brown after insect feeding, and patches of burned plants are often lodged. They also inject toxic

saliva to the plant during sucking cell sap, which causes development of rusty spots or lines on

the leaf surface and leaf sheath and finally plant tissue dries up.

BPH transmits the grassy stunt, ragged stunt and wilted stunt viral disease to rice plants while

GLH transmits plant viruses e.g. yellow dwarf and transitory yellowing disease. In severe

infestation symptom of “hopper burn” appears on rice field.

The infested crop usually looks sick showing like the diffeciency of nitrogen. Attack may occur

at any stage of the crop but mostly at 70 days old plant. Indirectly they transmit rice tungro

virus disease causing severe loss in some years.

Management

Cultural control

1. Increasing the spacing of rice transplanting by 20× 15 cm for proper aeration in the field

instead of practice of closer spacing (15×10 cm). Closer spacing is favorable for rapid build-

up of hopper population.

2. Follow alternate drying and wetting of field during peak infestation period, and drain out the

standing water from the field 2-3 times to create unfavorable conditions for population builds

up of hoppers.

3. The most effective means of GLH management is to use hopper-resistant and tungro-resistant

varieties

4. Transplanting older seedlings (>3 weeks) reduces viral disease susceptibility transmitted by

hoppers.

5. Early planting within a given planting period, particularly in the dry season, reduces the risk

of insect-vector disease.

6. Nitrogen should be applied as needed (e.g. using the LCC) to avoid contributing to

population outbreaks by applying too much nitrogen, or hindering plant recovery from plant

hopper damage by applying insufficient nitrogen.

7. Good weed control in the field and on the bunds removes the preferred grassy hosts of GLH

and promotes crop vigor.

8. Crop rotation with a non-rice crop during the dry season decreases alternate hosts for

diseases.

9. Upland rice intercropped with soybean reduces the incidence of leafhoppers on rice

compared to rice alone.

10. Installation of light trap in the fields for mass trapping of hoppers and other insect-pest.

Biological control

1. Use of larval parasitoids like Pseudogonatopus nudus Perkins (Hymenoptera: Dryinidae),

predators like Green mirid bug, Carabid beetle, Lady beetle, Micraspis crocea and Micraspis

sp. (BPH)


Chemical control

1. Spray Buprofezin 25 EP @ 1g/liter water. Buprofezin is a contact action inhibitor. This has

shown an excellent activity against BPH. It does not upset the natural enemy balance. It does

not induce resurgence in insect pest.(Manandhar, 1999).

2. Spray dursban 20% EC (chloropyrifos) @2ml/liter water or roger 30% EC @ 1ml/liter water

to suppress outbreak of hoppers. Or apply carbofuran or phorate @ 1-2 kg a.i. per hectare in

the rice field. Before application of chemical in the soil, repair all the bonds or ridges of the

rice field and then drain water from the field while after application of pesticides in the soil;

do not allow to drain water through the field for 4-5 days. (Neupane, 2001).

3. Rice Gundhi Bug/ Rice Ear Head Bug, Leptocorisa oratorius; Hemiptera: Coreidae

Host: Rice, Millet, Grasses

Gundhi bug is important pest of rice. Bug is about 19mm in body length. Body is slender, green/

brown in color. It has long legs and antennae.

Life cycle

Eggs 5-8days Nymph 10-15 days Adult

Eggs are laid on leaves in group of 10-20 in straight rows. Eggs are oval shaped and dark red-

brown. The nymph is lender and wingless. They are more active in the morning and evening

time.

Damage: Both nymph and adult suck cell sap from young shoot, leaves and soft grain by

piercing and sucking mouth parts. Bugs generally prefer to attack at milky stage grain. Whitish

spot appear at the site of feeding due to exudation. Black or brown spot appear around the holes

made by bugs on which sooty mould may develop. The infested grain becomes discolored. In

severe condition, rice field attacked by Gundhi bug emits a repugnant smell which gives to this

pest the name “Gundhi bug”.

Management

Removal of weeds and grasses in and out of paddy fields.

Installation of light trap in the field to attract adult and nymph and kill them.

Hanging of dirty trap (cattle urine soaked gunny bag or cow dung wrapped cloth) at crop

height in field to attract the bug and destroy them.

Synchronization of planting time in an area helps to reduce the damage in particular

location.

Conservation of natural predators of rice bugs like Tiger beetle by using chemical

pesticides judiciously.

Predatory spiders and Beauveria bassiana also be useful to lower down its populations.

Spray Thiodane (Endosulphan) 35%EC @ 2-3 ml/lit water or carbaryl during morning

(upto 8am) or in the evening time (after 4 pm) at milking stage of crop when 10 bugs per

100 panicles appear in the field.



Host: Rice, wheat, Maize

It is one of the important pests of rice and maize. Adult is brown moth with distinct white spot on

middle of forewing. Larvae are green to brownish pink in color.

Life cycle

Eggs 7-9 days Larva 20-25 days Pupa 9-29days Adult

(On leaf sheath) (4-5 stage)

During the early instars, the larvae feed on the mesophyll of the leaf tissue. The 3rd

and later

larval instars feed gregariously on the foliage the larvae reach the earhead in the final or sixth

moulting and cut the rachis. Mature larvae, which are voracious feeders eat the older leaves and

skeletionize them.

Damage: Larvae are most destructive in nature and feed on young leaves. When their number is

high they even feed on the stem and leaves leaving behind main vein only. They cut the ear of

rice plant and hence named “Rice ear cutting caterpillar”. In heavily infested condition, field

looks like just grazed by cattle or damaged by mice.

Management

1. Deep ploughing of field harvest of rice.

2. Flooding of field after crop harvest.

3. Avoid excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizer.

4. Installation of light trap in the field.

5. Spray Fenitrothion 50% EC @1ml/liter water.

5. Rice Hispa, Dicladispa armigera; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Host: Rice

Rice hispa is very serious pest of rice. Adult is small bluish black beetle measuring 5mm in

length. It is recognized by numerous short spines on the body. Grubs are legless and creamy

white. They are not easily seen because they are concealed inside the leaf tissues.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-5 days Larva 7-12days Pupa 4-5 days Adult

The female beetles start laying eggs on nursery plants upto 55 eggs in group. The eggs are

embedded in the leaf tissue at the tip portion of leaf. The grub become full grown in 7-12 days

and pupates inside the leaf and finally, after 4-5 days pupa emerges as black beetles. In hot

climate, this pest is known to complete 6 generation in a year, whereas in cold regions, it

completes 2-3 generation during the rice growing season. Its life cycle completes within 3-4

weeks during favorable seasons.


Damage: Rice hispa is serious pest especially in terai region of Nepal. Both adult and grub feed

on leaves. Adult scrape the chlorophyll from area between the veins giving the characteristic

appearance of white parallel streak along the main axis of leaf. Grub feeds on the green tissues

between the epidermal membrane of leaf, tunneling downward and producing irregular white

patches. In case of severe infestation leaves becomes white and later on dies.

The larva or pupa can be seen by holding the damaged leaf against the light.

Management

1. Transplant the rice seedling with closer spacing. Closer spacing create suitable environment

to tolerate infestation of hispa.

2. Flooding of field to collect the floated beetles and then to destroy them.

3. Avoid excess use of nitrogen fertilizer.

4. Clipping of leaf tips before transplanting controls 75-92% grubs.

5. Collect the adult beetles using sweeping net in morning time.

6. Spray neem formulation (eg. Altineem) @3ml/liter water.

7. If application of chemical insecticides required, spray Malathion 50% EC @2ml per liter

water when 1 or 2 adult damaged leaves per hill appear. If attack continues repeat spray after

2 weeks.

6. Rice Caseworm, Nymphula depuntalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Rice caseworm is small moth and it feeds on leaf surface by scraping chlorophyll. It causes the

rolling of rice leaves by bringing together blades of leaf. Larva rolls the leaf and remains inside

tubular case. Pupation also occurs inside the case. The larva feeds on the foliage by scrapping

chlorophyll leaving horizontal rows of green material. The leaf tips are sharply cut off and the

cut portions are turned into cylindrical tubes, is either attached to the plant or seen floating on the

water surface.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-6 days Larva 18-22 days Pupa 5-7 days Adult

Management:

Cultural practices

1. Drain water from the field.

2. Keep kerosene soaked gunny bags in the field water and dislodge the leaf cases by passing

rope or branches of thorny plant.

3. The use of correct fertilizer application, wider spacing (30 × 20 mm), and early planting.

Biological Control

1. Encourage the activity of Spiders, dragonflies, and birds eat the adults.

2. There is a nuclear polyhydrosis virus (NPV), which is a potential control agent against the

rice caseworm.

Chemical control

1. 10-12 DAS 1ml of methyl parathion 50EC or 0.5ml fenitrothion 100EC or 0.9ml diazinon

60EC or 1.3ml monocrotophos 36SL or 2ml chloropyriphos 20 EC or 1.5ml fenthoate 50EC


or 2ml phasalone 35EC or 2ml endosalfon 35EC or 2ml quinolphos 25EC in 1 liter of water

for spraying crop.

2. Transplanted field require 225-230liter/acre spraying chemical or carbofuron 3% 7.6kg/acre

granules can be used.

7. Rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Rice leaf folder is a sporadic pest of rice. It is medium sized moth measuring 8-10mm in body

length. They are golden or yellowish brown in color. Wings have 2-3 wavy line characterized by

dark bands.

Life cycle


(On leaf or leaf sheath)

Damage: Adult female lays creamy white eggs on leaves or leaf sheaths. After hatching larva

starts to feed on tender leaves and turns green color from white or light yellow color. Later stage

larvas fasten the longitudinal margin of leaf together with a sticky substance. Then larva feeds

inside the fold by scraping green matter. The infested leaf becomes membranous, turn white and

finally wither. In severe condition, whitish leaves are noticed even form distance. Larva migrates

from one leaf to another and cause considerable damage. Infested plants are prone to fungal and

bacterial infection.

Management

1. Remove all the grasses and weeds from bunds around paddy field.

2. Install light trap to attract and kill the adult.

3. Avoid tree shading to rice plant.

4. Maintain wider spacing (30×20) cm during transplanting of seedling.

5. Low use of nitrogenous fertilizer.

6. Release of Trichogramma chilonis for 6 times @50.000 - 100,000 parasitized eggs per

hectare per week soon after appearance of moths in crop field.

7. Conserve natural enemies such as spiders, water bugs, Bracon, Dragonflies, Damselflies etc.

to encourage biological control of insect.

8. If application of chemical insecticides required, spray Dursban (Chloropyrifos) 20% EC or

Fenitrothion 50% EC @ 2-3ml per liter water.

8. Rice grasshopper, Hieroglyphus banian; Orthoptera: Acrididae

Host: rice, maize, wheat

Mature grasshopper is green in color and males are smaller than females. Mouth parts are large

and hypognathous.


Damage: Grassshoppers are polyphagous in nature and both nymphs and adult damage rice

plants by cutting tillers, leaves, flowers and grain. Sometimes, if there are huge mass of

grasshoppers in the field they cutoff the panicle from the peduncle.

Life cycle

Egg 2-3 days Nymph 2-3 month Adult

(In soil along bond by (2-3 moults)

Inserting abdomen)

Management

1. Collect the nymph and adult population of grasshopper by scoop net.

2. Use sticky substances like hydrogenated castor oil, natural gum, resin around the boundary of

field.

3. Trimming the bund and field sanitation.

4. Fish cum rice farming i.e. Mangur.

5. Frog and other insectivorous birds feed on them.

6. Larvae of Banded blister beetle (Mylabris phalerata) attack the egg of Rice grasshopper.

7. Fenitrothion 50% EC@1ml/ltr of water.

9. Mealy bug (Brevennia rehi)

Both nymphs and adults suck plant sap from leaf sheath and stems as a result normal

development of the plants are checked. Affected plants exhibit yellowing of leaves and stunted

growth in patches. The presence of insects like cottony growth may appear while opening the

leaf-sheaths in the affected plants. The damage is more pronounced in summer crop and in

uplands as well as when the land is uneven. Nymphs and adults are very small, redish and oval in

shape. They are covered under the cottony growth.

Management: Same chemicals as in stem borer use granular insecticides wherever possible.

10. Gall midge (Orseolia oryzea); Diptera: They feed on the growing points which turn into characteristics gall in the plant. Such tabular

galls which dry off without bearing panicles and appears like „silver shoot‟ or „onion shoot‟.

Adult looks like mosquitos‟ ion size but females have bright abdomens. Adults are active in

night and reddish eggs are laid on the leaf sheath and underside of leaf blade.

Management: Early planting and destruction of suitable. Apply granular insecticides as in stem

borer. Seed bed statement with carbofuran.

11. Field cricket, Brachytrupes portentosus; Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Host: maize, wheat, oat, millet

Damage: Both adult and nymph cut the young seedling. They cut spike and ear of the plant,

which they carry inside the hole. Live inside soil by making deep hole


Management

1. Deep ploughing of fild in winter season.

2. Flooding of the field.

3. Plant bamboo near the maize field so that owl lives in bamboo and attack upon cricket.

4. Blue type of wasp is predator of this insect.

5. Spray Fenitrothion 50%EC@1ml/ltr water.


If they occurred in large number, cause destruction to the another and stigma of Rice, Maize,

Sorghum etc. They also feed on the leaves, buds and flowers. They cause damaging blossom

petals by making small holes.

Life cycle

Egg 4-10 days larvae pupa Adult

(Lays on leaf or (3-5 stages)

In rotten wood)

Management

1. Collection of adults with the help of sweep net.

2. Use of suitable chemicals.

12. Wire worms, Agriotes spp.; Coleopteran: Elateridae

Host: Cereals, potato, carrot and other root crops.

Wireworm is the common name for the larvae of click beetles and larval stages are more

destructive than the adult stages. Wireworm is slender, hard-bodied “worm” particularly found

in moist soils. The adult known as click beetle, because of its habit of clicking or snapping its

body into the air when pushed on its back.

Damage: They damage germinating seeds and base of stem close to soil. It is severe in maize

and potato.

Life cycle

Egg 2-4 week Larvae 2-6 week pupa 1 week Adult

(Around root Zone) (mostly cause damage) (in soil)

Management

1. Follow crop rotation with Alfalfa.

2. Planting wheat around Maize field as trap crop.

3. Field drying and summer ploughing to reduce larval population.

4. Use Beauveria and Metarrhizium.

5. Flooding of field at least once in a week.


MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF MAIZE

1. Maize stem borer (Chilo partellus); Lepidoptra: Pyralidae

2. Field cricket (Brachytrupes portentous); Orthoptera: Gryllidae

3. Army worm (Mythimma separata); Lepidoptra: Noctuidae

4. White grubs (Phyllophaga rugosa, Anomala sp.); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

5. Seed bed beetle (Heteronychus lioderes); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

6. Aphids (Rhopalosiphum maidis); Homoptera: Aphididae

7. Wire worm (Agriotes sp.); Coleoptra: Elateridae

8. Leaf folder (Marasmia trapizalis); Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

9. Grasshopper (Heiroglyphus banian); Orthoptera: Acrididae

10. Maize borer (Helicoverpa armigera); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

11. Insects on maize silk and tassel such as large green beetle, pentatomid bug and banded

blister beetle.

Minor pests of Maize crop

1. Maize cob worm, Helicoverpa armigera; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

2. Banded blister beetle, Mylabris phalerata; Coleoptera: Meloidae

3. Rice grasshopper, Hieroglyphus banian; Orthoptera: Acrididae

4. Pink Borer, Sesamia inference, Noctuidae, Lepidoptera

5. Mole cricket, Gryllotalpa Africana; Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae

6. Wireworms, Agriotes spp.; Coleoptera: Elateridae


8. Cutworms, Agrotis segetum; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

a) Maize stem borer, Chilo partellus; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

It is serious pest of maize. Adults are relatively small moth with brown in colour measuring 7-

17mm in body length with wing expansion of 26mm. Females has much paler forewing while

male has pale brown forewing. They also attack on other hosts such as sorghum, finger millet

and sugarcane. This pest is more severe in areas of maize-rice cropping system and less in hills

as compared to terai region.

Life cycle


Maize stem borer exhibits complete metamorphosis, including egg, larval, pupal and adult

stages. The adult are active at night, when they mate and lay eggs on the underside of leaves of

various host plants particularly maize and sorghum. Eggs are flat, oval, yellowish and are laid in

overlapping clusters each containing upto 20 eggs. Within about a week eggs hatch into larvae

which enter into the stem and proceed downwards. Young tender plant die due to the death of

main stem whereas in mature plant they also attack on tassel and cobs. Plants are week

sometimes may fall in wind. Life cycle completes inside the cobs and stems. The larval matures

in 16 – 41 days passing through 6 stages. The pupal period is completed inside the whorl. The

total life cycle of MSB is probably 5 generation in a year. After harvesting maize in June-July


Adult harbours into the ratoon of rice where pupae overwinter until March-April and they again

re-enter in maize crop.

Damage: Caterpillars are destructive causing direct damage to plant. A newly hatched larva first

feed on leaf sheath which show transparent patches and later on turn yellow-brown and

eventually dries up. Larvae feed on the soft tissues and make tunnel through the stem. Stems

become weak and easily break down. Feeding of central part of plant causes “dead heart” in

vegetative stage while causes “white ears” in reproductive stage.

Management: destruction of infested plants as they serve as the carriers fed such to livestock.

Use granules like Carbofuran inside the stem before they enter. Do not feed such plants to

animals. Other liquid chemicals like Methyl parathion and Endosulfan can be sprayed on the

affected parts.

b) White grubs (Phyllophaga rugosa, Anomala sp.); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

They are the young one of beetles having red brown head with white body. Larvae are primarily

harmful whereas the adult also tear the leaves and attachment portion of maize and other

vegetables. Larvae are three instar and second and third instar are harmful. Adult lays eggs on

grass or on the fresh dung. Upon hatching into the grubs within about 3 weeks they start to feed

on the root of maize and grass. Inside soil they can live quite a long period up to 20 months.

Pupal period lasts for about 6 months and reappears again as the beetles during May-June.

Management: removable of weed hosts by cleaning nearby area. Do not use fresh dung. Deep

ploughing after harvesting the crop allows exposure of grubs above ground which could be

prayed by the bird and other natural enemies. Light trap may help monitoring and if we increase

the number of traps which may help in trapping out adult population.

Larvae are effectively controlled using insects pathogenic fungi (Metarhizium anisopliae). It is

green muscardine fungus also produced for the first time in IAAS, Rampur, chitwan Nepal

within the PhD study. It can also be managed using white muscardine fungus (Beauveria

bassiana). These bioagents may not bring down quick control as pesticides does but may lower

the pest population after some time and very useful for environment, human beings and non-

target organisms.

c) Army worm; Mythimna separate; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Host: Rice, wheat, Maize

It is one of the important pests of rice and maize. Adult is brown moth with distinct white spot on

middle of forewing. Larvae are green to brownish pink in color.

Life cycle

Eggs 7-9 days Larva 20-25 days Pupa 9-29days Adult

(On leaf sheath) (4-5 stage)

During the early instars, the larvae feed on the mesophyll of the leaf tissue. The 3rd

and later

larval instars feed gregariously on the foliage the larvae reach the earhead in the final or sixth


moulting and cut the rachis. Mature larvae, which are voracious feeders eat the older leaves and

skeletionize them.

Damage: Larvae are most destructive in nature and feed on young leaves. When their number is

high they even feed on the stem and leaves leaving behind main vein only. They cut the ear of

rice plant and hence named “Rice ear cutting caterpillar”. In heavily infested condition, field

looks like just grazed by cattle or damaged by mice.

Management

6. Deep ploughing of field after harvesting of rice.

7. Flooding of field after crop harvest.

8. Avoid excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizer.

9. Installation of light trap in the field.

10. Spray Fenitrothion 50% EC @1ml/liter water.

d) Field cricket, Brachytrupes portentosus; Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Live inside the soil by making deep hole. Both the nymph and adult fed on (cut) the young plants

at the soil surface which they carry inside the hole. They also attack other cereals.

Host: maize, wheat, oat, millet

Damage: Both adult and nymph cut the young seedling. They cut spike and ear of the plant,

which they carry inside the hole. Live inside soil by making deep hole in rotten wood)

Management

1. Deep ploughing of field in winter season.

2. Flooding of the field.

3. Plant bamboo near the maize field so that owl lives in bamboo and attack upon cricket.

4. Blue type of wasp is predator of this insect.

5. Spray Fenitrothion 50%EC@1ml/ltr water.

e) Seed bed beetle (Heteronychus lioderes); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

They are soil pests. Larvae fed on the base of young seedling at soil surface and underground

roots. Life cycle and management is similar as described in grubs.

f) Flower beetle; Chiloloba acuta; Coleoptera: Cetonidae

If they occurred in large number, cause destruction the anther and stigma of Rice, Maize, and

Sorghum etc. They also feed on the leaves, buds and flowers. They cause damaging blossom

petals by making small holes.

