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Expert overviews covering the science and technology of rubber and plastics

ISSN: 0889-3144

Volume 16, Number 5, 2005

Debdatta Ratna

Epoxy Composites: Impact Resistance and Flame Retardancy

Report 185

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Item 1Macromolecules33, No.6, 21st March 2000, p.2171-83EFFECT OF THERMAL HISTORY ON THE RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANESPil Joong Yoon; Chang Dae HanAkron,University

The effect of thermal history on the rheological behaviour of ester- and ether-based commercial thermoplastic PUs (Estane 5701, 5707 and 5714 from B.F.Goodrich) was investigated. It was found that the injection moulding temp. used for specimen preparation had a marked effect on the variations of dynamic storage and loss moduli of specimens with time observed during isothermal annealing. Analysis of FTIR spectra indicated that variations in hydrogen bonding with time during isothermal annealing very much resembled variations of dynamic storage modulus with time during isothermal annealing. Isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiments indicated that the thermoplastic PUs exhibited a hysteresis effect in the heating and cooling processes. It was concluded that the microphase separation transition or order-disorder transition in thermoplastic PUs could not be determined from the isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiment. The plots of log dynamic storage modulus versus log loss modulus varied with temp. over the entire range of temps. (110-190C) investigated. 57 refs.GOODRICH B.F.USA

Accession no.771897

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Previous Titles Still AvailableVolume 1Report 1 Conductive Polymers, W.J. FeastReport 2 Medical, Surgical and Pharmaceutical Applications of

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Report 38 Epoxy Resins, K.A. Hodd

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Report 41 Failure of Plastics, S. Turner, Queen Mary College.

Report 42 Polycarbonates, R. Pakull, U. Grigo, D. Freitag, Bayer AG.

Report 43 Polymeric Materials from Renewable Resources, J.M. Methven, UMIST.

Report 44 Flammability and Flame Retardants in Plastics, J. Green, FMC Corp.

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Report 46 Quality Today in Polymer Processing, S.H. Coulson, J.A. Cousans, Exxon Chemical International Marketing.

Report 47 Chemical Analysis of Polymers, G. Lawson, Leicester Polytechnic.

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Report 51 Biomedical Applications of Polymers, C.G. Gebelein, Youngstown State University / Florida Atlantic University.

Report 52 Polymer Supported Chemical Reactions, P. Hodge, University of Manchester.

Report 53 Weathering of Polymers, S.M. Halliwell, Building Research Establishment.

Report 54 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, A.R. Nutt, Arnold Nutt & Co. and J. Wade.

Report 55 Computer Modelling of Polymer Processing, E. Andreassen, Å. Larsen and E.L. Hinrichsen, Senter for Industriforskning, Norway.

Report 56 Plastics in High Temperature Applications, J. Maxwell, Consultant.

Report 57 Joining of Plastics, K.W. Allen, City University.

Report 58 Physical Testing of Rubber, R.P. Brown, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 59 Polyimides - Materials, Processing and Applications, A.J. Kirby, Du Pont (U.K.) Ltd.

Report 60 Physical Testing of Thermoplastics, S.W. Hawley, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 6Report 61 Food Contact Polymeric Materials, J.A. Sidwell,

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Report 62 Coextrusion, D. Djordjevic, Klöckner ER-WE-PA GmbH.

Report 63 Conductive Polymers II, R.H. Friend, University of Cambridge, Cavendish Laboratory.

Report 64 Designing with Plastics, P.R. Lewis, The Open University.

Report 65 Decorating and Coating of Plastics, P.J. Robinson, International Automotive Design.

Report 66 Reinforced Thermoplastics - Composition, Processing and Applications, P.G. Kelleher, New Jersey Polymer Extension Center at Stevens Institute of Technology.

Report 67 Plastics in Thermal and Acoustic Building Insulation, V.L. Kefford, MRM Engineering Consultancy.

Report 68 Cure Assessment by Physical and Chemical Techniques, B.G. Willoughby, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 69 Toxicity of Plastics and Rubber in Fire, P.J. Fardell, Building Research Establishment, Fire Research Station.

Report 70 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Polymers, M.E. Adams, D.J. Buckley, R.E. Colborn, W.P. England and D.N. Schissel, General Electric Corporate Research and Development Center.

Report 71 Rotational Moulding, R.J. Crawford, The Queen’s University of Belfast.

Report 72 Advances in Injection Moulding, C.A. Maier, Econology Ltd.

Volume 7Report 73 Reactive Processing of Polymers, M.W.R. Brown,

P.D. Coates and A.F. Johnson, IRC in Polymer Science and Technology, University of Bradford.

Report 74 Speciality Rubbers, J.A. Brydson.

Report 75 Plastics and the Environment, I. Boustead, Boustead Consulting Ltd.

Report 76 Polymeric Precursors for Ceramic Materials, R.C.P. Cubbon.

Report 77 Advances in Tyre Mechanics, R.A. Ridha, M. Theves, Goodyear Technical Center.

Report 78 PVC - Compounds, Processing and Applications, J.Leadbitter, J.A. Day, J.L. Ryan, Hydro Polymers Ltd.