Life cycle

Egg 4-10 days larvae pupa Adult

(Lays on leaf or (3-5 stages)


Management

3. Collection of adults with the help of sweep net.

4. Use of suitable chemicals.

g) Wire worms, Agriotes spp.; Coleopteran: Elateridae

Host: Cereals, potato, carrot and other root crops.

Wireworm is the common name for the larvae of click beetles and larval stages are more

destructive than the adult stages. Wireworm is slender, hard-bodied “worm” particularly found

in moist soils. The adult known as click beetle, because of its habit of clicking or snapping its

body into the air, when pushed on its back.

Damage: They damage germinating seeds and base of stem close to soil. It is severe in maize

and potato.

Life cycle

Egg 2-4 week Larvae 2-6 week pupa 1 week Adult

(Around root Zone) (mostly cause damage) (in soil)

Management

1. Follow crop rotation with Alfalfa.

2. Planting wheat around Maize field as trap crop.

3. Field drying and summer ploughing to reduce larval population.

4. Use Beauveria and Metarrhizium.

5. Flooding of field at least once in a week.

PEST OF WHEAT

Pests in wheat are not of major importance in tropical wheat growing areas as compared to

winter. However, following pests attack this crop at their different stages.

1. Pink borer (Sesamia inferens); Lepidoptra: Noctuidae

2. Wire worm (Agriotes sp.); Coleoptera: Elateridae

3. Aphids (Rhopalosiphum maidis, Schizaphis granimum and Macrosiphum acanae);

omoptera: Aphididae

4. Army worm (Mythimma separate); Lepidoptra: Noctuidae

5. Grasshopper (Atractomorpha crenulata, Oxia adanata, Chrotogonus sp); Orthoptera:

Arididae

6. Termites (Microtermes obsi, Odontoterms obesus); Isoptera: Termitidae

There is some of the minor pest of wheat which is listed below;


2. Common Cutworms, Agrotis segetum; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

3. White grub, Phyllophaga rugosa; Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae


The life cycle, nature of damage, their associated host and management practices are same as

described under rice and maize crop pests. However, some of the pests like aphids species are

specific than the former crop and intense in winter growing areas especially in Europe. Aphids‟

infestation is also found in winter wheat growing areas of Nepal in some year but not every year.

Some of the measures such as use of high seed rate and seed treatment need to be followed

against soil pests. As a result, pest like seed bed beetles are reluctant to feed on (cut) newly

growing seedlings. Some of the soil acting chemicals BHC, Aldrin and Chlordane can also be

used during land preparation. Many insects can be minimized by making healthy crop growing

with balance use of inputs and adjustment in sowing dates. What sown in early October escape

with many insect and diseases due to healthy crops which almost have crossed the peak pest

activity?

Note: Pest of barley, millet, fox tail millet etc are same as above cereals pests.


MAJOR AND MINOR PESTS OF SUMMER VEGETABLES

Major vegetables under this group include cucurbits, brinjal, and chilies.

Insect pests of cucurbit vegetables

1. Red pumpkin beetles (Aulacophora (=Raphidopalpa) foveicollis); Coleoptera:

Crysomellidae

2. Pumpkin fruit fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae); Diptera: Trypetidae

3. Spotted betles (Henosepilachna vigintioctopuncetata (7 or 14 black spot in each elytra),

Epilachna dodecastigma (6 black spot in each elytra); Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

4. Cucurbit sting bug (Aspongopus janus); Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

5. Banded blister beetles (Mylabris phalerata); Coleoptera: Meloidae

6. Snake gourd semilooper, Plusia peponis, Noctuidae, Lepidoptera

7. Aphids (Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae); Homoptera: Aphididae

8. Flea betles (Phyllotreta sp); Coleoptera: Elateridae

9. Cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Minor insect pest

1. Cutworms, Agrotis segetum;Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

2. Flea Beetle, Phyllotreta crucifera; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

3. Aphid, Aphis gossypii; Homoptera: Aphididae

4. Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci; Homoptera: Aleyrodidae

1) Red Pumpkin beetle, Aulacophora foveicollis; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae Red Pumpkin beetles are very serious, important and destructive pest of all cucurbits and occur

throughout the country. Adult‟s beetles are 6 to 8 mm long and having glistering yellowish red to

yellowish brown elytra that are uniformly covered with fine punctures. Freshly hatched grubs are

dirty white in color where as full grown ones are creamy to yellow and about 22 mm long.

Life cycle: Eggs are laid in soil around the host plant. Eggs are spherical in shape and yellowish

pink in color. Eggs are laid to a depth of 25 mm near the plant. A single female lays upto 300

eggs during its life time. Upon hatching the eggs into grubs they start to bore into the roots, stem

and later into the leaves. The larvae enter into the soil and pupation occurs into the soil. During

winter they hibernate into the soil and reappears onwards May. There are 4 moulting stages and

are altogether 5-8 generation in a year.

Eggs 6-7 days Larva (Grub) 13-25 days Pupa 7-17 days Adult

Nature of damage

Both adult and grub are destructive and cause direct damage to plant.

Adult beetles feed voraciously on the leaf lamina and make irregular holes on leaf.

The maximum damage is done by adult in the cotyledon stage.

The adult insect also feed on older leaves of plant by scrapping off their chlorophyll and thus

leading to leaves net like appearance.

The attacked plants may wither away and photosynthesis is directly affected.

The larvae cause damage by boring into the roots and the underground stem portion and also

by feeding on the leaves and fruits line in contact with the soil.

The infested roots and the underground roots may rot due to infection by the saprophytic

fungi.


The young and smaller fruits of the infested crop may dry up, whereas mature fruits become

unfit for human consumption.

Management

1. Collect and destroy of beetles during morning hour in early stage of infection.

2. As insects pupate in the soil, deep ploughing should be done to kill grubs and pupae.

3. Use neem oil cake in the soil to kill the larvae.

4. Practice early sowing so that the plant passes the cotyledon stage by the time the beetles

become active.

5. Apply pupal parasites such as Opius fletcheri and O. compensans.

6. Soil drenching with contact pesticides like Chlorpyrifos.

7. Spray Endosulphan or Malathion @ 2 ml /liter of water for effective control.

2) Fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae; Diptera: Tephritidae

Cucurbit fruit fly is very serious and major pest of cucurbit crops, which occurs throughout the

growing areas. Adult fly are 4 to 5 mm long having a wing expanse of 11 to 13 and 14 to 16 mm

in males and females respectively. Adult fly has reddish brown body with transparent and shiny

wings, bearing yellow-brown streaks. The pest is active almost all season; however, peak

infestation occurs in summer.

Nature of damage

Adult female flies select soft and young fruits for oviposition by puncturing the rind with

their sharp ovipositor. Such damaged fruits show signs of brown resinous substance at the

sites of oviposition punctures due to discharge of fruit juice through punctures.

After hatching maggots feed on the pulp of fruits as well as on the immature seeds and cause

premature dropping of fruits.

Infested fruits rot and are not fit for sale or human consumption.

Infested fruits show internal decay, give out foul smell and numerous maggots are seen when

cut open.

Life cycle: This insect remains active throughout the year if hosts are continuously available.

The total days required to be adult is 12 to 28 days. The developmental stages are 2 days for egg,

4-9 days for larvae and 7 -11 days for pupae. The adult female lay eggs inside the fruits by

puncturing it with its sharps ovipositor mostly in evening. The female releases gummy secretion

on the puncture which makes the entrance water-proof. Within about a week the eggs hatch into

the maggots which start to bore the pulp. The attack fruit decay because of secondary bacterial

infection. The mature larva comes out of the rotten fruits and may bury inside the soil as pupae.

Pupation mainly occurs in the soil around 2 inches below from the ground surface. Sometimes,

larva may remain inside the fruit where it pupate and transform themselves into winged adults.

There may be 8-10 generation a year.

Management

1. Follow clean cultivation, collect and destroy infested fruits.

2. Deep ploughing to expose hibernating stages of fly.

3. To prevent egg laying by adult, set up fly traps (pheromons trap) in the field with 1% Cue

lure or Methyl Eugenol or Cintronella oil or Vinegar or Acetic acid or Lactic acid or

ammonia liquid or Vanilla or Pollard mixture.

4. Cover developing young fruits with paper or polythene cover or muslin cloth.


5. Grow Maize plants as trap crop in rows at a distance of 8-10cm in cucurbit field as flies rest

on such tall plants.

6. Use extract of neem fruit, tobacco or zinger to repel female flies.

7. Parasitoid Fopius arisanus introduced in the IPM program.

8. Male sterile technique is accomplished through irradiation, chemo – sterilization.

9. Use protein bait (protein derived from corn, wheat or the other sources).

10. Soil incorporation of Cabaryl 10 % dust can be done in fruit fly endemic areas to control fruit

fly.

11. Spray Malathion @ 2 ml/litre of water at fortnightly intervals.

3) Epilachna beetle or Spotted beetle; Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

Epilachna dodecastigma (having 6 black spots in each elytra)

Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (having 7 or 14 black spots on each elytra)

Epilachna beetle are major insect pest of gourds, cucumber, bitter gourd, watermelon,

muskmelon and other cucurbitaceous crops. It is serious pest of bitter gourd. Many beetles under

this group are useful bio-control agents against the aphids and other small insects. Damage is

caused by beetles as well as by the grubs. Adults are 6-8mm long and similar to lady bird beetles

in appearance. Larvae are 5-7mm long, soft bodied and covered with spines. Both larva and pupa

are yellow in color and body is covered with spines. The distinguishing characteristics of H.

vigintioctopuntata are deep red and usually have 7-14 black spots on each elytron whereas, E.

dodecastigma have 6 black spots on each elytron.

Life cycle

Eggs 3-5 days Larva (Grub) 1-2 week Pupa 2-5 days Adult

Life cycle passes from 4 stages. The adult hibernate among heaps of dry plants or in cracks and

crevice in the soil. Pest remains active during March-April and Egg laying, grub stage and

pupation occur on the underside of leaves. A single female can lay upto 400 eggs in her life time.

Eggs are yellow in color. Many grubs and adults can be seen on the ventral surface of the leaves

The eggs hatch into grubs which feed on the lower epidermis of leaves. The pupae fixed on the

leaves, stem, and most commonly at the base of the plants. The grub enters into the adults. Both

the adults and grubs cause damage by feeding on the upper surface of leaves. The eaten leaves

turn into brown color and may fall in severe damage.

Damage: Both the adult and grub stages feed on the leaf surfaces and skeletonize the leaves and

make leaves net like appearance. The attacked leaves turn brown, dry up and fall off. In case of

severe infestation the crop shows very unhealthy look. The vigour of the plant and its yield is

adversely affected.

Management

1. The pest population can be suppressed effectively, by regular killing and picking of eggs,

grubs and adults, if the cropped area is small.

2. Larvae and adults can be shaken down in container of kerosinized water early in the morning.

3. Use neem based pesticide, Margosom.


4. The pest can be killed by spraying Malathion/ Endosulfan/ Zythiol 50 EC @2 ml per liter of

water. The treatment should be applied as soon as the pest appears in the field and repeated at

15 days interval.

4) Cucurbit stink bug, Aspongopus janus; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Adults are red and pale-brown bugs. The edges of the abdomen and underside of the insect have

orange to orange – brown stripes. They suck the sap from the leaves and tender shoots and

devitalize the plants. Both adult and Nymph cause damage with their piercing and sucking type

mouth part.

Life cycle Eggs 3-5 days Nymph 4 weeks Adult

Eggs are laid on group‟s underside of leaf or stem. The nymphs have partial development of

wings, whereas the adults have fully grown wings. The total life cycle completes within 4-5

weeks.

Management

1. Hand picking of adult and nymph in small scale.

2. Predators include; Tachnid fly, Trichopoda pennipes that attack older nymphs and adults.

3. Use botanical pesticedes like extract of Neem, Bakaino, asuro etc.

4. Spray malathion 50% EC @ 1.5ml/liter water.

5) Blister beetle, Mylabris orientalis; Coleoptera: Meloidae

Blister beetles are phytophagous in nature and extensively feed on flowers of many crops such as

redgram, Hibiscus, peas, beans, potatoes, turnips, tomatoes, etc., resulting in appreciable loss of

economic products. Adults are black in color with orange bands on the body surface. They are

medium-sized beetles, feed on pollen and petals of flowers; affecting fruit-setting.

Blister beetles have long (3/4" to 1-1/4"), narrow bodies, broad heads, and antennae that are

about 1/3 the length of the entire body. The front wings are soft and flexible in contrast to the

hard front wings of most beetles.

Damage: The adults feed on leaves in the tops of a plant but are especially attracted to flowers

where they feed on nectar and pollen. They gather in groups, so large numbers can occur in

concentrated clusters in a field.

Life cycle: Female blister beetles lay clusters of eggs in the soil in late summer. The small,

active larvae that hatch from these eggs crawl over the soil surface entering cracks in search for

grasshopper egg pods which are deposited in the soil. After finding the egg mass, blister beetle

larvae become immobile and spend the rest of their developmental time as legless grubs. The

following summer they transform into the pupal stage and soon emerge in the adult stage. This is

why blister beetle numbers increase dramatically following high grasshopper populations.

Management

1. Collect and destroy adults manually or by using sweeping nets during morning hour.

2. Use neem oil cake in the soil to kill the larvae.


3. Spray Endosulphan or Malathion @ 2 ml /liter of water for effective control.

6) Snake gourd semilooper, Plusia peponis; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Adults are Brown moth with shiny brown forewings. Eggs are white spherical laid singly on

tender leaves. Larva is green in colour with longitudinal white stripe, humped last abdominal

segments. Pupation takes place inside the leaf fold.

Damage: Mostly caterpillar causes damage by feeding on leaves. The caterpillar cuts the edges

of leaf lamina, folds it over and feeds from within rolled leaf.

Management

1. Collect and destroy the caterpillars

2. Encourage activity of Apanteles taragamae, A. plusiae to control moth.

3. Spray insecticides like malathion 50% EC @ 2ml/liter water or dimethoate 30% EC 500

ml/ha.

INSECT PEST OF BRINJAL

1. Brinjal fruit borer (Leucinoides orbonalis); Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

2. Brinjal stem borer (Euzophera perticeilla); Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

3. Spotted beetles (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunetata, Epilachna dodecastigma);

Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

4. Cotton jassids (Amrasca biguttula biguttla); Homoptera: Cicadellidae

5. Brinjal leaf roller (Antoba olivasced); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

6. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne sp)

7. Grasshoppers (Atractomorpha sp); Orthoptera: Acrididae

1) Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer, Leucinoides orbonalis; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Brinjal shoot and fruit borer is one of the serious pests in brinjal. Adult is medium sized moth

with forewings having black and brown patches and dots on white color wings. Hind wings are

opalescent with black dots. Larva is soft, fleshy and pink in color. Eggs are creamy white and

Pupa is grayish colored boat shaped cocoon.

The adult lays eggs on leaves, flower and fruits. Within about a week they hatch into larvae.

Upon hatching they start boring from the tender shoots and feed on the stem and inside the fruits.

There appears wilting in the damaged shoot. In severe infestation the growing points are killed.

Full grown larvae come out of their feeding tunnels and pupate in tough silken cocoons among

the fallen leaves which again enter into adult. In epidermis, the loss may ranges above 50%

however early and heavy rain may lower down the attack to a great extent.

Damage: Larva is most destructive and bore in to the terminal shoots in young plants, causing

withering of terminal shoots. Heavy infestation leads to drying of leaves due to boring of

petioles, shedding of flower, buds. Boring of larvae on fruits causes fruit rotting and loss of

yield. Fruits are found with bore holes, holes are filled with larval excreta. Adults are medium

size marked with black and brown patches on forewing.


Management

1. Destruction of infested stems, fruits and fallen leaves from the orchard.

2. Crop rotation, Solanaceous crop year after year in the same field cause increased infestation.

3. Eggplant varieties with round type of fruits are much susceptible to EFSB so grow slender

type of fruits (Neupane, 2000).

4. Use nylon net barrier in nurseries to prevent spreading of insect from nursery to main field.

5. Grow location specific eggplant varieties moderately tolerant to EFSB such as Pusa Kranti

and Nurki at the Kathmandu valley, Lurki at Baglung and Parbat areas, Pusa long at

Dhading, green long and Pusa Kranti at Tarahara areas of Sunsari.

6. Cut and destroy wilted and borer damaged plant parts during pre-flowering and flowering

period at weekly intervals.

7. Collect and destroy borer infested flower buds and fruits during each harvest to prevent

migration of caterpillar from fruit to fruit.

8. Transplant eggplants in early June to minimize losses by shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes

orbonalis) in Kathmandu valley condition.

9. Grow barrier crops such as maize around the eggplant crop field.

10. Adopt clean cultivation practices.

11. Avoid continuous cropping of eggplants in the same field.

12. Grow EFSB moderately tolerant eggplant varieties, such as Green long, Pusa Kranti, Pusa

purple long PBR 129-5, 517-4, H-128, H-129.

13. Install pheromone trap with Lucin-lure for monitoring of male moth. 3-4 moths per traps

indicate to start management operation.

14. Create physical barrier using nylon net of 2m high and cover the eggplant field to check the

entry of moths into the healthy field from infested field.

15. Release Trichogramma chilonis in the crop field @ 250000 parasitized eggs per ha @ 50,000

release for 5 times at weekly intervals, starting from flowering.

16. Spray crude Neem seed extract @5% or Neemarin (Azaardiractin 0.03%) @ 5 ml per litre

water.

17. Spray Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based commercial formulations such as DIPEL or BIOLEP

@ 3gm per ltr in the evening hours at 10 days interval.

18. Spray chemical insecticides such as Thiodine 35% EC (endosulfan) @ 1.5 ml per ltr of water

to manage borer.

19. Spray 0.07% solution of endosulfan 35% EC at 10 days interval, or seed kernel extract

(NKSE) @5 gm grinded powder/ ltr water or 0.07% solution of Dipel (Bacillus

thuringiensis).

2) Brinjal stem borer, Euzophora perticella; Lepidoptera: pyralidae

Host: brinjal, chillies, potato and tomato

Damage: This pest attacks on brinjal, chilies, potato and tomato plants. Pest remains active when

hot weather starts. Adult lays eggs on the leaf and axils of young branches. After hatching the


young larva feed on exposed plant parts before boring into the stem where they make tunnels.

Damage is caused by the caterpillars only in the stems but not into the fruits resulting the

withering and drying up of plants. Full grown larvae hibernate in the stems of old plants and

transform themselves into adults.

Life cycle: Eggs 3-5 days larvae 10-15days pupa 6-8 days adult

Management

1. Plant should not be ratooned.

2. Planting of new seedling should be done each year.

3. Chemical same as fruit and shoot borer.

3. Spotted beetles (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunetata, Epilachna dodecastigma),

Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

The life cycle and management may be same as in the cucurbit spotted beetles.

4. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne sp)

5. Cotton jassid (Amrasca biguttula biguttula); Homoptera: Cicadellidae

Host: Cotton, Tomato, Potato, Brinjal, Cucumber, Pumpkin

Both nymph and adult of cotton jassid suck cell sap from leaf. The infested leaf turns red and

rusted with change in appearance. Leaf turns downward, dry out and fall on the ground. They

are also carrier of viral disease in tomato like tomato leaf curl mosaic virus.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-11 days Nymph 1 week (in summer) Adult

3 week (in winter)

Management

Same as whitefly

Management of these pests is same as described in the tomato crops.

6. Aphids (Aphis gossypii); Homoptera: Aphididae

Several aphid species may be commonly found infesting the crops during most of the growing

seasons. The most common aphids are the green peach aphid. Honeydew production by aphids

can leave a sticky film on the surface of the fruit and cause the development of sooty mold fungi.

Various species of aphid can also transmit viruses, notably potato virus Y, which can reduce

yields. Aphid infestation may begin in any stage of the crops.

Winged adult aphids develop periodically and disperse from fields following periods of

overcrowding. Colonies are found on the undersides of leaves, usually in the lower canopy.

Management:

Many of the insecticides used to control these pests can contribute to rapid increases of aphids.

Natural enemies such as lady bird beetles, green lacewings, damsel bugs and hover fly larvae

usually control aphid populations adequately. Broad spectrum insecticides, particularly

pyrethroid insecticides, can delete these natural enemies and allow aphids populations to develop


unchecked. Insecticides should only be applied for other insects when necessary, as determined

by trap catches and scouting and care should be taken to select insecticides that do not favor

secondary aphid problems.

INSECT PESTS OF CHILLI

1. Chillies thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis); Thysanoptera: Thripidae

2. Aphids (Aphis gossypii); Homoptera: Aphididae

3. Soybean hairy caterpillar (Spilarcti casignata); Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

4. Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura); Lepidoptera; Noctuidae

5. Cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

6. Field cricket (Brachytrupes sp); Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis; Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Damage: Both adult and larvae suck cell sap from leaf and apical buds. Lays egg in the plant

tissue with the help of ovipositor. Infected part turns brown, leaf curls plants get diseased and

growth is checked.

Lifecycle

Egg 6-8 days larvae 6-8 days pupae 2-3 days adult

Management

1. Use some natural predators of thrips, like predatory mites (Euseius sojanensis), predatory

thrips (Frankilothrips vispiformes).

2. Use of UV mulch adjustment in planting time.

3. Other same as onion thrips.

Minor pest of chilli

1. Aphids (Aphis gossypii)

2. Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)

3. Cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon)

4. Soyabean hairy caterpillar( Spilarctia casigneta)

5. Field cricket (Brachytrupes portentosus)

Pest of Onion

Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci; Thysanoptera: Thripidae

In onion crop the thrips (Thrips tabaci) is one of the economically important pest. It sucks from

the leaves which make thrifty plants and inedible green leaves.

Host: onion, garlic

Damage: This pest is very small, both adult and nymph suck plant sap from leaf and stem. Leaf

becomes curled, wrinkled and gradually dry up. In severe condition plant do not form bulb and

seed set. This insect first scrap the leaf and suck plant sap. In infected part white spot appears

which later on changes into brown.

Life cycle Egg 6-8 days larvae 6-8 days pupae 2-3 days adult

Management

1. Field sanitation.

2. Collection and destruction of affected plant parts.


3. Crop rotation with legumes.

4. Spray malathion 50% EC @ 1 ml / litre water

Insect pests of winter vegetable (Insect Pest of Crucifer)

Major vegetables under this group include cabbage, cauliflower and radish. They are attacked by

number of pests. Following are some of the major and minor pests under this group of

vegetables.

1. Cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae); Lepidoptra: Pieridae

2. Diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella); Lepidoptera: Plutellidae

3. Cabbage semi-looper (Plusia orichalcea); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae,

4. Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptra litura); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

5. Leaf webber (Crocidolomia binotalis); Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

6. Cabbage flea bettles (Phyllotreata cruciferae); Coleoptera: Chrysomlidae

7. Mustard saw fly (Athalia lugens proxima); Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae

8. Painted bug (Bagrada cruciferarum); Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

9. Cutworms (Agrotis segetum); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

10. Leaf miner (Phytomiza harticola;, Diptera: Agromyzidae

11. Mustard aphids (Lipaphis erysimi) and cabbage aphids (Brevicoryne brassicae);

Homoptera: Aphididae

1) Cabbage Butterfly, Pieris brassicae; Lepidoptera: Pieridae

Cabbage butterfly is one of the serious and important pests of cruciferous plant. It is

cosmopolitan pest of cruciferous vegetables. Cabbage butterfly is active during day time and it

has pale white with black patches on distal margin of forewing. The forewings of females have

two central black dots while that of males have two spot from the inner side. Both sexes consist

of one black margin on the costal margin of hind wing. Caterpillars are green in color with

yellow longitudinal streaks. Males are smaller than females and have black spots on the

underside of each fore wing whereas on dorsal side of the females.

Adult has 40 to 60 mm wingspan. Adult is essentially diurnal, the butterfly is active when the

sun shines and the temperature is sufficiently high; otherwise, it remains under leaves or other

shelter, its wings erect but with the fore wings hidden from view. Its flight is irregular.

Life cycle passes from 4 stages but only the caterpillars are harmful. The butterfly lay eggs in

clusters on the upper and lower surface of the leaves. Upon hatching into the larvae, the first

instar caterpillars start to escrape the leaf surface, whereas subsequent instars eat up leaves from

the margin inwards. In several attack, often entire plants are eaten up. The larvae pupate around a

month at some distance from the food plants, often in barns or on trees. The pupal stage remains

hanging in silken thread in any objects. The adult may again emerge after 2 weeks.

Eggs 4-6 days (summer) Larva 3-4 week Pupa 2 week Adult

9-10 days (winter)

Damage: Larvae cause direct damage to the plant by consuming young leaves. Soon after

hatching larvae start to scrap the leaf surface whereas subsequent instar eats leaves from margin

inwards. In severe condition, larvae may cause defoliation of entire leaves. Furthermore, their

frass, thinned out by the rain or dew, accumulates in the heart of the plant rendering it inedible.

http://www7.inra.fr/hyppz/ZGLOSS/6g---038.htm


Management

1. Collect and destroy egg mass and caterpillars in the early stage of attack.

2. Follow clean cultivation and remove all alternate hosts.

3. Cover fruit bearing plant with insect proof mesh to prevent form egg laying.

4. Conserve natural larval parasitoids like Cotesia glomeratus.

5. Use botanical materials like Garlic, Neem solution which act as repellent or anti-feedant.

6. Spray commertial formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis @ 2g/lit at primordial stage.

7. Spray insecticides like quinalphos 25EC @ 1000 ml, or cypermethrin 25% EC @

200ml/400 lit water per hac at initial seedling stage infestation.

2) Diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella; Lepidoptera: Plutellidae

Plutella xylostella is a small greyish brown moth. It measures 12-16mm in body length.

Forewings have three white triangular spots along the inner-margin. When at rest the triangular

markings of opposite wings gives diamond shape, hence named “Diamond black moth”. Hind

wings have a fringe of long fine hairs. Larva is Pale yellowish green caterpillar. Pupation takes

place on the foliage in a transparent cocoon.

Symptoms of damage: Young caterpillars cause small yellow mines on leaves; they feed by

scraping leaf tissue. The infested plant parts get converted into typical white patches. Scrapping

of epidermal leaf tissues producing typical whitish patches on leaves. Full-grown larvae make

bite holes in the leaves and feeds on curd. There is formation of undersized curd in cauliflower

and head formation does not take place in cabbage in severe infestation.

Life cycle: Life cycle completes from 4 stages i.e. adult, egg, larvae and pupa. Adults are dusty

in color having three light brown to white, triangular marks on the posterior margin of the front

wings, which forms a diamond pattern at rest. Adult lay eggs in batches on the underside of the

leaves. Eggs are light greenish in color and nearly oval shape. Eggs hatches above 25°C in two

days. Newly hatched larvae are pale green in color. The first instar larvae mine the leaf and fed

on the mesophyll tissue. Their presence is dedicated with the blackish excreta in the mouth of the

tunnel. Full grown larvae seem to green in color having minute hairs. The larvae coils when

touched, they feed on matures leaves. The larvae construct an open cocoon on the lower surface

of the leaf of the host plants. The caterpillars damage the heart of the first two, central leaves of

cabbage and cauliflower which rendered unfit for human consumption. The initial attack on Aug-

Sep. incurred huge crop loss. In the beginning, pupa seems to be green in color but in advance

stage, brown in color. Pupation may take around 2 weeks depending on the temperature. Total

development time from the egg to pupal stage averages 25 to 30 days, depending on weather,

with a range of about 17 to 51 days. The number of generations varies from four in cold climates

to perhaps eight to 12 in the hot climate.


Management

1. Remove and destroy all debris and stubbles after harvest of crop.

2. Grow mustard as trap crop at 2:1 ratio (cabbage: mustard) to attract DBM for oviposition at

least 10 days ahead of planting of main crop.


3. Intercrop tomato with cabbage to inhibit egg laying by moth. (Tomato excret volatile

compound that inhibit egg laying)

4. Collect and destroy larvae mechanically in early stage of infestation.

5. Metacid and Folithion in initial stage of crop and malathion at harvesting time can be used.

6. Spray mustard crop with dichlorvos 76 WSC 0.076% to avoid dispersal of the larvae.

7. Pheromone traps with DBM lure@ 12trap/ha.

8. Crop rotation with cucurbits, beans, peas, tomato and melon

9. Use larval parasitoid: Diadegma semiclausm @ 100,000/ha (Hills – below 25 –27º C)

Cotesia plutellae (plains) at 20000/ha. Release from 20 days after planting of main crop.

10. Apply Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 2g/lit water.

11. Use neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem based pesticide @ 5ml/lit water.

12. Spray cartap hydrochloride 0.5% at 10, 20 and 30 DAS (nursery) and primordial stage.

13. Spray 0.05% solution of Malathion 50% EC @ 2ml/liter water.

14. Metacid and Folithion in initial stage of crop and Nuvan and Malathion at harvesting time

can be used as a means of short term management.

3) Mustard Aphids (Lipaphis erysimi) and Cabbage Aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae);

Homoptera: Aphididae

Host: Cabbage, radish, tomato, Rape, broccoli

Aphids are small, soft-bodied, pearl-shaped insects. Body length measures 1.4-2.4 mm. It is

yellowish green or blackish green in color and lightly covered with powder which form a white

wax bloom. Male aphids are olive-green to brown in color. Aphid has two modes of producing

young; fertilization of females by males resulting in the production of eggs (sexual

reproduction), and the birthing of live female nymphs by adult females without fertilization by

males (parthenogenesis).

Damage: The aphid attacks generally during December and continues till March. The most

favorable temperature is 200C or below. Cloudy and cold weather help in accelerating the growth

of insects. About 45 generations are completed in a year. Both nymph and adults suck the sap

from leaves, buds and pods. Curling of infested leaves occurs and at advanced stage plants may

wither and die. Plants remain stunted and sooty molds grow on the honey dew excreted by the

insects.

Management

Biological Control

1. Conserve/ release Ladybird beetles viz., Cocciniella septempunctata, Hippodamia variegata

and cheilomones vicina are most effcient pradators of the mustard aphid. Adult beetle may

feed an average of 10 to 15 adults/day.

2. Several species of syrphid fly i.e., Sphaerophoria spp., Eristallis spp., Metasyrphis spp.,

Xanthogramma spp and Syrphus spp. are predating on aphids.

3. The lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea predates on the mustard aphid colony.

Cultural Control

1. Use tolerant varieties.

2. Apply recommended dose of fertilizers. Avoid using excess of nitrogenous fertilizer.


3. Install yellow pan trap with 1% kerosene water or yellow sticky traps at crop height in the

field.

4. Dust wood ashes on plant foliage in the morning hours.

5. Spray mixture of wheat flour and water as foliar spray to prevent aphid activity through

suffocation and dehydration.

6. Spray cattle urine diluted with water at a ratio of 1:4.

7. Spray aqueous extract of leaf/stem of Mentha arvensis (200g per 1.33 liter of water) to

manage mustard aphid.

Chemical Control

1. Spraying should be done at ETL level.

2. Spraying should be done in evening time.

3. Spray the crop with one of the following insecticides in the aphid appearance; Imidacloprid

17.8% @ 0.25 ml/l water, Dimethoate 30EC @ 1 ml/l of water.

4) Flea beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Phyllotreta cruciferae is tiny, black colored beetles with a metallic bluish color. It can be seen

into the canola of fields just as the seedlings are emerging. The Crucifer flea beetle has a single

generation a year. The adult beetles overwinter in the shelterbelts and leaf litter near last year‟s

canola fields.

Damage: Adults feed on the cotyledons and first true leaves of seedlings causing pitting and

coalescing of holes in the leaves. This is the most damaging stage and can lead to seedling death

and significant stand loss. Larvae feed on the roots of the plant and make tunnel in taproot of

seedling. Adult beetles feed on maturing crops by chewing on the epidermis of green pods,

stems, and leaves for several weeks. Fortunately, populations of summer flea beetles are usually

not high enough to cause serious damage like the stunted growth of the pods. After feeding, the

adult beetles move into shelterbelts and other overwintering sites.

Life cycle: Eggs are laid in the soil and hatch in 12 days into larva. The larvae feed for 3-4

weeks and pupate for 1 week and then emerge as the new generation of adult flea beetles in mid

July to early August.

Management

1. Practice field sanitation and deep ploughing.

2. Removal of alternate hosts from field and periphery.

3. Use yellow sticky trap as monitoring tools to indicate when and how many flea beetles are

moving into fields.

4. Conserve predator such as Lacewing, Big-eyed bugs.

5. Use Malathion @2.5ml/liter water.

5) Mustard sawfly, Athalia lugens proxima; Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae

Mustard, radish, rayo, cabbage, and cauliflower are prone to be heavily attacked with this pest.

The adult is yellow in color with black head. The larvae fall quickly from the plants when

touched in them.


Adult mustard sawfly has orange color body with smoky transparent wings and black haed.

Larva is greenish black with wrinkled body and has eight pairs of pro-legs. On touch the larva

falls to ground and pretend as death.

Damage

Female lay eggs on underside of leaf singly with the help of its sharp saw like ovipositor.

Initially the larva nibbles leaves and later it feeds from the margins towards the midrib.

The grubs are voracious feeder and make numerous shot holes and even riddled the entire

leaves.

They devour the epidermis of the shoot which results in drying up of seedlings and failure to

bear seeds in older plants.

Life cycle


Female lays eggs on the underside of leaf singly with the help of its sharp saw like ovipositor. A

single female can lay upto 50 – 100 eggs in its life time. Initially, the color of larva is white and

later turns dark. Fully matured larvae fall on soil and pupate inside the soil by making earthen

cocoons.

Management

1. Deep summer ploughing to destroy the pupa hidden in the soil.

2. Early sowing to escape the infestation.

3. Maintain clean cultivation and remove all the crop debris and weeds from field.

4. Apply irrigation in seedling stage is very crucial for sawfly management because most of the

larvae die due to drowning effect. Severe cold reduces pest load.

5. Collection and destruction of grubs of saw fly in morning and evening by hand picking in

small scale or by any other suitable method.

6. Conserve larval parasitoide Perilissus cingulator, and the bacterium Serratia

marcescens which infect the larvae of sawfly.

7. Use of bitter gourd seed oil emulsion which act as an antifeedant.

8. Spray the crop with malathion 50 EC @ 1000 ml/ha or quinolphos 25 EC @ 625ml/ha. All

this should be applied in about 600 to 700 litres of water per ha.

7) Cutworm, Agrotis spp.: Same as in Pest of potato.

Minor Insect Pests

1. Cabbage borer: Hellula undalis

2. Leaf webber: Crocidolomia binotalis

3. Tobacco caterpillar: Spodoptera litura

4. Green stink bug: Rhynchocoris humeralis

5. Leaf minor: Phytomyza horticola


Insect pests of spring Vegetables / Solanaceous crops

A) Pests of Tomato

Major Insect Pests

1) Tomato fruit Borer, Helicoverpa armigera, Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

2) Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

3) White fly, Bemisia tabaci; Homoptera: Aleyrodidae

4) Cotton Jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula; Homoptera: Cicadellidae

5) Cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii; Homoptera, Aphididae

6) Root knot Nematode, Meloidogyne spp.

1) Tomato fruit Borer, Helicoverpa armigera; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Host: Tomato, Potato, Pigeon pea, Maize, Cotton

Helicoverpa armigera is polyphagous insect-pest. It is serious and most important pest of pulses.

Adult male is greenish grey and females are orange brown in color. Body length measures 14-

18mm. Forewing have black spot in the middle of wing. Larva is green in color with numerous

setae. Fully grown caterpillar is 30-40mm in body length and varies in body color. Pupation

takes place in soil.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-6 days Larva 3-4 days Pupa 1-4 week Adult

Damage

Female lays eggs on leaves, inflorescence, growing points and bud at flowering stage. It is very

destructive in nature. Soon after hatching young larva start feeding by scraping tender foliage,

buds and flower. Later on, older larva attack on fruit. Larva make circular hole and enter inside

the fruit. It feeds on the inner content of fruit and cause damage. The infested fruit becomes

messy, watery and is filled with skin cast. Fruit ripens prematurely and becomes unfit for

consumption. Larval development takes place inside the fruit.

Management

1. Follow clean cultivation and remove all the infested fruit from field to reduce the borer

incidence and prevent migration of larva from one plant to another.

2. Deep summer ploughing to expose pupal stage and destroy them by natural enemies or

dehydrating by scorching sun.

3. Use pheromone trap with Helilure @ 15 traps per hac for mass trapping of adult moth. Lure

should be changed once in 15 days.

4. Intercropping susceptible plant with non-preferred host plants like wheat, coriander, barley

etc.

5. Use trap crop like Calendula or tall and yellow type marigold.

6. Release of Trichogramma chilonis in borer infested field for 6 times @ 50,000 parasitized

eggs per hectare soon after appearance of moth in field.

7. Spray Bt. based formulation like DIPEL or BIOLEP @ 3gm per lit water during evening time

at 10 days interval.

8. Spray neem based pesticides such as Margosom or Neemarin or Biomultineem @ 5ml per

liter water

9. Conserve natural enemies adapting suitable agricultural practices.

10. Spray Thiodane 35% EC (Endosulfan) @ 1.5ml per liter water before the entry of larva into

fruit.


2) Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Host: Potato, Tomato, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cowpea

Tobacco caterpillar is polyphagous insect pest. It is also called cotton leaf worm, tobacco

cutworm, and cluster caterpillar. Adult moths measure between 15-20 mm (0.59-0.79 inches) in

length and have a wingspan of 30-38 mm (1.18-1.5 inches). Forewings are gray to reddish-

brown, with a complex pattern of creamy streaks and paler lines along the veins. Hind wings are

grayish-white with grayish-brown margins. Males have a blue-grey band from the upper corner

(apex) to the inner margin of each forewing. Larvae have bright yellow stripes along the back

and the sides. Larval color varies from pale green to dark green, and then finally brown for the

later instars or more mature forms. Brown, mature larvae appear to have three thin yellow,

longitudinal lines: one on the top or dorsal side and one each lateral side. A row of black dots

runs along each lateral side, and a row of dark triangles decorate each side of the middle, dorsal

line.

Damage: Tobacco caterpillar is nocturnal pest and larva feeds mostly during night. Larvae are

destructive and cause direct damage to plant. Young larvae feed gregariously scraping leaves

from ventral surface. They hide in soil and crop debris during day time. In severe condition,

entire crop is defoliated over night. After fruit setting, larva starts feeding on fruit making hole

on it. Larval development takes place inside fruit. Fruit becomes messy, watery and becomes

unfit for consumption and marketing.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-6 days Larva 2-3 days Pupa 2 weeks Adult

Management

1) Install pheromone trap with spodo lure for monitoring of moth and to follow suitable

measurement practices.

2) Collect and destroy egg masses and larva mechanically.

3) Spray aqueous solution of Neem fruits @ 2kg neem fruit/15 liter of water on infested foliage.

4) Release egg parasitoids Trichogramma chilonis for 6 week @50000 eggs per hectare per

week.

5) Spray Neem based pesticide such as Margosom 0.03% @ 5ml/liter water.

6) Spray spodoptera NPV 250 LE/ ha + 1 % jaggery along with sticker in the evening hours.

7) Use poison baiting. Spread poison baits (@ 10 kg rice or wheat bran + 1 kg of jiggery + 500

gm of Dursban 3% G) in furrows and repeat the baiting for 2- 3 days.

8) Spray Thiodan 35% EC @ 2ml/ liter water at 15 days interval.

3) White fly, Bemisia tabaci; Homoptera: Aleyrodidae

Bemisia tabaci is the polyphagous pest. These are soft-bodied, winged insects closely related to

aphids. They can be found in most any region, but they are so tiny that they are usually

camouflaged. They can be as small as 1/12 of an inch, and are often found in clusters on the

undersides of leaves. They are active during the daytime, so they are easier to spot than some

other nocturnal pests. Whiteflies are capable of over wintering and reproducing throughout the

year in warmer climates.

Damage: Whiteflies ingest plant juices and in turn produce a sticky substance known as

honeydew. Honeydew left on its own can cause fungal diseases to form on leaves. Plants will

become extremely weak and may be unable to carry out photosynthesis. Leaves may dry out and

turn yellow, and growth will be stunted. Check undersides of leaves around the veins for flies,


even if they aren‟t visible, feel leaf surfaces for honeydew. White fly also transmit virus causing

Yellow mosaic disease and leaf curl disease.

Life cycle: Eggs are also laid on the undersides of leaves. Adult females can produce up to 400

eggs, which can hatch anytime between one week and a month. They are usually laid in a

circular pattern.

Management

1. Use natural enemies such as spiders, which catch large numbers of adult whiteflies in their

webs. Ladybirds, hoverfly and lacewing larvae will also eat whitefly.

2. Avoid excessive dampness and dark in the crop growing area.

3. For greenhouse plants use the parasitic wasp Encarsia formosa which is commercially

available. This will attack and kill the larvae of glasshouse whitefly.

4. Avoid transplanting of whitefly infested seedlings.

5. Intercrop non preferred crops such as wheat, barley, with main crop reduce whiteflies

infestation.

6. Trap flutters adults using sweep net. Sweeping is done immediately after jerking the plant.

7. Yellow sticky traps should be placed in field to catch adult whitefly.

8. Don't use broad spectrum insecticides that kill beneficial insects as well as whiteflies.

9. Destroy leaves that have large infestations of whitefly larvae since many whitefly adults will

still develop and hatch from detached and discarded leaves.

10. Encourage insectivorous birds by hanging feeders during the winter months and provide

nesting boxes in the spring.

11. Avoid application of excess amount of nitrogenous fertilizer.

12. Spray neem based insecticides such as altineem @3-5 ml/liter water to manage early instar

whitefly.

13. Spray Roger 30% EC @ 1ml/liter water.

4) Cotton Jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula; Homoptera: Cicadellidae

Host: Cotton, Tomato, Potato, Brinjal, Cucumber, Pumpkin

Both nymph and adult of cotton jassid suck cell sap from leaf. The infested leaf turns red and

rusted with change in appearance. Leaf turns downward, dry out and fall on the ground. They

are also carrier of viral disease in tomato like tomato leaf curl mosaic virus.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-11 days Nymph 1 week (in summer) Adult

3 week (in winter)

Management

Same as whitefly

5) Cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii; Homoptera: Aphididae

Host: Cotton, Tomato, Tobacco, Brinjal


Damage: Both nymph and adult of cotton aphid suck cell sap from young and tender plant parts.

Nymph develops without mating in summer. They secret honey dew which gives black

appearance and disturb photosynthesis. This favors secondary disease development in plant.

Plants become dwarf and cannot grow further. Infested plant wilt, turn yellow and ultimately

dies.

Management

Same as whitefly

6) Root knot Nematode, Meloidogyne spp.

Host: Brinjal, Tomato, Okra and Cucurbits

Root-knot nematodes attack a wide variety of plants and can become serious pests in the home

garden. They are microscopic roundworms that live in the soil and on plant roots. They injure

plants by feeding on root cells with their needle-like mouthparts (stylets). The root system can

become damaged to the point where the plant cannot properly absorb water and nutrients.

Infested plant start to wither and wilt.

Management

1) Avoid monocropping and follow crop rotation with cereals.

2) Nursery beds should be disinfected with D.D mixture 400kg/hac or Nemagan 20kg/hac.

3) Use Furadane granules @ 20-25 kg/hac.

Minor insect pests 1) Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)

2) Leaf miner (Phytomyza horticola)

3) Chick pea pod borer ( Helicoverpa armigera)

4) Fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis)

5) Cut worms (Agrotis segetum)

B) Pests of potato

Major Insect Pests

1) Potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella; Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

2) Red Ants, Dorylus orientalis; Hymenoptera: Formicidae

3) Leaf Miner Fly, Liriomyza huidobrensis; Diptera: Agromyzidae

4) Cutworms, Agrotis spp.; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

5) White Grubs, Phyllophaga rugosa; Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

1) Potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella; Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Host: Potato, Tomato

Potato tuber moth is serious pest of potato both in field and storage condition. Potato tuber moth

is pale brown moth with 10mm body length and 12mm wing expansion. Forewings are pale

brown with small brown blotches and hind wings are pale grey in color. Larvae are pink or green

with dark brown head while they are grey or yellow-white in young stage. They are active at

night, and rest under clods of earth or leaves during the daylight.


Damage: Damage is caused by larvae by tunneling in leaves. The mines have a blotchy

appearance, and are often associated with brown and dying bits of tissue. One larva makes 3-4

tunnels, gradually filling them with excrement. They create twisting tunnels in fruits and tubers.

In potatoes, towards the end of the season, the caterpillars move down the plant towards the

exposed tubers in the soil. Here the first sign of infestation is the appearance of grey or whitish

frass on the surface of the tubers, usually near the “eyes.” Infestation can continue in the potato

store room infested potatoes soon become filled with unsightly black tunnels. Larvae can be seen

if we cut infested tuber.

Life cycle: Tiny pearly white eggs are laid singly or in clusters of up to six on sheltered spots on

the plants, on the ground near the plants, or on exposed potatoes. They are oval in shape and

hatch in about a week. Newly hatched larvae wander around briefly before eating their way into

leaves, stems or tubers. The rest of the larval development (passing through four instars) takes

place within the plant tissues, and takes up to three weeks (depending on temperature). The

caterpillars then leave the plant, moving down to the soil, and spin a loose cocoon to pupate.

Pupal development takes about a week, but may be much longer during winter. During the

summer the whole cycle takes about a month but may extend to ten weeks during winter. Moths

are short-lived.

Egg 1 week larvae 2 – 3 week pupa 1 week adult

Management

A) In field condition

1) Controlling alternate weed hosts, clean harvesting of potatoes and careful ridging during and

at the end of the growing season.

2) Where potatoes are grown all year round control measures may need to be taken early.

3) Releasing egg-larval parasitoid. Chelonus blackbumi at 30,000/ha twice, 40 and 70 days after

planting helps in management.

4) Seed tubers should be free from PTM infestation.

5) Synchronize planting time of potato in localities.

6) Practice deep planting of tubers (upto 10cm).

7) Irrigate potato field timely to avoid soil surface cracking during tuber formation.

8) Harvest tubers before drying or yellowing of plants.

9) Spray Roger 30% EC @ 1.5ml/liter water.

B) In storage condition

1) Dispose all discarded tubers by burying under soil.

2) Take away harvested tubers immediately from the field to store room or cold store for

storage.

3) Submerge table potatoes in water for 24 hr and shade dried before storage.

4) Use Pheromone trap like PTM1 and PTM 2 to attract male mass @ 4 capsule/100m3

volumes.

5) Avoid mixing together the old lot and new lot.

6) Store potato tubers inside nylon net to avoid contact of PTM with tubers for oviposition.

7) Cold storage (< 5˚c) of potatoes.

8) Mix sweet flag powder with tubers @ 2g/kg.

9) Dip potatoes tubers in 0.05% solution of Malathion 50% EC.

2) Red Ants, Dorylus orientalis; Hymenoptera: Formicidae


Host: Potato, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Radish, Carrot, Tree tomato.

Red ants are social insects. They have queen, workers and males members in their colony.

Worker red ants are 3-6mm in body length. They are reddish brown in color. Queen and male

members are larger than workers and looks like wasp.

Damage: Red ants are polyphagous insect pest. Worker ants are responsible for damage in crops.

Nest is usually built down the soil at a depth of 1.5-2 meter. Worker ants search for food in an

underground trail from their colony to the food resource areas. They feed on underground parts

of plant like roots, tubers and underground stems. Plants infested by red ants wilts, turn yellow

and dies because of hindrance in translocation of nutrients and water from underground part to

foliage. During early infestation, wilting of plant is temporary that occurs during day time and

recovers in morning. Permanent wilting occurs in severe infestation. Red ants cause heavy loss in

potato, root crops and crucifer crops.

Management

1) Follow cultural practices like deep ploughing which diturb the ant colony before planting of

crop.

2) Drench aqueous solution of Azadirachtin @ 100 ml per plant in soil near plant stems.

3) Drench soil around plant with 24 hr fermented and diluted cow urine (5 parts water in 1 part

urine) mixed with tobacco dust @ 100 ml/plant at tuber initiation stage and repeat treatment

after 30 days of first treatment.

4) Place non poisonous bait into soil at depth of 2 cm to monitor the presence of ant in field. In

case of presence of ant, place baits poisoned with chloropyrifos 20% EC @ 1.5 ml per liter

water.

5) Apply Chloropyrifos 10% G @ 1 kg per 500m2

before planting. Application of Chloropyrifos

in soil has been found effective to manage red ants.

3) Leaf Miner Fly, Liriomyza huidobrensis; Diptera: Agromyzidae

Host: Potato, Bean, Pea

Adult leaf miner fly is small, greenish- black, compact bodied insect pest. It is 1-2mm in body

length. Maggots are 3.5 mm long with yellow-orange color. The posterior spiracles each have 6

to 9 pores.

Damage: Larvae cause damage by mining into leaves and petiole. Mines are usually white

speckles with black brown dried area which is associated with midrib and lateral leaf veins. The

feeding punctures and the mines reduce the value of the crop which is rendered unsellable.

Photosynthesis is severely affected and there is delayed growth of vegetation (smaller plants,

smaller flowers).

Management

Prevention

Sticky traps can be used to monitor adult flies. Crop rotation is an effective pest management

tool as is avoiding varieties which are highly susceptible to leaf-miner infestations (e.g. some

chrysanthemums) in greenhouses.

There is little information about leaf-miner tolerance of vegetables in the field.

Mechanical

In field vegetables, cultivation of crop debris or removal of infected plant material is

recommended.

Biological

http://www7.inra.fr/hyppz/ZGLOSS/6g---148.htm


Parasitoid wasps, e.g., Diglyphus isaea and Dacnusa sibirica are available for control in

greenhouse crops.

These parasites will not be effective for vegetables growing in the field. However there may be

natural parasites present that can reduce the population.

Chemical

Liriomyza huidobrensis adults are resistant to conventional insecticides. At present, the only

effective insecticides are translaminar insecticides (abamectin, cyromazine, neem and spinosad),

which penetrate the leaves to affect the leaf-miner larvae. Spray Roger 30% EC @ 1ml/liter

water.

4) Cutworms, Agrotis spp., Noctuidae, Lepidoptera

a) A. segetum

The size and color of moths are varied. This species expresses sexual dimorphism. Body length

is 18-22 mm, wing span 34-45 mm. Female forewings are yellowish-gray, brown, or almost

black; round, reniform, and cuneiform spots are surrounded by thin black limbation. Second and

third diametrical bands are represented as double curved lines. Marginal line is represented as a

number of black striae. Males have lighter forewings. Female hind-wings are light-gray with

gray band along external edge; male hind-wings are white, sometimes with dark veins. Females

have setaceous antennae; males have comb-like antennae. Imago life span is 5 to 25 days (at the

most, 40 days) depending on the temperature.

b) A. ipsilon

Adult have a wingspan of 1-5/8 to 2 inches. Forewings are gray with dark brownish or black

markings. Hind wings are almost white except for a dark fringe at the tips and are folded under

the forewing when the adult is inactive. The body is gray. Females can lay as many as 1800 eggs.

The creamy white eggs are globular with a ribbed surface and are approximately 1/5 inch in

diameter. They are laid singly or in small clusters, primarily on leaves, and hatch in 2 - 9 days.

They are often found on plants in low spots of the field or in fields that have been subjected to

flooding. Newly hatched caterpillars are 1/25 inch long and mature larvae are nearly 2 inches

long. The larvae are thin, cylindrical and dark brown to greasy gray in color with faint lighter

stripes running laterally on each side of the body. The head is dark brown with two white spots.

Larval development takes from 28-34 days. Larvae remain below the surface of the ground,

under clods of soil, or other refugia (shelters) during the day and feed at night. The first two

larval stages feed on the foliage of the plant. The third and later stages often become

cannibalistic and thus adopt solitary habits.

Damage: Leaves, stalks and stems of the affected plants show external feeding with abnormal

leaf fall. In case of roots and stems both external and internal feedings are visible. The whole leaf

may fall off the plant after being cut through at the base of the stalk by the larvae.

Affected plant stages: Seedling and vegetative stages.

Affected plant parts: Leaves, roots and stems.

Cutworms exhibit two types of feeding patterns depending upon the amount of moisture in the

soil and size of plants. Where soil moisture is adequate and plants are small, the larvae hide in the

soil during the day and move to the soil surface at night where they cut off plants just above the

soil surface. One larva will cut off an average of five corn plants during its development. In

situations of dry soil conditions, the larvae do not move to the surface to feed, but instead, they

chew into the plant just below the soil surface. This causes the corn plants to wilt and usually die.

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/view/files/pictures/a_ipsil1.jpg


Management

Cultural Control

1. Weed hosts on outlying areas are often preferred sites of oviposition and serve as food for the

younger larvae. Thus destruction of these weeds may help reduce black cutworm

populations.

2. Deep ploughing of fields between crops turn up larvae and pupae to the soil surface making

them susceptible to predators and sun.

3. Depending on the crop, flooding of the infested field may be a feasible control method in

some cases.

4. In small gardens, manual collection of the larvae is sufficient for control.

5. Place piles of weeds in the field as caterpillars hide inside the piles of weed during day time.

Then collect and destroy hidden caterpillars in the morning time.

Biological Control

1. Several natural enemies attack cutworms. However, none are effective enough to provide

reliable control. The following insects have been listed as possible parasites of the black

cutworm in Hawaii by Zimmerman (1958):Archytas cirphis (Curran) (Mexican cutworm

tachinid), Chaetogaedia monticola (Bigot), Chelonus texans (Cresson), Eucelatoria

armigera (Coquillet), Euplectrus platypenae (Howard), Hyposoter

exiquae(Viereck), Meteorus laphygamae

2. (Viereck), Pseudamblyteles koebelei (Swezey), and Pterocormus rufiventris (Bruelle). He

also listed Calosoma blaptoides tehuacanum (Lapouge) as a predator.

3. Broadcast Bt. mixed bait (mixing @ 2gm of Bt. based formulation with 1 kg of wheat bran)

@ 10 kg bait per hac over the surface of soil before one week of planting.

Chemical control

1. Applications of granular insecticides directly to the soil are probably the most effective

method of controlling this pest. Baits are more effective when food sources are limited. If

cutworms are found, distribute baits before the crop emerges, especially where cutworms

have caused damage before. Treat as soon as possible if seedlings are already present when

you notice damage. Baits of moist bran mixed with the appropriate insecticide like Dursban

or Malathion etc. may be effective against older caterpillars.

2. Treat soil with Dursban 10% G @ 20 kg per hac before planting.

5) White Grubs Phyllophaga spp., Anomala spp.; Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Host: Cereals, Potato, Cash crop

White grubs are economically important pest of cereals and cash crops grown in Nepal. White

grubs are immature (grub) stage of different beetle species. Adults are smooth and shiny beetles

of 12-25mm in body length. They are light to dark brown in color with well developed brownish

head and 3 pairs of legs. Grub is creamy white and fleshy with „C‟ shaped body and swollen

abdomen. Phyllophaga are known as “Perennial” white grub or “true white grub”.

Damage: White grubs are polyphagous pest. Both grub and adult are destructive. Grub usually

feeds on underground parts such as roots, tubers and occasionally on aerial stem near the ground.


Adults feed on foliage of plant. In initial stage infestation, growth of plant is checked but plant

lodge and dies in severe infestation.

Management

1. Collect and destroy grub and beetle mechanically from crop and soil.

2. Deep ploughing of field before sowing to expose the hidden grubs and thereby encouraging

the feeding of grub by predatory birds and insects.

3. Apply only well decomposed manure in field.

4. Install light trap in field to attract and destroy adults.

5. Do not leave field fallow and grassy.

6. Mix cropping of highly susceptible crops ( cole crops, potato etc.) with less susceptible crops

like onion, garlic, tomato etc. helps to reduce the damage.

7. Apply Beauveria bassisna and Metarhizum anisopilae formulation as drenching to soil @

2kg formulation with 1kg of jagagry in 400 liter of water.

8. Apply Thimet 10%G (Phorate) @ 20-25 kg per hectare or Duraban (Chloropyrifos) 10%G @

20-25 kg per hectare in soil just before sowing of crop.

Life cycle

Eggs 2-3 weeks Larva 9-21 months Pupa 3-6 months Adult

Eggs are laid singly in earthen cells in the upper soil layer. Female prefer to lay eggs in

undecomposed manure, fallow land, grass land and moist soil with high organic content. Larval

stage last for six month but in some species this stage prolongs and takes 1-3 yr to complete life

cycle.

Minor pests of Potato

1. White fly, Bemisia tabaci

2. Thrips, Thrips tabaci

3. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura

4. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera


Insect pests of fruit crops

A) Pests of Mango

Major pest of Mango are

1) Mango mealy bug, Drosicha mangiferae; Homoptera: Coccidae

2) Mango hopper/ Jassid, Idioscopus niveosparsus; Homoptera: Jassidae

3) Mango stem borer, Bactocera rufomaculata; Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

4) Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsali; Diptera: Tephritidae

5) Mango stone weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

6) Mango shoot gall maker, Apsylla cistellata; Homoptera: Psyllidae

1) Mango mealy bug, Drosicha mangiferae; Homoptera: Coccidae

Host: Mango, Jackfruit, Banana, Peach, Plum

Females are wingless, oval and flattened and covered with wax like white powder. Mango mealy

bug is larger than other mealy bugs so it is also called “Giant Mealy bug”. Males are smaller

than females.

Life cycle

Eggs 2-3 month Nymph 3 month Adult

During the summer month (chaitra - jestha) mating occurs and males die. Female live for about a

month and descend down from the tree and lay eggs in the soil at the depth of 15 cm near the

main trunk and die. The eggs are deposited in silken purses. The dead body of females is often

found sticking to them.

Damage

Both nymph and adult of mealy bug suck cell sap form leaf, young shoots and fruits. This results

in drying of plant and fruit becomes juiceless. Infected fruit falls and causes heavy loss. Mealy

bug secrets honey dew and favor the development of sooty mold. This hinders photosynthesis of

plant.

Management

1. Nymph can be prevented from crawling up trees by using 8-10cm wide plastic band with

greasy material like castor oil or plastic sheets around the trunk at about 1cm above the

ground.

2. Dig the soil around the tree trunk to expose the eggs and mix 5% BHC or Chlordane @150-

200gm/tree.

3. Spray Sevin 50% wp @ 20gm/10 liter water.

4. Spray Metasystox 25% EC @ 10ml/10 liter water.


2) Mango hopper/ Jassid, Idioscopus niveosparsus; Homoptera: Jassidae

Host: Mango (all variety)

Mango hoppers are small insect measuring 3-4mm in body length. Adults are grayish with brown

spots on head. Nymphs are dull yellow or pale yellow in color. Nymphs are smaller than adult

and are wingless. Shade and high humidity condition are favorable condition for their

multiplication.

Damage: As soon as inflorescence emerge out hoppers are active, they lay eggs inside the

inflorescence and other succulent parts of plant in Magh- Falgun. Both nymph and adult suck

cell sap from tender parts of plant and inflorescence. They secret honey dew and favors the

development of sooty mold which gives dull blackish look to mango tree. In severe condition,

tree gets diseased and flowers & small fruit fall down.

Life cycle

Eggs 4-10 days Nymph 15-20 days Adult

Management

1. Banding is practice to control mango hopper mechanically; 5cm wide greasy band around

trunk of mango tree before hatching of eggs of hoppers in the soil prevents upward movement of

nymphs.

2. beating/shaking infested plants help to fall insects on the ground.

3. Entomophagus Fungi Metarhizium causes 100 % motality in caged conditions.

4. Use of light traps (1 trap / hac) during early stages of flower development is effective.

5. Planting resistant varieties Chinnarasam, Bangalora, and Beneshan.

6. Pruning of crowed branches allows light penetration and discourages hoppers from saying on

the tree.

7. Proper field sanitation such as weeding, removal of plant debris after harvest and avoiding

water logged or damp conditions help to eliminate the possible breeding site of the hoppers.

8. As soon as the flower buds appear spray Sevin 50 WP @ 20 gm/ 10 liter water.

9. Spray Metasystox 25% EC @ 10ml/ 10 liter water and repeat the dose at 10 days interval if

necessary.

3) Mango stem borer, Bactocera rufomaculata; Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Host: Mango, Mulberry, Jackfruit, Apple,

Batocera rufomaculata is a polyphagus species, which attack both living and dead trees. Mango

stem borer is serious pest of mango, jackfruit, mulberry and apple. It is typical cerambycidae

beetle and can be recognized by presence of long antennae reaching to at least the end of the

body. Beetle has number of dirty yellowish spots on the elytra. Head is large with prominent

eyes and pronotum with two crescent orange yellow spots. Grub is yellowish white and fleshy.

Pupation takes place inside the tunnel.

Life cycle

Eggs 1-2 week Larva (Grub) 3-6 month Pupa 4-6 month Adult


The adult female lays egg in the bark or joint of stem and branches. The grubs are fleshy,

yellowish and bear powerful mandibles. Pupation takes place within the affected tunnels or stem.

Damage: Adult female deposits cylindrical brownish white eggs singly on the bark or in crevices

in tree trunk. Grub is mainly destructive causing damage to tree with its strong biting type mouth

part. Grub makes zigzag burrows beneath the bark and tunnel into the trunk of main stem

moving upward and feeding on the internal tissues. Grub when reach sapwood, the infested stem

dies and tree withers away. Adult beetle feeds on the bark of young twigs and petiole.

Management

1. Exclude alternative host trees and remove the infested branches.

2. Remove all the loose bark and dry branches from tree and mango orchard.

3. Destroy all the infested plant parts and kill the larvae inside.

4. Insert long wire into the hole on tree to kill the larvae and pupa inside.

5. Remove the loose bark around the hole and inject 5ml kerosene or petrol with cotton into

hole and close the hole with mud.

6. Inject 5-10ml Dichlorovos 76% EC @4ml/liter water into the hole using syringe without

needle and seal the hole with clay.

7. Inject Endosulfan 0.2% into the hole.

4) Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis; Diptera: Tephritidae

Host: Mango, Citrus, Apple etc.

Fruit flies are polyphagous insect pest. Oriental fruit fly is serious pest of several fruits. Adult

measures 6-7mm in body length. Adult is stout and brown color fly with transparent wings.

Scutum is mostly black and scutellum is yellow. Abdomen has medial dark stripe. Maggots are

opaque and yellow in color. Pupation occurs in the soil.

Life cycle

Eggs 3-5 days Larva (Maggot) 1-2 week Pupa 7-10 days Adult

Damage: Eggs are laid in group under the skin of young of fruits. Larvae are typical dipterous

maggot. Maggots feed on inner content of fruit. They make tunnels inside the fruit and reduce

the quality of fruit making unfit for human consumption. Young fruits are easily destroyed in

few days causing fruit rot. Large number of maggots can be seen inside when infested fruit is

cut. Full fed maggot comes out of fruit for pupation. The management of fruit fly is considered

to be problematic because of larval feeding habit inside the fruit where application of pesticide is

not possible.

Management:

1. Collect and destroy all the infested and fallen fruits. Put the infested fruit in pit of required

size and cover the pit with fine nylon net so that flies emerging from maggots cannot escape

out of pit.


2. Wrap the young fruits with small muslin cloth or any bag to prevent the egg laying on them.

This is simple method to avoid oviposition but it has to be applied before attack of fruit by

fruit fly. This method is possible only in small scale farming.

3. Use pheromone trap with Cue-lure along with suitable insecticides (Usually Malathion) to

attract and kill male fruit flies and replace it in 2 week interval.

4. Use protein bait spray @ 50ml per plant in field to attract and kill both male and female fruit

flies.

5. Use neem fruit extract to repel females flies.

6. Use tobacco extract and ginger extract to kill fruit flies.

7. Treat the soil in canopy area with neem cake @ 250 kg/hac to kill the hibernating pupae.

8. Keep food lure (crush @ 1 kg pumpkin and add 100 g jaggery and 10 ml malathion ) in

the crop field @ 20 spots per hac.

9. Spray malathion 50% EC @ 2ml/liter water with 2 g jiggery per liter aqueous solution of

malathion.

10. Treat root zone soil of the plants with Malathion 5 % dust @ 20 kg / hac or neem cake @

250 kg / hac kill hibernating pupae.

5) Mango stone weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Host: Mango

Mango stone weevil is an important insect pest of mango. Adult is dark brown weevil measuring

5-8mm in body length and found inside the stone of mango fruit. It pretends to be dead when

touched. Grub is legless with brown head and white body. The pest attack mango varieties with

soft flesh like Alfanso and Neelam. The loss is reported upto 50 – 60 % in some parts of Nepal.

The generation completes within 40 – 60 days, and there is only one generation a year.

Damage: Adult weevil remain concealed in soil or underneath of bark of mango trees. It

becomes active with appearance of fruit on mango tree. Adult lays eggs on the fruit skin making

small cut on fruit surface. On hatching grub moves inside the fruit eating unripe tissues and bores

into embryo of mango stone. Pupation takes place inside the stone. Adult weevil makes it way by

boring stone, passing through pulp and finally comes out.

Management

1. Collect and destroy all fallen fruits and weevil damaged mangoes.

2. Spray Dursban 20% EC @2.5ml/liter water on main trunk, primary branches and junction of

branches prior to flowering to manage the hidden beetles in the bark.

3. Spray Acephate 75% SP @ 1.5g/liter water when fruits are of 2.5-4cm diameter followed by

Decamethrin 2.8% EC @ 1ml/liter water after 2-3 weeks.

6) Mango shoot gall maker, Apsylla cistellata; Homoptera: Psyllidae

Mango shoot gall maker is small sized pest with ash color wing. They are also capable of

jumping. Around Falgun- Chaitra adult emerge from galls and start laying eggs in the mid ribs of

tender leaves. Around Bhadra-Asoj eggs hatching occurs and nymph start feeding on tender


buds. In absence of young buds, newly emerged nymphs do not survive. At feeding area, cone

shaped galls are formed and nymph remain inside the galls.

Life cycle: Female lays eggs on either side of the midrib of the single leaf. Incubation period

ranges between 191 – 211 days. There are six nymphal instars and completes only one

generation a year. The nymphal period is about five to six months.

Management

1. Destroy the infested branches by proper training and pruning.

2. Use resistant variety like Alphanso, Himsagar and Gulabkhs.

3. Applications of insecticide do not help much in this case.

Minor pest of mango

1. Mango leaf webber, Orthaga sp., Pyralidae, Lepidoptera

2. Mango leag cutting weevil, Deporaus marginatus, Curculionidae, Coleoptera

3. Scale insects, Coccus hesperidum, Coccidae, Homoptera

4. Red ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, Formicidae, Hymenoptera

5. Termites, Odontotermes obesus, Termitidae Isoptera

6. Mango leaf gall maker

7. Mango leaf cutting weevil

B) Pests of Banana

Major insect pest

1) Banana Rhizome (corm) weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

2) Banana stem weevil, Odioporus longicollis; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

3) Banana leaf and fruit scaring beetle, Nodostoma viridipennis; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

4) Banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa; Homoptera: Aphididae

5) Banana skipper butterfly, Erionata thrax thrax; Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae

1) Banana Rhizome (corm) weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Host: Banana

Cosmopolites sordidus is serious pest of banana. Usually old banana plantations are infected with

the pest. Adults are black or dark brown weevils. Their body length measures 10-16mm. They

have long and curved snout and elytra covers abdomen dorsally. Grubs are creamy white,

legless, fleshy, wrinkle and spindle shaped. Fully grown grub is 8-12mm long.

Life cycle

Eggs 7-14 days Larva 4-6 weeks Pupa 1-2 weeks Adult

They lay eggs in the holes of the rhizome at the ground level. Adult can lay 50-100 eggs during

its life time. Larvae can live either in rhizome or in pseudostem.


Damage: This is an economically impotent pest of banana that damages the rhizome of banana.

Adult can live in the rhizome of the banana plant. Infestation at the early stage reduces the plant

vigor. Sick appearance and yellow lines on the top leaves are early symptoms. Where as in

advanced stage of infestation, plant show tapering of the stem at crown region, reduction in leaf

size, poor bunch formation and choked throat appearance due to grub damage in corms Both

grub and adult causes direct damage to plant. Grub feeds on rhizome while adult feeds on

pseudostem. Initially grub makes several longitudinal tunnels in the surface tissue till they are

able to penetrate the adjacent inner leaf sheath. Then grub bore into pseudostem base and

rhizome. If tunneling of pseudo stem base and rhizome is severe plant becomes weak and easily

topples down against the gust of air. Leaves die prematurely. Fruits formed on infested plant are

of inferior quality.

Management

1. Use healthy suckers for planting.

2. Rhizome can be submerged water mixed with insecticide for 2 days before planting is

suitable for controlling pest in plant and it prevent new attack of pest.

3. Clean the rhizome with a knife to remove pest inside the rhizome.

4. Crop sanitation also important to reduced pest population .Remove harvested stems and

weeds.

5. Annual cultivation can utilize for better banana cultivation. Before new cultivation clean all

the banana debris of previous crop.

6. Cut pseudostem of harvested plants and smear with mud to cover the cutting surface to

prevent infection.

7. Use healthy, uninfected sucker or rhizomes for planting time. Wash the suckers and dip in a

solution of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5 ml/l before planting.

8. Soil application of carbofuron@ 20g/plant during 3rd, 5th & 7th month after planting.

9. Regular monitoring of weevil by keeping banana traps viz. (i) longitudinal cut stem trap of

30 cm size @ 10-15 per acre. In case once weevil is attracted to the laid traps, place

longitudinal split banana traps @ 100 ha with bio control agents like entomopathogenic

fungus Beauveria bassiana or entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis indica @ 20

g/trap. These bio control agents have to be swabbed on the cut surface of the stem traps and

keep the cut surface facing the ground.

10. In case of post-planting infestation, spray the pseudostem and drench around the base of the

tree with Chlopyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5 ml/l. After one week spray and drench with Malathion

50 EC @ 2 ml/l.

11. Cut the banana plant after harvest at the ground level and treat it with carbaryl (1g/liter) or

chlorpyriphos (2.5 ml/lit) at the cut surface.

12. Keep pheromone (cosmolure) trap @ 5 traps / ha. The position of traps should be changed

once in a month.

2) Banana stem weevil, Odioporus longicollis; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Odioporus longicollis is serious pest of banana. Adults are small black or reddish brown weevils

with black stripes. Body length measures 20-28mm. This weevil has elongate narrow snout.


Adult differs from that of corm weevil in having slender snout. Grubs are soft, fleshy, legless and

creamy- white color. Grub is 16-23mm long.

Life cycle

Eggs 3-8 days Larva 26- 68 days Pupa 20-29 days Adult

Usually single egg is laid in each chamber of banana pseudostem. After hatching larvae feed on

pseudostem. Pupation takes place within the pseudostem in a fibrous cocoon made up of banana

fibre.

Damage: The banana Pseudostem weevil attacks the plant during flowering and bunch formation

stage and cause severe yield loss by preventing the bunch development. The early symptoms are

the jelly exudation on the banana stem which indicate the weevil and grub activity inside the

stem. Due to feeding of stem by grubs the Pseudo stem becomes hallow and break at the apical

region due to gush of wind.

Management

Same as Corm weevil.

3) Banana leaf and fruit scaring beetle, Nodostoma viridipennis; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Nodostoma viridipennis is small beetle with black body and red head. Adult damage the crop

mostly. Adult beetles feed on tender leaf and young fruit by scarring the surface. Due to feeding

of adult several spots appear on leaf and fruit surface. Later on these spots become hole in leaf

while reduces the quality of fruit for human consumption.

Life cycle: Female lay egg in soil. Egg hatch in 7 – 9 days. Larva grows up by feeding on roots

of banana inside soil. The duration of larval period is 20 – 22 days. The pupal period ranges 7 –

20 days. The adult beetle feeds on young leaves and skin of fruits.

Management

1. Deep ploughing of infested field so that eggs, larva and pupa of scarring beetle can be

destroyed.

2. Wrapping of fruit in small scale by muslin cloth or plastic bag.

3. Spray Thiodane 35% EC @ 1ml/liter water.

4) Banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa; Homoptera: Aphididae

Biology: Reproduction in the banana aphid is entirely parthenogenetic (without mating). Females

give birth to live female young. Males are not known for this species. The life cycle (nymph to

adult) is completed in 9 to 16 days.


Damage: Like most aphids, the banana aphid is a phloem feeder that uses its long stylets to

pierce plant tissues to suck the sap directly from the vessels. This can cause plants to become

deformed, the leaves become curled and shriveled, and in some cases galls are formed on the

leaves. Young plants may be killed or their growth checked if there is sufficient feeding by the

banana aphid. However, direct damage by this aphid is generally negligible.

Aphids vector many plant diseases that cause substantially greater losses than that caused by

direct feeding injury. This is often the most damaging feature of an aphid infestation. Both

wingless (apterous) and winged (alate) aphids are able to transmit viruses. Transmission is

usually in a nonpersistent manner where the virus is taken up into the aphids "mouth" while

feeding on an infected plant and transferred to a healthy plant during subsequent feedings. In

nonpersistent transmission, the virus reproduces in the plant, and aphids simply aid in

transporting the virus. With these types of virus-vector associations, the aphid acquires the virus

and is only able to transmit the virus temporarily. Once all the infective charge is reduced by

feeding or the passing of time, the aphid is unable to transmit the virus until it feeds on infected

tissue again. Banana aphid is vectors of bunchy top disease of bananas. Symptoms of the disease

include dark green streaking of the leaves, midrib, and petioles; progressive leaf dwarfing;

marginal chlorosis; and leaf curling. Fruits of diseased plants are unsalable because they are

small and distorted.

Management

1. Obtain then planting materials from virus free area.

2. Remove infected plants from field.

3. Encourage the population building of lady bird beetle, green lacewing to naturally control

aphid population.

4. Install yellow pan trap with 1% kerosene water in aphid infested field to attract and kill

nymphs and adults.

5. Spray systemic such as Roger 30%EC @ 2ml/liter water.

5) Banana skipper butterfly, Erionata thrax thrax; Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae

Adult butterflies are brown with three yellow-white areas at the front of their wings. They have a

wingspan of around 7cm. Caterpillars roll up banana leaf sections and eat the leaves as they

grow. They also exude a fine white powdery material over their body.

Damage: Banana skipper (Erionota thrax) butterfly is from South East Asia, where the

caterpillars (larvae) cause the major damage to infested plants. This pest is also known as the

banana leaf roller. After hatching, the caterpillars move towards the outer edge of the leaf where

they feed and roll the leaf to make a shelter. Within the roll the larva secretes a protective, white,

waxy covering. The feeding and rolling destroys the leaves, significantly reducing the plant‟s

leaf area and leading to reduced fruit production, as well as preventing the use of leaves for

traditional purpose. Rolled up leaf sections are the most distinctive symptom of banana skipper.

Leaf rolls can extend to 15cm in length. Caterpillars also consume the leaves and can quickly

cause significant amounts of defoliation.


Life cycle: The adult female lays egg singly on the lower surface of leaves. Egg hatch in 4 – 5

days. The newly hatch larvae are grayish green but become pale green in later larval stages. The

larvae are covered with short silky hairs and white powdery substances. The larval period lasts

for 3 - 4 weeks. Pupation occurs within the confines of the rolled host leaf and emerges out in 10

days.

Management

1. Collect and destroy rolled infected leaves.

2. Collect larvae by hand picking and hanging from banana tree and destroy them.

3. Apply Bacillus thuringiensis based formulation @ 0.3-0.6 k.g. a.i. /hac.

4. Release larval parasitoids Cotesia erionotae

5. Spray Thiodane 35% EC @1ml/liter.

Minor Insect Pests

1. Banana lace - wing Bug, Stephanitis typicus; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

2. Fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis; Diptera: Tephritidae

C) Pests of citrus fruits

Major Insects Pests

1) Lemon Butterlfy, Papilio demoleus; Lepidoptera: Papilionidae

2) Citrus leaf miner, Phyllocnistis citrella; Lepidoptera: Phyllocnistidae

3) Citrus Psylla, Diaphorina citri; Hemiptera: Psyllidae

4) Citrus Green stink Bug, Rhynchocoris poseidon, R. humeralis; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

5) Brown citrus aphid, Toxoptera citricida; Homopteera: Aphididae

6) Red Scale, Aonidiella auranti; Homoptera: Diaspididae

7) Citrus fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis; Diptera: Tephrittidae

1) Lemon Butterlfy, Papilio demoleus; Lepidoptera: Papilionidae

Host: All citrus fruits and other members of family Rutaceae

Papilio demoleus or the common lime butterfly is distributed worldwide and is one of the

common swallowtail butterflies. This butterfly gets its name from the host plants which are

usually the citrus species like lime. The upper surface of wings is ground black in color. The

forewings are characterized by presence of yellow scales and yellow spots. Hind wings also have

yellow scales and yellow spots. The underside of the wings has somewhat paler markings.

Antennae are dark reddish brown and somewhat clubbed. Head, thorax and abdomen are dusky

black. Head and thorax have cream colored streaks especially on the anterior side. Thorax and

abdomen are demarcated by the presence of cream yellow streaks with longitudinal black lines

running to the end of abdominal segment. Lemon butterfly is one of the important and serious

pests of citrus plant. It is diurnal and fast moving butterfly. Larva is light green in color.


Damage: Adult female lays eggs on the tender leaves, shoots of citrus plant. Larvae are most

destructive and soon after hatching they start feeding on young and tender leaves. Young plants

are especially damaged heavily. When number of larva is high all parts of leaves are eaten away

leaving mid rib only. Heavily infested plant do not bear fruit, if fruit sets they are of small sized.

Pupation takes place on plant.

Life cycle

Eggs 3-8 days Larva 11-40 days Pupa 12-20 weeks Adult

Management

1. Hand picking and destruction of larvae in small scale.

2. Release egg parasitoides Trichogramma spp for biological control of lemon butterfly.

3. Apply sevin 50 WP @ 20 mg / 10 litre of water

4. Malathion 50 % EC @ 20ml/10 litre of water

2) Citrus leaf miner, Phyllocnistis citrella; Lepidoptera: Phyllocnistidae

Host: All citrus plant but prefer sweet orange

Damage: Adult female lays eggs singly on tender leaf or young shoots. After hatching, larvae

feed on green materials between epidermis and hypodermis. They make tunnel moving forward

and make irregular zig-zag path within leaf lamina. Irregular white lining on leaf indicate the

larval infestation. Photosynthesis is adversely affected and there is predictable reduction in yield.

In severe condition, leaf becomes deformed, curls irregularly and finally dries up. Citrus leaf

miner helps for development of citrus canker.

Life cycle

Eggs 5-10 days Larva 5-30 days Pupa 5- 25 days Adult

Management

1. Collect and destroy the infested leaves.

2. Pruning of affected plant parts during winter.

3. Spray Neem cake solution as repellent.

4. Spray Metasystox 25% EC@ 10ml/10liter water.

3) Citrus Psylla, Diaphorina citri; Hemiptera: Psyllidae

Host: Citrus, lime, lemon

The adults are 3 to 4 mm long with a mottled brown body. The head is light brown. The

forewing is broadest in the apical half, mottled, and with a brown band, band is broadest at

middle, unspotted and transparent. Nymphs are flat louse like and orange-yellow in color.


Damage: Both nymphs and adults of citrus psylla suck cell sap from tender and young portion of

plant like flower bud, twigs, young leaf, tender branches etc. It secrets honey dew which favors

the development of sooty mold. Photosynthesis of plant is adversely affected. Plant becomes

dwarf and fruit lacks juice and taste. There is dropping of fruit and leaves. D. citri is vector of

citrus greening and causes die back.

Life cycle


Eggs are laid on tips of growing shoots on and between unfurling leaves. Females may lay more

than 800 eggs during their lives. Nymphs pass through five instars. Total life cycle requires from

15 to 47 days, depending upon the season. Adults may live for several months. There is no

diapause, but populations are low in winter (the dry season). There are nine to 10 generations a

year; however, 16 have been observed in field cages.

Management

1. Natural enemies of D. citri include Syrphids, Chrysopids, at least 12 species of Coccinellids,

and several species of parasitic wasps, the most important of which is Tamarixia

radiata (Waterston).

2. Apply neem oil @ 5ml/liter water.

3. Dip root of saplings in 0.1% solution of dichlorvos or fenitrothion just before planting.

4. Spray Roger 30% EC @ 2ml/liter water.

4) Citrus Green stink Bug, Rhynchocoris poseidon, R. humeralis; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Citrus green stink bug is serious pest of citrus. It is bright green shielded bug. The name shield

bug is due to their back shaped like a shield. Stink bug can be recognized by distinctive

triangular shape of their body. They are named stink bug because of their ability to exude

stinking substance from pore on each side of their body. Adult bears laterally one spine in each

side on first segment of thorax.

Lifecycle: The female deposits eggs on the upper surface of the leaves in clusters of 9 – 14 eggs,

which hatch in a week. The young nymph remains in the clustered together for a short period of

time and then start feed on young shoot and fruits. They pass through 5 nymphal stages and

become adults after about 6 – 8 weeks. Bug feed on plant fluids by inserting their mouthparts

into stem, leaves and fruits

Damage: Both nymph and adult of stink bugs are destructive and they suck cell sap from young

leaves, shoots, stems and fruit by inserting their sucking type of mouth parts. The infested plant

cannot grow further, young shoots are mottled, fruits drop, brown patches appear on fruit skin.

Plant also becomes susceptible to various fugal and bacterial attacks.

Management

1. Collect adult and nymph with the help of sweeping net during morning and evening time and

destroy them.

http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/beneficial/wasps/tamarixia_radiata.htm

http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/beneficial/wasps/tamarixia_radiata.htm


2. Proper training and pruning of infested parts of plant.

3. Proper manuring and irrigation of plant that helps to tolerate bug infestation to some extent.

4. Spray wood ash over the plant parts during morning time.

5. Encourage the activity of natural enemies like tachnid fly, Big head ant, Spiders etc.

6. Egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis and nymph parasitoid Trichopoda pennipes are reported to

be effective to biologically control the bug.

7. Use leguminous and cruciferous plant as trap crop for bug to reduce infestation on main crop.

8. Spray Roger (Dimethoate) 30%EC @ 2ml/liter water at fruit formation stage.

5) Brown citrus aphid, Toxoptera citricida; Homopteera: Aphididae

Aphids are soft bodied insect pest. They commonly occur in dense colonies. They reproduce

sexually or parthenogenetically. They are very small in size measuring 1-2mm in body length.

Aphids have cornicles or siphunculi which are used for excreting a defensive fluid.

Citrus aphid transmits Citrus tristeza Virus (CTV) because of its high vector efficiency, prolific

reproduction and dispersal timed with citrus flush cycles to maximize chances of acquiring and

transmitting the virus.

Damage: Citrus aphids suck cell sap from plant tissues with their piercing-sucking type of

mouthpart. They pierce veins, stems and growing part of plant. They secret honey dew which

makes the plant sticky favoring the growth of sooty mould as a result of which a black coating is

formed on the affected plant parts. This hinders photosynthesis in plant. Heavily infested plant

turns brown and dies from top to down. Citrus virus transmits CTV initiating stem pitting in

citrus trees.

Life cycle: Females do not need to mate to produce young and no eggs are laid. Nymphs mature

in 6 – 8 days at temperature above 200

C or above. A single aphid produces a population of over

4,400 nymphs in 3 week period and 25 – 30 generation a year.

Management

1. Conserve natural predators like Lady beetles, green lacewing larvae, and syrphid larvae

which feed on soft bodied insects like aphid.

2. Plant only healthy and disease free seedling.

3. Practice closer plant spacing to maximize land use during early years.

4. Remove decline or stunted tree from field.

5. Install yellow pan trap with 1% kerosene water or yellow sticky trap at crop height in

field.

6. Dust wood ash over plant foliage in morning hour.

7. Spray wood ash and soap solution i.e. wood ash soaked in water in 1:4 ratio for 12 hr,

then filtered through muslin cloth and mix soap @ 10g/liter filtered solution.

8. Dip root of saplings in 0.1% solution of Dichlorvos just before planting.

9. If application of pesticide required, spray Roger 30% EC @ 2ml/liter water.

6) Red Scale, Aonidiella auranti; Homoptera: Diaspididae

Red scale is one of the important and serious pest of citrus in citrus growing areas. Scales are

about 2mm in diameter. They shelter beneath the carapace for short period before walking away


and finding suitable feeding site in a depression or crevice. After setting down, they do not

normally move. Body of female is covered with circular, transparent, waxy carapace. Female is

reddish brown, body is flattened while male is fragile two winged insect with long filamentous

antennae. It is the most notorious pest of citrus. It is polyphagous species found in citrus,

almond, vines, pear and plum.

Damage: Both nymph and adult of scale insect suck cell sap from above ground part of plant.

They feed on plant juice and devitalize the plant. Infestation is indicated by presence of

numerous small circular reddish brown scales on the trunk, branches, leaves and fruit. Heavy

infestation results die back.

Life cycle: Female secrete a pheromones that attracts its males. Females are viviparous

(reproduction inside the body of the mother). Females produce 60 – 150 nymphs over a 10 days

period. After a short period of quiescence (2 – 4 hrs), the nymph leave the maternal scale and

disperse on the host tree. Hot and dry weather favors for its multiplication.

Management

1. Select planting material from scale free area.

2. Encourage building of lady bird beetle population in scale infested area.

3. Pruning of infested branches and twigs during dormant period and destroy them.

4. Dip roots of sapling in 0.1% solution of fenitrothion or dichlorvos just before planting.

5. Spray mineral oil such as Agri – SERVO @ 10 – 15 ml per liter water as foliar spray in

apple trees.

6. Apply ATSO @ 10 ml / litre water as foliar spray.

7. Dip roots of saplings in 0.1 % solution of dichlorovus just before planting.

8. Incorporate Thimet 10% G or Temik 10% G @ 10gm, 40-50gm or 50-100gm per plant in

the trench around root zone of small, middle and big sized tree respectively. Then cover

the trench with soil and then irrigate the field immediately after application of insecticide.

This help to suppress the population of scale insect in orchard.

9. Spray Roger 30% EC (Dimethoate) @ 2ml/liter water.

7) Citrus fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis; Diptera: Tephritidae

Host: Mango, Citrus, Apple etc.

Same as mango fruit fly

Other insect pests of citrus are

1. Citrus mealy bugs, Planococcus citri; Homoptera: Pseudococcidae

2. Orange stem borer, Stromatium barbatum; Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

3. Citrus red mite, Panonchus citri

4. Leaf mining beetle, Throscoryssa citri; Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

5. White flies, Dialeurodes citri; Homoptera: Aleyrodidae


D) Pests of Apple

Major Insect Pest

1) Wooly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum; Homoptera: Aphododae

2) Codling moth, Cydia pomonella; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

3) San Jose Scale, Diaspidiotus perniciosus; Homoptera: Diaspididae

4) Apple stem borer (Zeuzera sps)

5) Apple root borer (Dorysthenes hugeli)

6) Tent caterpillar (Melacosoma indica)

7) Slug caterpillar (cania sps)

1) Wooly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum; Homoptera: Aphididae

Host: Apple, Pear, Almond

The woolly aphid is a sucking insect that lives on plant fluids and produces a filamentous waxy

white covering which resembles cotton or wool. Woolly aphid adults are pear shaped, usually

0.13 inch or less in length, and cover themselves with white waxy material. The adults are

winged and move to new locations where they lay egg masses. The larvae often form large

cottony masses on twigs, for protection from predators. It does not attack on the leaves. Both

nymph and adult suck cell sap from bark of the twigs and from the underground roots.

Specialized dermal glands produce the characteristics fluffy or powdery wax, which gives E.

lanigerum its characteristics woolly appearance.

Damage: Some species feed in groups and cause swellings on bark or roots. Cankers and burs or

burls can develop on limbs. On roots, nodular masses of gall tissue may form. Foliage-feeding

species can cause infested leaves to curl, distort, discolor, or form into galls. Some species

secrete honeydew, which results in growth of blackish sooty mold. Others produce pale waxy

secretions, causing white flocculent material to collect on and beneath infested plants. Gall-

making species may confine their honeydew or wax to within distorted tissue so this secretion is

not obvious unless galls are cut open.

Management

1. Their numbers are kept low with natural predators like lacewings, ladybugs, hover flies,

and parasitic wasps.

2. Prune out and destroy infested branches along with aphid colonies.

3. Spot treat where the aphids are most abundant using insecticidal soap or neem oil.

4. Release nymphal parasitoid Aphelinus mali to suppress aphid population.

5. Dip roots of saplings in 0.1% fenitrothion or dichlorvos solution just before planting.

6. Spray Biomite or Ramban @ o.66ml per liter water as foliar spray in apple trees. Repeat

spray after 7 days for 3 times.

7. Spray mineral oil such as Agri – SERVO @ 10 – 15 ml per liter water as foliar spray in

apple trees.

8. Apply ATSO @ 10 ml / litre water as foliar spray.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_fluids&action=edit&redlink=1

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/beneficial/green-lacewings-in-gardens.htm

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/beneficial/attract-ladybugs.htm

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/beneficial/parasitic-wasp-info.htm

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/plant-problems/pests/homemade-soap-spray.htm

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/plant-problems/pests/neem-oil-uses.htm


9. Incorporate Disiston 5%G or Thimet 10%G @ 40-50g per plant in the trench around root

zone of apple tree to suppress the population of aphid in orchard. Cover the trench and

irrigate immediately after application of insecticide.

2) Codling moth, Cydia pomonella; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Codling moth is a small moth whose caterpillars bore into the fruits of apple and pear trees

during mid- to late-summer. Codling moth is the cause of what is often referred to as "maggoty

apples". The caterpillars of this pest can damage a high proportion of the fruits on apple trees in

gardens.

Life cycle


Damage: Female moth lays eggs singly on developing fruit or adjacent leaves or stem during

evening. After hatching caterpillar bore into fruit and feed on pulp. This reduces both quality and

quantity of fruit.

The caterpillar‟s exit hole is often visible in the side of the ripe fruit or at the 'eye' end (opposite

to the stalk). When the fruit is cut open, the tunnel and feeding damage inside the core can be

seen, together with the caterpillar‟s excrement pellets

Management

1. Use pheromone trap to attract male moth and to kill them @ 2-4 trap/ hac.

2. Release pathogenic nematode (Steinernema carpocapsae), microscopic worm-like

creature that enters the bodies of caterpillars and infects them with a fatal bacterial

disease.The nematode should be sprayed on the trunk and branches, and also the soil

under the branches, in September-October.

3. Use of weather monitoring and degree day model.

3) San Jose Scale, Diaspidiotus perniciosus; Homoptera: Diaspididae

Host: Apple, peach, Pear, Plum

Most individuals of D. perniciosus overwinter in the first larval stage. In February to March the

larva moults, and then the male scales take an elongated shape while the female scales remain

round. The female gradually increases in size through two developmental stages until the scale

cover reaches about 2 mm in diameter. The male and female mate, and later the female give birth

to larvae that are mobile and able to crawl to infest new host tissue within the first 24 hours.

Females can lay from 50-400 larvae over a period of 6 to 8 weeks. One life cycle takes from 45

to 80 days.

Damage: San Jose Scales feed by sucking plant juices from twigs, branches, fruit, and foliage.

Although an individual scale insect cannot inflict much damage, a single female and her

offspring can produce several thousand scales in one season. If uncontrolled, they can kill the


host tree as well as make the fruit unmarketable. Although scales live primarily on the tree bark,

the first indication that San Jose Scale is in the orchard may be small red spots on fruit or leaves.

Yellow spot appear on the leaves, twigs or fruit at the point of feeding.

Management

Same as Red scale in pests of citrus.

4) Apple stem borer (Zeuzera sps)

1. Lepidopteran insect having scale on body.

2. Females lay eggs on bark in single or in group of one or two in bark of trunk a branches.

3. After 7-12 days the egg hatch and enters into stem through tunnel. While entering into stem,

they release saw dust.

4. The larval period id of 2 years.

5. Pupation takes inside tunnel by making cocoon. Pupal period is about 1 month.

Primary host: apple and pear

Secondary host is peach and plum.

Nature of damage

It damage xylem part, break xylem tissue so that nutrient carrying capacity of xylem is reduced.

Management:

1. Use Kerosene drops @ 1-2 drops / tunnel.

2. Plugging or jerking the tunnel or hole with long string.

3. Cutting the affected part and applying Bordeaux paste.

5) Apple root borer (Dorysthenes hugeli);

1. Soil inhabiting coleopteran borer having long antennae, prominent body.

2. The elytra is hard, legs are long.

3. Egg hatch in 1-2 months.

4. Larval period 3-4 years.

5. After hatching the larvae enters into root by making tunnel and damages the root where it

leaves upto 3-4 years.

6. Pupation takes place inside tunnel.

Nature of damage

Xylem damage, so the nutrient supplying capacity reduced.

Management

1. Flooding and stagnation of water upto 1-2 days.

2. Field sanitation.

3. A kind of entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae has significant result to kill its

larvae in lab condition.


6) Tent caterpillar (Melacosoma indica);

Mark of identification

1. Four wings which have black and white patches having prominant veins.

2. Larvae which have 4-5 instar have hairs on their body.

Major host: pear and apple

Secondary host: peach, plum and walnut

Life cycle

1. They prefer to lay egg in new flushes, succulent leaves in single or sometimes in group.

2. After 7-9 days sometimes hatching of eggs may extend upto 12-13 days depending upon

outside climatic conditions.

3. 1st – 2

nd instars live in groups and damage the leaves gregariously

4. 3rd

-5th

instars are voracious in nature having well developed mandibles in their mouth and

damage the remaining mature leaves.

5. Pupation takes place in leaves or in branches inside the cocoon.

Management practices

1. Hand picking of all stages of larvae.

2. Use of Neem based pesticides like Nemarin which are anti feeding in action.

3. Contact type of pesticides can also be used e.g. Armyworm larvae are collected.

4. Use of cow urine with water in the ratio of 1:4-6 (vegetable-6, sometimes 10, tree-4)

7) Slug caterpillar (cania sps);

1. The movement of caterpillar resembles with slug so called slug caterpillar( in Mango and

Dabdabe)

2. Body of larvae is soft, smooth so also called Jelly grub.

3. Body is covered with branch hairs which is also called poisonous setae. They may be black

or red or green colored.

4. Hairs are modified parts of epidermis.

Major hosts: peach, pear, mango, dabdabe

Secondary hosts: apple, walnut and other temperate fruits.

Nature of damage

They are defoliator.

First and 2nd

instar larvae, they prefer to consume, succulent leaf, tender leaf where as larvae

prefer leaf with high cellulose.

In severe infestation, leaf is defoliated and tree looks like naked.

Life cycle

Laying of eggs occurs in leaf in masses. Hatching of eggs occurs in 12-17 days and sometimes

early hatching occurs in 8 days. Larvae are the best defoliators. In severe infestation, larvae

damage the whole leaf of plants. Pupation occurs inside dry leaves which drop to the soil.


Sometimes pupation occurs in main trunk. The pupation which takes place inside the cocoon is

similar to the egg of bird in main trunk.

Management

1. Damaging stage is larvae, so hand picking or collecting of larvae and destroying them.

2. Use of any contact pesticide like malathion with mixing water@ 3ml / litr water.

3. Field sanitation

4. Neem based biopesticides have antifeedant nature.

E) Pest of Litchi

Major Insect Pest

1) Litchi bug, Tessaratoma papillosa; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

2) Litchi leaf curl mite, Aceria litchi

1) Litchi bug, Tessaratoma papillosa; Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Insect laid globular and off pink eggs, mostly in bunch of fourteen on lower surface of leaves.

The insect passed through five instars, which were sub rectangular and dark brick red except first

instar, which was nearly sub rectangular. Newly emerged adult was dirty white and soft bodied

insect but color changed to yellow red after few days. The average duration of male and female

adults was 43.2±7.7 and 47.2± 9.5 days, respectively. Both adults and nymph fed mostly on

tender plant parts such as growing buds, leaf petioles, fruit stalks and tender branches of litchi

tree. Excessive feeding caused drying of growing buds, tender shoots and ultimately fruit drop.

The bugs when feed on the developing fruit, it causes the fruits to fall a couple of days later.

Life cycle


Management

1. This pest is combated by shaking the trees in winter, collecting and dropping them into

kerosene.

2. The eggs of T. javanica are in group and visible which can be removed and destroyed.

3. There are natural enemies which parasitize 70 to 90 per cent of eggs laid late in the season.

The adults are attacked by several fungi, birds and red ants may also be used as biological

means of control.

4. If chemicals are used, the timing of sprays is critical because the bugs vary in their

susceptibility to insecticide at different times of the year, depending on body fat content and

its nature. Many of these bugs may be controlled with dimethoate and fenitrothion.

Minor Insect Pest

1) Bark eating caterpillar, Inderbela spp, Metarbelidae, Lepidoptera

2) Red ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, Formicidae, Hymenoptera


F) Pest of pomegranate

Pomegranate butterfly, Virachola Isocrates; Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae

Damage

Egg laying on the calyx of the flower, tender fruits singly. After hatching, bore into fruit and feed

upon internal portion, as a result fruit droop. Entry hole heals up immediately so symptoms may

not appear externally and fruit seems as healthy but inside seeds are eaten. Larvae come out by

making hole and juice appear at hole, at that time 50% damage occurs in fruit.

Life cycle

Egg 7-10 days larvae 18-47 days pupae 7-34 days Adult

(In calyx) (Inside fruit) (Inside fruit or

In fruit stalk)

Management

1. Collect and destroy the infested fruits.

2. Wrapping of fruit with the help of muslin cloth or by plastic bags in small scale.

3. Spray Sumicidin 20% EC @ 1ml / 2 ltr of water at the time of flowering and fruiting.


Insect Pest of Commercial Crops

A) Pests of Cotton

Major pest of cotton

1) Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella; Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

2) Red cotton bug, Dysdercus koenigii; Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae

3) Cotton leaf roller, Syllepta derogate; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae


5) Cotton Leafhopper, Amrasca biguttula biguttula; Homoptera: Cicadellidae

6) Spotted bollworms, Earias vittella, E. insulana; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

7) Cotton Semi-looper Moth, Anomis flava; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

1) Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella; Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Pink bollworm is major destructive pest of cotton. Adult is a small, thin, gray moth with fringed

wings. Hind wings margins are deeply fringed. The larva is a dull white, eight-legged caterpillar

with conspicuous pink banding along its dorsum. The larva reaches one half inch in length.

Damage: Adult female lays whitish flat eggs underside of young leaves, new shoots, flower and

green young bud. Larva cause direct damage to plant there by reducing the ginning quality of

cotton and oil content of cotton seeds. Larva feeds on flower bud, flower and damage bolls. The

entry hole is plugged by excreta of larvae which are feeding inside the seed kernels. They cut

window holes (inter-locular burrowing) in the two adjoining seeds thereby forming "double

seeds". The infested buds and immature bolls drop off but older bolls do not fall. Infested older

bolls have more than one larva inside it.

Life cycle

Eggs 3-7 days larvae 8-40 days pupa 6-20 days adult

Management

1. Practice clean cultivation and destruction of crop residues (fallen leaves, twigs etc.) before

the onset of season.

2. Collection and destruction of infested cotton seeds.

3. Deep ploughing to expose the hibernating larvae / pupae.

4. Early sowing of cotton helps in early maturity facilitating escape from damage caused by

bollworm.

5. Sun drying of seeds to kill larvae inside the seeds.

6. Withholding irrigation to avoid prolonged late boll production/ formation to reduce the

buildup of over-wintering population.

7. Release natural egg parasitoids trichogramma @ one lakh fifty thousand per hac.

8. Acid delinting of cotton seeds.

9. Fumigation with Celphos to kill larvae inside seeds.

10. Spray Thioden 35% EC @ 1ml/liter water


2) Red cotton bug, Dysdercus koenigii; Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae

Red cotton bug is one of the serious pests of cotton. Adult red cotton bugs are true bugs with

piercing and sucking mouthparts. Their colors vary from bright red, yellow, and orange

depending on the species. They are about 1-1.5 cm long. Adults can tolerate a wide range of

climatic conditions and can disperse and fly up to 15 km.

Life cycle


(In soil or in fallen leaves) (5 moulting)

Damage: Red cotton bug feeds both on immature and mature seeds. Both nymph and adult cause

serious damage on crop by sucking cell sap from immature bolls. Their penetrations into the

developing cotton bolls transmit fungi on the immature lint and seed, which latter on stain the

lint with typical yellow color; hence they are also named as 'cotton stainers'. Infested bolls open

pre-maturely and decrease the quality and quantity of cotton. Heavy infestations on the seeds

affect the crop mass, oil content, and the marketability of the crop.

Management

1. Collect and destroy immature bugs in small scale.

2. Deep ploughing of field to expose the eggs and to destroy them.

3. Application of Neem based pesticides.

4. Spray Metasystox 25% EC@ 1 ml/liter water.

3) Cotton leaf roller, Syllepte derogate; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Adult is medium sized moth with faint yellow color wings. Larva is green with bristles on body.

Larva has dark head and prothoracic shield.

Life cycle


(Lower surface of the leaves) 7 stage (in rolled leaf)

Damage: Mostly larvae are most destructive in nature and feed on leaves after hatching. Young

larvae feed on lower surface of leaves while older larvae roll the leaves inward and feed from

inside. In severe infestation, plant is completely skeletonized due to excessive feeding of larvae.

Management

1. Practice clean cultivation; remove all the fallen and infected leaves from field.

2. Deep ploughing of field to expose and kill hidden larva inside the soil.

3. Spray Fenitrothion 50% EC @ 1ml/liter water.

4. Release natural egg parasitoids trichogramma @ one lakh fifty thousand per hac



Adults are greenish brown, soft bodied and small insects. Large number of aphid colony can be

seen under the leaf surface. Nymphs are yellowish or greenish brown in color and look similar to

adult.

Other (damage, management) same as in Pest of tomato.

5) Cotton Leafhopper, Amrasca biguttula biguttula; Homoptera: Cicadellidae

Nymph - Light green, translucent, wingless found between the veins of leaves on the

under surface of leaves.

Adult – Green in color and are wedge shaped leafhopper.

Damage: Adults and Nymphs suck cell sap from young and tender leaves, foliage and affected

parts become yellow. The margin of leaf starts curling downwards. In the case of severe

infestation infected leaves get bronze or brick red colour which is typical “hopper burn”

symptom. The margin of the leaves dries up, get broken, crumble into pieces when crushed and

the growth of the crop is retarded.

Life cycle and management same as in Pest of Tomato

6) Spotted bollworms, Earias vittella, E. insulana; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Adults are small buff coloured moth. Forewings are pea green and possess wedge shaped white

band running from base to out margin. Larva is brownish in color with white streaks dorsally and

pale yellow ventrally.

Life cycle

Eggs 2-9 days Larva 9-20 days Pupa 11- 28 days Adult

(Prefer to lay egg on (6 stage) (in plant or in fallen leaves)

hairy portion of plant)

Damage: Adult prefer to lay eggs on hairy portion of plant. After hatching larva enter into young

stem, flower bud and immature boll. Drying and drooping of terminal shoots can be observed

during pre –flowering stage. Shedding of squares and young bolls is common. There is

premature opening of boll and reduced ginning quality of cotton. In severe infestation, holes on

bolls and rotting of bolls are observed. Absence of seed inside cotton boll.

Management

1. Collect and destroy all the shed fruiting parts form field.

2. Removal of alternate host from field.

3. Don't extend the crop period.


4. Complete removal of plant and plant debris from field after crop harvest.


7) Cotton Semi-looper Moth, Anomis flava; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Cotton semi-looper is sporadic pest of cotton and sometimes causes serious damage to the crop.

The adult is reddish brown in color. Forewings are traversed by two dark bands which are

zigzag, while the hind wings are pale brown in color. The larva is semi-looper and 25-30 mm

long. Larva is pale yellowish green with five white longitudinal lines on the dorsal surface and

six pairs of black and yellow spots on the back.

Life cycle: Adult moth lays around 500 eggs singly on the upper surface of the leaf. Egg hatches

in 3-4 days, larval duration is 15-20 days and pupal period is of 8 -10 days. Pupation takes place

in plant debris or in the soil. The life cycle is completed within 28-42 days.

Damage: The young larvae after hatching congregate in groups and move actively. They feed on

the green parts of leaf lamina making small punctures. The grown up larvae feed voraciously

leaving only the midrib and veins. In severe condition they completely skeletonize the whole

plant. Larvae also feed on tender shoots, buds, bolls and make holes on them.

Management

1. Practice clean cultivation; remove all the fallen and infected leaves from field.

2. Deep ploughing of field to expose and kill hidden larva inside the soil.


4. Release natural egg parasitoids trichogramma @ one lakh fifty thousand per hac

Other pests of cotton are;

1) White fly, Bemisia tabaci

2) Cotton bollworm or American bollworm or Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera

3) Thrips, Thrips tabaci

4) Dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis

5) Mealy bugs, Phenacoccus sp., Ferrisa sp. and Maconellicoccus sp.

B) Pests of Sugarcane

Major pests of sugarcane

1) Sugarcane top borer, Scirpophaga nivella, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera

2) Sugarcane shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera

3) Sugercane Internode borer, Chilo sacchariphagus indicus, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera

4) Sugarcane leafhopper, Pyrilla perpusilla, Lophopidae, Homoptera

5) Sugarcane whitefly, Aleurolobus barodensis, Aleyrodidae, Homoptera


1) Sugarcane top borer, Scirpophaga nivella; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Top borer of sugarcane (Scirpophaga nivella) is one of the most destructive and major pests of

sugarcane that cause serious damage to this crop in sugarcane growing areas. Moths are silvery

white in colour having one black spot on each of the forewing. Larvae are -35 mm long, creamy

white or yellow and brown head, devoid of stripes, with atrophied legs.

Life cycle


(Under leaf surface) (5 stage) (Inside shoot)

Damage: The larvae of sugarcane top borer feed on the top portion of the sugarcane plants. This

pest has four to five numbers of generations in one year and all generations cause damage to

sugarcane plant. The first two generations or broods of this pest attacked sugarcane at early stage

of plants. At this stage special kind of reddish streaks and small holes are seen on the sugarcane

plants due to its attack. When cane development take place its attack become limited to the top

portion of the sugarcane plants. Due to larval feeding top portion of cane dries and cause heavy

economic loss. Infestation also causes a characteristic symptom known as bunchy top of

sugarcane plant. It is well recognized fact that sugarcane plant which is attacked by this pest is

lower in quality and quantity of juice. Newly hatched larvae enter into main vain of leaf and

reaches to shoot by boring in vein. When larvae reaches soft and young part of shoot it feeds on

them and top portion of cane dries up. There is formation of bunchy top due to development of

young shoots from near of dried portion.

Management

1. Control and lower down pest population by collecting and destroying egg cluster.

2. Remove dead hearts from field and destroy them.

3. Intercropping of sugercane with onion, methi, and ajwain reduces the infestation of the pest.

4. Use Tricogramma japonicum @ 50,000 per hectare, 4 to 6 times after 60 days of planting at

the interval of 10 days to biologically control the pest.

5. Use carbofuran 3 G @ 25 kg/ha or phorate 10 G @ 20 kg/ha followed by irrigation.

6. Spray endosulfan @ 2ml/lit water if chemical pesticides are needed.

2) Sugarcane shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus; Lepidopter: Pyralidae

Sugarcane shoot borer is another major pest of sugarcane and cause considerable economic

damage. Adult moth is straw colored with whitish hind wing. Larva is fleshy with five dark

violet stripes and dark brown head.

Hosts: sugarcane, maize, bajra

Life cycle


(Lower surface of leaf) (Bore from base of plant) (Cane)


Damage: Larva of sugarcane shoot borer is mainly destructive in nature and feeds on soft tissues

of stem. This results in drying and death of young plant. Bore holes are seen at the base just

above the ground level. Dead heart can be seen in 1-3 months old crop, which can be easily

pulled out. Rotten portion of the dead heart emits an offensive odour.

Management

1. Early planting during main season helps to escape the borer infestation.

2. Intercropping wiht Daincha minimizes shoot borer incidence.

3. Earthing up of sugercane plant 45 Days After Planting (DAP) reduces pest infestation.

4. Follow clean cultivation, remove dead hearts from field destroy them.

5. Spray Granulosis virus 106 – 107 twice on 35 and 50 days after planting (DAP)

6. Use Tachinid parasite Sturmiopsis inferens @ 125 gravid females from 30- 50 days of

planting helps to control pest biologically.

7. Soil application: Carbofuran 3G @ 33 kg/ ha or chlorpyriphos @ 12.5kg/ ha

8. Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC @1000 ml / ha or NSKE 5 % twice.

3) Sugercane Internode borer, Chilo sacchariphagus indicus; Lepidopter: Pyralidae

Sugarcane internode borer is pale brown moth with whitish hind wing. Larva cause considerable

damage by making hole at enternodal region. Infested plant has internodes constricted and

shortened with a number bore holes having frass in the nodal region. They feed on soft tissue of

stem and pupate in leaf sheath.

Life cycle


(Leaf sheath or in stem) (Bore into nodal region) (Leaf sheath)

Management

1. Follow clean cultivation and remove all the infested plant from field.

2. Collect and destroy the eggs periodically.

3. Avoid use of excessive nitrogen fertilizers

4. Release egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis @ 2.5 c.c / ha (6 releases from 4th month

onwards at 15 days interval).

5. Spray Endosulfan 35% EC @ 2ml/liter water.

4) Sugarcane leafhopper, Pyrilla perpusilla; Homopter: Lophopidae

Sugarcane leafhopper is small sized pest that cause considerable level damage to plant leading to

high economic loss. Adults are straw colored, head pointing forward as a snout. Nymphs are soft,

pale brown dorsally and pale orange ventrally with two characteristic anal filaments. Leafhopper

sucks the cell sap form lower leaf surface and secrets honey dew. The secretion of honey dew

favors development of sooty mold which hinders photosynthesis of plant. Sugar content of cane

decreases due to infestation. In severe condition, infested plant dries up and dies.


Life cycle

Eggs 7-10 days Nymph 1-5 month Adult

(Lower surface of the leaves)

Management

1. Apply balanced dose of fertilizer, avoid excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizer.

2. Set up light trap in field to attract and kill the hoppers.

3. Release lepidopteran parasitoid: Epiricrania melanoleuca @8000 -10,000 cocoon /ha (or) 8 -

10 lacs egg/ha.

4. Spray Malathion 50 % EC @ 2ml/lit water if use of chemical is required.

5) Sugarcane whitefly, Aleurolobus barodensis; Homoptera: Aleyrodidae

Adults of sugarcane whitefly are pale yellow colored small sized pest while nymph are neonate

pale yellow which latter on turn shiny black in color.

Life cycle

Egg 1 week nymph 3-4 week adult

(Underside of leaf)

Damage: Both nymph and adult are destructive and suck cell sap form lower surface of leaf.

Leaves become yellow and later on turn pinkish. There is decrease in sugar content of cane.

Infestation of whitefly is more on alkaline soil, undrained soil and nitrogen deficit soil.

Management

1. Mange proper drainage facility.

2. Do not plant sugarcane in deep surface.

3. Apply nitrogen 100 kg per hac.

4. Apply metasystox 25 % EC @ 1 ml / litre water

Other pests of sugarcane are;

1) Sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari, M.indosacchari

2) Termite, Odontotermes obesus

3) Pink mealy bug: Sacchricoccus sacchari

4) Scale insect, Melanaspis glomerata

5) Black bug, Cavalerius excavates

6) Sugarcane grasshopper

7) White grub

8) Pink borer


Pests of Jute

Major pest of Jute

1) Jute hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia oblique: Lepidoptera: Arctidae

2) Jute stem weevil, Apion corchori; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

3) Jute Semilooper,Anomis sabulifera; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

4) Jute mealy bug, Phenacoccus hirsutus; Hemiptera: Coccidae

1) Jute hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia oblique; Lepidoptera: Arctidae

Host: Jute, Groundnut, Fingermillet, Mustard

Jute hairy caterpillar is major and serious pest of jute. Adult is medium sized pest and brown in

color with black spots of wings. Larva is hairy and about 27mm in length.

Damage: Larva is destructive and cause direct damage to jute plant. Only the caterpillars are

harmful to the jute crop. After hatching, the young larvae feed gregariously on chlrorophyllus

tissues from lower surface of same leaf giving a peculiar membranous appearance to leaf. Then

they attack another leaf. They scrape the green part of leaves. In severe condition, only leave the

midribs and cross veins and completely skeletonized the jute plant.

Life cycle

Eggs 1 week Larva 2-3 week Pupa 6-10 days Adult

Egg laying occurs on underside of leaf and after hatching larvae feed by scraping leaf surface.

Pupation takes place in soil and fallen leaves.

Management

1. Collection and destruction of egg mass and larva of jute hairy caterpillar.

2. Making trench with irrigated water around the jute field to prevent entry of caterpillar.

3. Deep ploughing of field after crop harvest.

4. Crop rotation for at least 3-4 year.

5. Release natural egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis @ 50,000 – 100,000 parasitized eggs

per hac.

6. Spray Thioden 35% EC @ 1ml/liter water if use of chemical pesticide is required.

2) Jute stem weevil, Apion corchori; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Jute stem weevil is the most harmful pest of jute and cause appreciable damage to early sown

crop. Adult weevil is small and black colored pest while grub is light yellow in color with brown

head.

Damage: Adult weevil feeds on tender leaves making pinholes. Top shoot dries up and as a

result lateral shoots develop which reduces the length of fiber. Grub damages the fiber bundles.

As a result of injury, mucilaginous and gummy substances produced in the stem, causes knot on

the fiber. This results fiber having knot called 'knotty fiber'.


Life cycle

Eggs 1 week Grub 8- 18 days Pupa 4-5 days Adult

Management: Same as Jute hairy caterpillar

3) Jute Semilooper, Anomis sabulifera; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Jute semi-looper is another important pest of jute. The adult moth is medium sized dull brown

colored moth. Larva is about 30mm in length and brown in color. eggs are laid on underside of

leaf.

Damage: Late-sown crop suffers the maximum damage due to delayed monsoon. Larvae just

after hatching feed on the epidermal and mesophyll tissue of the lower surface of young leaf,

keeping upper epidermal membrane intact. There is complete defoliation of leaves in severe

condition of pest infestation. Top 7 - 9 leaves are damage and plant growth is severely affected.

Life cycle

Eggs 2-3 days Larva 2-3 week Pupa 6-9 days Adult

Management: Same as Jute hairy caterpillar

4) Jute mealy bug, Phenacoccus hirsutus; Hemiptera: Coccidae

Jute mealy bug (both nymph and adult) feed on the apical part of plant. They suck the cell sap

from plant, secret honey dew and white mealy powder which hamper the physiology of plant.

Infested plant becomes stunted and show bushy top symptoms. There is deterioration of fiber

quality and reduction of yield.

Management

1. Collection and complete destruction of infested plant.

2. Dig or scrap the soil 6 inches deep around the tree trunk for destroying eggs.

3. Spray Verticilium lacani @ 2g/lit water.

4. Making small furrow around infested plant and application of phorate 10%G @10-15gm for

small plant and 50-100gm for large plant.

5. Spray dursban 20%EC @ 2.5ml/liter water with Nuvan 76%EC @ 0.75 ml/liter water after

pruning of infested parts of plant.


Pests of Tea

Major Insect Pests

1) Tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora

2) Tea Mites

a) Red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae

b) Scarlet mite, Brevipalpus californicus

c) Purple mite, Calacarus carinatus

d) Pink mite or Orange mite, Acaphyla theae

e) Yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus

3) Thrips, Scirtothrips bispinosus

1) Tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora; Hemiptera: Miridae

Tea mosquito is serious pest of tea and infestation is more in most shaded area. H. theivora adult

is slender bug. It is 6-8 mm in body length. It is a good flier. The female bug appears orange

colored and the male is almost black. They are seen concealed on the underside of the leaves

throughout the day. Eggs are laid in the buds and axis on the leaves or often in the broken ends

of the plucked shoots. A fresh emerged nymph is wingless and looks like a spider.

Symptoms of damage

Bugs are sap sucking insect pest. Both adults and nymphs suck the sap from buds, young

leaves and tender stems of plant.

They puncture the plant tissues with their needle like rostrum to inject toxic saliva.

Reddish brown spots appear at the site of infestation.

Infested Leaves curl up, badly deformed and shoots dry up.

2) Tea Mites

a) Red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae

b) Scarlet mite, Brevipalpus californicus

c) Purple mite, Calacarus carinatus

d) Pink mite or Orange mite, Acaphyla theae

e) Yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus

a) Red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae; Acarina: Tetranychidae

Host: Tea, coffee, jute, cotton, cucurbits, citrus, egg plants

O. coffeae adult is a tiny and fast crawling organism which is not easily observable with naked

eyes. It is about 0.53 mm in body length. It has 8 legs. It is bright red in color. It has 2 spots on

the body. It is rather flat, elongate and oval. The eggs are stuck firmly on leaves or in the

crevices in young bark. The nymphs are flat bodied, oval in outline and yellow in color. These

are 0.33 mm in body length.

Symptoms of damage

Red spider mites mostly infest the upper surface of mature leaves.

Infestation starts along midrib and veins and spreads to the entire upper surface of leaves.


Affected leaves bronzed, becomes dry and crumpled.

b) Scarlet mite, Brevipalpus californicus; Acarina: Tennipalpidae

Hosts: Tea, coffee, citrus

B. phoenicis adult is a tiny and fast crawling organism which is not easily observable with naked

eyes. It measures about 0.3 mm in body length. It is deep orange to purple in color with 8 legs.

The adult is rather flat, elongate and oval. Eggs are bright red and oval which is stick firmly to

the ventral surface of leaves or in the cervices in young bark. The nymphs are flat bodied, oval

in outline and scarlet in color

Symptoms of damage:

All active stage of mite feeds on leaf sap by scrapping epidermis and thus prevents the flow

of nutrients into the leaf lamina.

Mites congregate on the under surface of mature tea leaves

Feeding by scarlet mites leads to brown discoloration of leaves.

The bark and leaf petioles of the affected shoots turn brown and dry up.

c) Purple mite, Calacarus carinatus; Acarina: Eriophyidae

C. carinatus is an important pest of tea. The adult is a tiny and fast crawling organism which is

not easily observable with naked eyes. It is dark purple in color with white stripes. It has 8 legs.

It is rather flat, elongate and oval.

Symptoms of damage

Mites feed on the upper surface of mature leaves by scrapping epidermis causing cupric

discoloration, particularly at the margin of upper surface

Assam type of tea - more susceptible to purple mite.

White powdery substances appear on the infested leaves which are the cast off skins of

purple mites.

Management of mite

1. Grow healthy crops with appropriate manuring, irrigation and pruning to plants which can

tolerate mite infestation to some extent.

2. Cut and burn the severely infested plant parts and tea bush after harvesting of tea.

3. Give sprinkler irrigation on plants to dislodge the webs made by mites.

4. Spray neem based pesticides such as altineem(3000 ppm) (azadirachitin) @ 3ml / litre water.

5. Spray neem seed powder extract 4 % at 10 days interval. When the pest incidence is low. As

and when the pest incidence increase, spray with sunthetic acaricides like Dicofol 18.5 % EC

@ 2.5 ml/litre water and repeat the spray after 10 days, if required.

6. Spray mineral oil (SERVO) @ 10 -15 ml per litre water as a foliar spray and repeat spray

after 7 days for three times.


7. Spray Biomite or Ramban @ 0.66 ml / litre water as a foliar spray and repeat spray after 7

days for three times.

3) Thrips, Scirtothrips bispinosus, Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Symptoms of damage

Thrips prefer young leaves and buds.

Leaf surface becomes uneven, curled and matty.

Feeding marks on the unopened buds - parallel brown lines on the leaves.

Management

Spray Dimethoate 30% EC (or) Chlorpyriphos 20% EC @ 2 ml/lit water.

Minor Insect Pests

1. Aphid, Toxoptera aurantii

2. White grub, Holotrichia serreta

3. Webber, Zeuzera coffee

4. Shot hole borer, Envallacea fornicatus

Pest of coffee Major Insect Pests

1) White stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes; Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

2) Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei

1) White stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes; Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Host: Coffee

White stem borer of coffee is an important insect pest. Three species of coffee stem borer i.e.

Xylotrechus quadripes, X. semei, and X. annulutus have been reported in Nepal. Among them

white stem borer is an economically important pest of coffee. White stem borer adults are

slender, long beetle measuring about 2.5 cm. Forewings are black in color with white bands.

Males are generally smaller than females. Head shows distinctly raised black Ridges and the

Hind Leg Femur extends beyond the apex of the Elytra while these characters are missing in

females.

Damage: Damage to coffee plant is caused by grub. After hatching grub enter into the hardwood

and make tunnels. Tunneling may extend even into the roots. Tunnels are tightly filed with the

excreta of the grubs. The infested branches wilt and break easily. Infested plants show visible

ridges around the stem. Yellowing and wilting of leaves can be seen. Young plants (mostly 7 to 8

years old) attacked by the borer may die in a year.


Management

1. Maintain optimum shade on the estates.

2. Collect and destroy beetles mechanically especially during egg-laying period.

3. Field release of predators Apenesia sps for biologically effective control of white stem borer.

4. Collars prune the infested plants.

5. Uproot and burn the affected parts, maintain clean sanitation.

6. Remove the loose scaly bark of the main stem using coir glove or coconut husk to kill the

eggs.

7. Scrubbing during flight periods to kills the eggs and grubs present in the bark region. Deep

scrubbing should be avoided (sharp implement may injure the green wood and eventually kill

the plant).

8. Spraying the main stem and thick primaries with neem kernel extract may afford good

control of the pest.

2) Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei

Symptom of Damage

Pin hole at the tip of the berries (novel region)

In severe infestation two or more holes may be seen.

Female beetle bores into the berries through the navel region make tunneling and feed inside

content.

Powdery substance comes out through the holes

Management

1. Proper adoption of cultural practices and phytosanitary measures for effective management

of coffee berry borer.

2. Transportation of infested coffee to uninfected areas is the main reason for spread.

3. Crop bags should be fumigated before delivery to estates to avoid cross infestation.

4. Timely harvest of berries helps to reduce infestation.

5. Reduce gleaning - spreading gunny bags or polythene sheets on the ground after picking the

berries minimize gleaning.

6. Maintain optimum shade and good drainage in the estate.

7. Dipping infested berries in boiling water for 2-3 minutes kills all the stages of pest inside.

8. Drying of coffee beans – prevents breeding of beetles in stored coffee based on moisture

content level.

Arabica (10% moisture content) - 16kg/lit

Roubsta (11% moisture content) - 18kg/lit

9. Install attractant trap to collect and kill the beetles

Minor Insects Pests

1. Shot hole borer, Xylosandrus compactus

2. Mealy bugs, Planococcus spp.


3. Green scale, Coccus viridis (Green)

4. Brown scale, Saissetia coffeae

5. Coffee bean beetle, Araecerus fasciculatus

Insect pests of Cardamom

1) Leaf eating caterpillar, Clelea plumbeola; Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae

Host: Cardamom

The leaf eating caterpillar is the most destructive insect pest of large cardamom. It is commonly

found in cardamom plantation of Nepal.

Nature of damage

The larvae feeds on green matter of the leaves voraciously and defoliate the cardamom plants

causing extensive damage to the cardamom plants ultimately reducing the yield significantly.

Only the midrib remains uneaten.

Management

1. Hand picking and mechanical destruction of caterpillar in early stage of attack.

2. In case of severe infestation, spray Thiodane 35%EC (Endosulfan) @2ml\litre water or

Carbaryl 50%WP @4g\litre water.

2. Banana Aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa; Homoptera: Aphididae

Hosts: Banana, cardamom, taro, ginger

(Refer pest of Banana)


Insect pest of stored Grains

Common Name Scientific Name Family

1. Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae Curculionidae

2. Maize weevil S. zeamais ”

3. Granary weevil S. granarium ”

4. Rice moth Corcyra cephalonica Gelechidae

5. Angouimous grain

moth

Sitotroga cerealella ”

6. Khapra beetle Trogoderma granarium Dermestidae

7. Brachids/ pulse

beetle

Callosobruchus chinensis Bruchidae

8. Cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus ”

9. Rust-Red flour

beetle

Tribolium castaneum Tenebrionidae

10. Confused flour

beetle

T. confusum ”

11. Lesser grain borer Rhizopertha dominica Bastrichidae

1) Grain weevils

Grain weevils are very important and serious pest of stored grains. Some grain weevils are;

Rice weevils, Sitophilus oryzae; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Maize weevils, S. zeamais; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Granary weevils, S. granaries; Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Sitophilus oryzae is an elongated dark brown weevil having four reddish brown patches on its

elytra. It has circular puncture on its prothorax. S. granarium has oval shaped punctures on its

prothorax. S. zeamais is small brown weevil darker than rice weevil.

Damage: Eggs are laid anywhere on grains. Immediately after hatching, grub feeds by

burrowing the grain. Developing grub live inside the grain and feeds by hollowing the grain.

Both grub and adult cause serious damage on grain by feeding and contaminating grain lot. The

level of damage on grains caused by these weevils depends on grain moisture content,

temperature and duration of storage.

Life cycle

Adults live 2-3 months.

Larvae generally not seen – they feed and develop inside single grains.

Life cycle completed in four weeks at 30°C, 15 weeks at 18°C, breeding stops below 15°C.



Management

1. Maintain storage hygiene, store grain in airy shady and dry room.

2. Reduce grain moisture content i.e. <12%.

3. Harvest completely matured grains.

4. Ensure timely harvesting followed by sun drying before storage.

5. Admix Neem seed powder @10gm / kg of grains thoroughly with grains before storage.

6. Apply chemical fumigants such as Aluminium Phosphide (trade name Phosphos) in between

the piles of grain sac under air tight room @ 20 tablets / 30 m3 .

7. Disinfect the store room and container by 0.005% solution of Malathion 50% EC.

8. Use moisture, rodent and insect proof bins made from galvanized iron sheets.

2) Angoumois Grain Moth, Sitotroga cerealella; Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

A pest of whole cereal grains which only infests surface layers of bulk-stored grains. Infestation

of standing maize crops before harvest is quite common, occasionally in other cereal crops.

Key features

Silvery grey to grey brown wings which taper to a point.

Wings have a long fringe of fine hairs along the posterior edge.

Adults (5 – 7mm long) are unable to penetrate grain, therefore only infest surface layers of

bulk grain.

This pest does not create webbing.

Life cycle

Adult moths do not feed but lay 150 – 300 eggs on or near the grain surface.

Life cycle takes around 5 – 7 weeks in warm conditions.


Damage: Larva of Angoumois moth causes damage by feeding on and hollowing the grains.

Larval development takes inside the grain. Hole on grain gets partly filled with pellets of excreta.

Infested grains give out an unpleasant smell and dirty appearance. Larvae burrow into a single

grain and feed and develop until the adult moth emerges in 10 – 14 days through a visible hole.

Take regular monthly samples and look for moths near grain surface. When adults emerge, pupal

cases are often found protruding from grain.

Management 9. Maintain storage hygiene, store grain in airy shady and dry room.

10. Reduce grain moisture content i.e. <12%.

11. Harvest completely matured grains.

12. Ensure timely harvesting followed by sun drying before storage.

13. Admix Neem seed powder @10gm / kg of grains thoroughly with grains before storage.


14. Apply chemical fumigants such as Aluminium Phosphide (trade name Phosphos) in between

the piles of grain sac under air tight room @ 20 tablets / 30 m3 .

15. Disinfect the store room and container by 0.005% solution of Malathion 50% EC.

16. Use moisture, rodent and insect proof bins made from galvanized iron sheets.

3) Bruchids: Cowpea weevils or Pulse Beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis;

Coleoptera: Bruchidae

Callosobruchus spp are pests of most pulse crops, including mungbeans, cowpeas, field peas,

chickpeas, soybeans and lentils.

Key features

Adults (up to 4mm long), emerge through perfectly round holes in the seed.

Globular, tear-shaped body is reddish brown with black and grey markings.

Wing covers (elytra) do not fully cover the abdomen.

Adults have long antennae, climb vertical surfaces (glass jar) and are strong flyers.

Life cycle: Adults do not feed, but lay 100 white eggs clearly visible on the outside of seed.

Adult lifespan is 10 –12 days. Unlike most storage pests, adults may also lay eggs on mature

seed pods in a standing crop.


Damage: Larvae feed and develop within individual seeds and emerge as adults leaving a neat

round hole. The appearance of eggs cemented to the surface of the pulses is the early stage

symptom of pulse infestation by bruchids.

Management

1. Cultural control can be effective, growing vulnerable crops atleast half a mile (pulse crop)

away from farm stores.

2. Admix sweet flag powder @ 5 gm /kg of grain before storage.

3. Use of chemical fumigants such as aluminium phosphide in between piles of grain sacs under

partial air tight room.

4. Surface treatment; disinfect the store room and container by 0.05% solution of malathion

50%EC.

5. Use domestic metals beans which have moisture, rodents and insect proofs.

4) Rust-Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium castaneum; Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae

Commonly found in stored cereal grain, processed grain products, oilseeds, nuts and dried fruit.

Key features

Adult beetles (3 – 4.5mm long) bright reddish-brown in colour when young and a darker

brown when older.


Three larger segments on end of antennae.

Similar species: Tribolium confusum – confused flour beetle, more common in cool,

temperate regions.

Life cycle

Life cycle completed in 4 weeks at 30°C, 11 weeks at 22°C and reproduction stops below

20°C.

Adults live from 200 days to 2 years and fly in warm conditions.

Up to 1000 eggs per female loosely scattered throughout the commodity.

Eggs 7- 12 days Larva 21-90 days Pupa 5-6 days Adult

Damage: Cream coloured larvae feed externally on damaged grain. Beetles infest whole grain,

but breed more successfully on processed products (i.e. flour). Beetles move quickly and are

strong flyers. Infested flour turns grayish, moldy and possess pungent disagreeable odour making

it unfit for human consumption. Prefered habitat for flour beetle is around storage areas with

poor hygiene, broken grain, gradings or bulk cottonseed.

Management (same as Grain weevil)

5) Lesser Grain Borer, Rhyzopertha dominica; Coleoptera: Bostrichidae

A serious pest of most stored grains: The Lesser Grain Borer has developed resistance to a

number of grain insecticides.

Key features

Dark brown cylindrical shaped beetle (up to 3mm long) with club-like antennae.

Viewed from the side the beetle‟s mouth parts and eyes are tucked underneath the thorax

(chest)

Adult beetles are strong flyers.

Life cycle

Life cycle completed in four weeks at 35°C and seven weeks at 22°C. Breeding stops below

18°C.

Females lay between 200 – 400 eggs on grain surface. Young larvae (white with brown

heads) initially feed outside then bore into the grain.

Adults live for 2 – 3 months.


Damage: Lesser grain borer is serious pest of every stored grain. Their habit is to remain hidden

in grain. Both adult and grub causes damage of stored grains. Larvae feed from inside of grain

and hollow them while adult consume grains from outer side of grain. Larvae eat the flour and

adult bore the grain and chew up.



6) Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium; Coleoptera: Dermestidae

Attacks most stored grains.

Larvae are covered in fine hairs.

Looks identical to the warehouse beetle to the naked eye.

Causes grain loss in storage.

Larvae skins contaminate grain and cause allergies on consumption.

Life cycle



Minor Insect Pests

1. Warehouse Moths larva (Ephestia cautella)

2. Indian Meal Moth larvae (Plodia interpunctella)

3. Pea Weevil (Bruchus pisorum)

4. Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis)

5. Flat Grain Beetle (Cryptolestes spp)

6. Confused flour Beetle (Tribolium confusum)


Vertebrate pests: Rats and Mice

Worldwide, rats and mice are the most notorious pest of all the vertebrate pests that plague

humankind. Among them, the House Rat, (Rattus rattus, Muridae, Rodentia) and the House

Mouse, (Mus musculus, Muridae, Rodentia) are the most common. Field rat (Bandicota

bengalensis) and Field mouse (Mus booduga) are also commonly occurring destructive rodents.

In Nepal, 30 species of rodents are identified and only 5 different species are economically

important that causes huge loss.

1. House Rat, Rattus rattus

2. House Mouse, Mus musculus

3. Brown Rat, Rattus norvegicus

4. Lesser Bandicaot Rat, Bandicota bengalensis

5. Large Bandicaot rat, B. indica

The House Rat, (Rattus rattus), is 13-18 inches in length. Color range from gray to brown to

almost black. The tail is LONGER than combined head and body length and the belly is often

white. The common House Mouse is another destructive rodent, second to the rats as a

destructive pest. House mice can be distinguished from young rats by their proportionally

smaller heads and feet.

Rats and mice are mostly nocturnal in their habits so damage and infestation caused by them

often goes undetected until the rodents become very numerous. By knowing what signs to look

for, a rodent problem can usually be caught before it gets out of hand.

Rats and mice tend to move over regular routes and usually produce defined runways. These

show up particularly well in dusty areas, especially if flour or other tracking powder is sprinkled

around likely spots. Outdoors, rats will leave trails through vegetation and dig or gnaw holes

around buildings and foundations. Finally, fresh rat and mouse droppings which are moist and

soft are a very reliable sign of infestation.

General characteristics of rats and mice

1. Rats and mice have poor vision but they are efficient in smell, taste, touch and hear. They are

nocturnal in habit.

2. They can chew and gnaw almost anything.

3. They are very good jumpers and climbers. They can crawl on wires and climb on the tree and

wall, and go almost anywhere.

4. They are good swimmers and do not afraid with water.

5. They like quite dirty and dark places. They can build their nest with any material like paper,

straw, feathers etc.

6. They are prolific in nature. One pair of rats or mice gives birth up to 2000 offspring in a year.

Economic importance of rodents in world

20 million tons of cereals loss in pre-harvest, whereas 33 million tons of cereal loss per

year in world.


30 % of coconut crop loss by Rodents have been reported in Comorus, South Africa

In Colombia, rodents cause 77 % of coconut plantation crop loss.

43 % of cocoa production reduction in equatorial region in Guinea.

50 % of total cotton yield reduction in Egypt.

3/4th

of total Barley yield reduction in Kenya.

125 million metric ton loss of cereal grain by rodents annually in India.

Cereal grains loss equivalent to 19 million dollars in pre harvest and 7 million dollars in

post-harvest in Nepal per year.

Sign of infestation of Rats

Appearance of loose heap of soil.

Musky odour in infested place.

There is a runway of rat.

5 toed footprints of hind limbs and 4 toed foot print of forelimbs are seen if rats move in

moist sand or dusty floor.

Signs of dragging tails are also observed when mouse runs in moist sand or dusty floor.

Management of Rodents

1. Preventive measure

2. Curative measure

1. Preventive measures

1. Keeping the harvested product in closed container or durable storage structure like metal bin

or concrete bin.

2. Plugging the hole around the farm and household

3. Sanitation is important, removing of leaves and piling traces

4. Avoiding the unnecessary food product around the storage structure

5. Cutting the branches which touches roofs or window of house

6. Standing jump of the mouse is – 1 meter and running jump is 90 cm so keep the storage

product above the 1 meter creating the rat baffles (barrier) in the legs that support the storage

bin

2. Curative measures

1. Use of traps: Pot trap, Steel trap, Snap trap, Case trap

2. Use of the sticky or greasy substances in the way of the rat

3. Use of the chemical poison

Acute poison : zinc phosphide (Rat kill)

Chronic poison: Warfarin, Caumarin


4. Preparation of bait: They like ghee, egg, flour, pieces of pumpkin, meat, fish, sugar beet,

cooked potato, butter etc.

5. Rearing of cat.

Slugs and Snail

They are Molluscans, body is soft which is covered by mucous substances. Problem is high in

moist area where high density is practiced. They are nocturnal habit. Active up to 12 am

(midnight) then after they return to nest. They hide inside the crack, below the soil and leaf.

Snails have a sharp tooth which is called radula; with the help of this stones are easily grinded.

The silica contains in the stone which is used for the formation of shell. A snail at a time in a day

can lay 20-50 eggs whereas slugs can lay 1000 egg. The egg mass of these both are covered by

mucilaginous substances. Hatching takes place within 2-3 weeks.

Snail, Lissachatina fulica; Pulmonata: Achatinidae

Host: Cauliflower, potato, cabbage, pumpkin, cucumber, bottle gourd, radish, tomato

Damage

Snail is a serious pest of vegetable in kitchen garden. Adult and young snail feed crop at night.

The problem is high where there is high humidity and rainfall. They feed on leaves by scrapping,

making big hole and also cut tender growing shoot.

Slug, Limax spp; Pulmonata: Limacidae

Slugs are serious pest of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants. Slugs can climb up the plant

and feed on foliage and fruits; their feeding, and the slime trails they leave behind, can reduce

fruit quality. The slugs feed at the night and destroy young shoots of various plants. They also

contaminate harvested fruit. When their population high, they severely damage the crop.

Management practice of snails and slugs

1. Avoiding high density planting and allowing air circulation in plant canopy

2. Canal irrigation should be discourage and drip irrigation should be done

3. Field sanitation

4. They don‟t like acid, alkali and abrasive material in the way of their. Acid and alkali are

responsible for dehydration of their body whereas the abrasive material slows down their

5. CuSO4, Ferric phosphate which are available in the market with trade name like Slug magic

and Metaldehyde which cause dehydration of their body

6. Optimum use of salt (NaCl)


7. Basically they are attractive in fermented product so keeping the fermented product in the

corner of the field attract the snails and slugs then they can be collected and killed.

Vector of plant and human disease

Insect vector and their management

A vector is an organism capable of transmitting pathogens from one host to another. Insect

directly damaging the crop sometimes responsible for spread of pathogen in plant. Although

insect which acquire disease plant or by contact and transmit them to healthy plants are known as

insect- vectors of plant disease. Homoptera alone are known to transmission of about 90% of

plant disease.

The silent features of Homopteran insect pest which make them effective vector are:

1. As the population density which is critical level wing migratory individual are produced.

2. In many species wing female deposit a few progeny on each of the host plant.

3. They make brief but frequent probe with their mouth part in their host plant.

Homopteran insect (major)

1. Aphid

Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) transmit cowpea mosaic and papaya mosaic

Aphis gossypii transmit alfa-alfa mosaic and cucumber mosaic

Banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) transmits banana bunchy top virus and virus

causing chirkey furkey disease in cardamom.

Brown citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricida) transmit citrus tristezea virus.

2. Hoppers

Green leaf hopper (Nephotettix nigropictus) transmits plant viruses e.g. yellow dwarf and

transitory yellowing.

Nephotettix virescens is the vector of virus disease llike tungro, yellow dwarf, yellow

orange leaf and leaf yellowing.

BPH (Nilaparvata lugens) transmits grassy stunt, ragged stunt and wilted stunt viral

disease to rice plants.

Tree hopper transmits pseudo curly top disease in solanaceous crop.

3. Mealy bug

Transmits Cocoa / sugarbeet swollen shoot virus and Cocoa/ sugarbeet mottle leaf virus.

4. White fly

It transmits Yellow mosaic virus and leaf curl virus in tomato, potato, tobacco, and

vegetables.

5. Thrips

Transmit Tomato spotted wilt virus


6. Citrus psylla (Diaphorina citri)

Transmits citrus greening virus and cause dieback.

Insect Vectors of Human Diseases

1. Assassin bug (kissing bug)

Vector of protozoa

Chagas disease

2. Human lice

Transmit virus

Cause relapsing fever and trench fever

3. Black fly

Transmit parasitic roundworm

Cause Onchoceriasis

4. Sand fly

Transmit virus cause Pappataci fever

Transmit Protozoa cause Leisumeniasis

5. Housefly

Transmit bacteria cause Anthrax

Transmit Roundworm cause Loaisis

Cause Typhoid, Cholera, Dysentry

6. Mosquitoes

Transmit Roundworm cause Fiariasis

Transmit Protozoa cause Malaria

Transmit Virus cause Dengue, Encephalitis

7. Rat flea

Transmit bacteria cause Plague

8. Tse – tse fly

Transmit protozoa cause African sleeping sickness

Non insect pest

1. Common birds

a. House sparrow (Passur domesticus)

Consume or damages millets and rice near harvest.

b. Parrot(Psittacula cyanocephala)

Heavily damage maize crop

c. House crow (Corrus splendents)

Damage the near ripened citrus

d. Jungle crow (Corrus macrorhincus)


Damage the crop near the jungle e.g. rice maize

e. Kokale (Dentroctictus formosae)

Damage and consume maize

f. Jurelo (Picnonotus jucosus)

Damage the leaf and curd of cauliflower and cabbage

2, Monkey

Two type of common monkey are

a. common monkey (Macaca mullata)

b. Long tail monkey (Semnopethecus entellus)

Common monkey basically lives around the human settlement and damage maize and

fruit. They prefer to live in groups.

Long tail monkey damage the cultivated crops around the jungle. They prefer solitary

habit and sometime in a group of two.

3. Jackal (Canis aurous)

Major pest of potato and sugarcane

Wants to live around human settlement.

4. Porcupine (Hydrix hodsonii)

Damage harvesting stage of potato, sugarbeet and immature maize.

Nocturnal and lives in tunnel

Management of birds

Produce huge sound through firing bullet.

Make crow scare.

Hanging of killed bird in crop field.

Management of monkey

Creating huge sound

Colouring of monkey with tiger coat color

Planting the barrier around the crop field.

Rearing of dogs

Management of jackel

Aluminium phosphide treated meat can be feed

Management of porcupine

Construction of tunnel/trench around the path of movement in infected area.


Host plant resistance (HPR)

Heritable characters possessed by the plant to avoid, tolerate and or withstand pest infestation

without subsequent loss in yield compared to susceptible host at the same initial level of

infestation under similar environment condition.

Major characteristic by which resistant can be measure;

1. Resistant is heritable and control by one or major gene.

2. Resistant is relative and can be measure only with comparing with susceptible variety of

same species.

3. Resistant is measurable and magnitude can be determine quantitatively by insect

establishment and qualitatively by analysis of standard scoring system.

4. Resistant is variable and can be modified by abiotic and biotic component of environment.

Degree of resistance / Intensity of resistance

1. Immunity: A variety that cannot be injured or infested at all by a specific insect pest

under any unknown condition. Therefore anything less than immunity is resistance.

2. High resistance: Varieties which suffer less damage by specific insect under given set

of environment. E.g. wild plant genotype possesses high resistance.

3. Low resistance: Some variety show less damage than the average damage.

4. Susceptible: Variety which show average or more than average damage by insect. E.g.

cross breed or hybrid.

5. Highly susceptible: A variety show much more damage than the average.

Mechanism of resistance:

1. Non – preference:

It is also called antixenosis.

Due to presence of chemical substances

Due to morphological character.

Due to presence of allochemical

Due to absence of chemical attractant or stimulus.

2. Antibiosis:

Due to presence of toxic substances.

Due to nutrient imbalance.

Presence of metabolites enzyme.

Smaller amount of Asparagine.

Some variety of rice resistant to BPH.


3. Tolerance:

It is the inherent ability of the plant to withstand and support normally destructive

population of insect pest without subsequent loss in yield.

Tolerance of BPH – Triveni variety

Tolerance may be due to presence of color, hairiness, palatability, waxiness,

morphology, etc.

Note: Refer 5th

semester‟s note by Resham Bahadur Thapa for detail of HPR.

Good Luck

complete lecture note on, economic entomology · 2020. 7. 19. · green leaf hopper (glh) and brown...

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