Report 79 Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory and Innovation, Part I: Vulcanising Systems, Antidegradants and Particulate Fillers for General Purpose Rubbers, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 80 Anti-Corrosion Polymers: PEEK, PEKK and Other Polyaryls, G. Pritchard, Kingston University.

Report 81 Thermoplastic Elastomers - Properties and Applications, J.A. Brydson.

Report 82 Advances in Blow Moulding Process Optimization, Andres Garcia-Rejon,Industrial Materials Institute, National Research Council Canada.

Report 83 Molecular Weight Characterisation of Synthetic Polymers, S.R. Holding and E. Meehan, Rapra Technology Ltd. and Polymer Laboratories Ltd.

Report 84 Rheology and its Role in Plastics Processing, P. Prentice, The Nottingham Trent University.

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Report 86 High Performance Engineering Plastics, D.J. Kemmish, Victrex Ltd.

Report 87 Rubber to Metal Bonding, B.G. Crowther, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 88 Plasticisers - Selection, Applications and Implications, A.S. Wilson.

Report 89 Polymer Membranes - Materials, Structures and Separation Performance, T. deV. Naylor, The Smart Chemical Company.

Report 90 Rubber Mixing, P.R. Wood.

Report 91 Recent Developments in Epoxy Resins, I. Hamerton, University of Surrey.

Report 92 Continuous Vulcanisation of Elastomer Profiles, A. Hill, Meteor Gummiwerke.

Report 93 Advances in Thermoforming, J.L. Throne, Sherwood Technologies Inc.

Report 94 Compressive Behaviour of Composites, C. Soutis, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine.

Report 95 Thermal Analysis of Polymers, M. P. Sepe, Dickten & Masch Manufacturing Co.

Report 96 Polymeric Seals and Sealing Technology, J.A. Hickman, St Clair (Polymers) Ltd.

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Report 98 Advances in Biodegradable Polymers, G.F. Moore & S.M. Saunders, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 99 Recycling of Rubber, H.J. Manuel and W. Dierkes, Vredestein Rubber Recycling B.V.

Report 100 Photoinitiated Polymerisation - Theory and Applications, J.P. Fouassier, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Mulhouse.

Report 101 Solvent-Free Adhesives, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company.

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Report 103 Gas Assisted Moulding, T.C. Pearson, Gas Injection Ltd.

Report 104 Plastics Profile Extrusion, R.J. Kent, Tangram Technology Ltd.

Report 105 Rubber Extrusion Theory and Development, B.G. Crowther.

Report 106 Properties and Applications of Elastomeric Polysulfides, T.C.P. Lee, Oxford Brookes University.

Report 107 High Performance Polymer Fibres, P.R. Lewis, The Open University.

Report 108 Chemical Characterisation of Polyurethanes, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

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Report 110 Long-Term and Accelerated Ageing Tests on Rubbers, R.P. Brown, M.J. Forrest and G. Soulagnet, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 111 Polymer Product Failure, P.R. Lewis, The Open University.

Report 112 Polystyrene - Synthesis, Production and Applications, J.R. Wünsch, BASF AG.

Report 113 Rubber-Modified Thermoplastics, H. Keskkula, University of Texas at Austin.

Report 114 Developments in Polyacetylene - Nanopolyacetylene, V.M. Kobryanskii, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Report 115 Metallocene-Catalysed Polymerisation, W. Kaminsky, University of Hamburg.

Report 116 Compounding in Co-rotating Twin-Screw Extruders, Y. Wang, Tunghai University.

Report 117 Rapid Prototyping, Tooling and Manufacturing, R.J.M. Hague and P.E. Reeves, Edward Mackenzie Consulting.



Report 118 Liquid Crystal Polymers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications, D. Coates, CRL Ltd.

Report 119 Rubbers in Contact with Food, M.J. Forrest and J.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 120 Electronics Applications of Polymers II, M.T. Goosey, Shipley Ronal.

Volume 11

Report 121 Polyamides as Engineering Thermoplastic Materials, I.B. Page, BIP Ltd.

Report 122 Flexible Packaging - Adhesives, Coatings and Processes, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company.

Report 123 Polymer Blends, L.A. Utracki, National Research Council Canada.

Report 124 Sorting of Waste Plastics for Recycling, R.D. Pascoe, University of Exeter.

Report 125 Structural Studies of Polymers by Solution NMR, H.N. Cheng, Hercules Incorporated.

Report 126 Composites for Automotive Applications, C.D. Rudd, University of Nottingham.

Report 127 Polymers in Medical Applications, B.J. Lambert and F.-W. Tang, Guidant Corp., and W.J. Rogers, Consultant.

Report 128 Solid State NMR of Polymers, P.A. Mirau, Lucent Technologies.

Report 129 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Photo-oxidation, D.C. Wright.

Report 130 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Chemical Attack, D.C. Wright.

Report 131 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Thermo-oxidation, D.C. Wright.

Report 132 Stabilisers for Polyolefins, C. Kröhnke and F. Werner, Clariant Huningue SA.

Volume 12Report 133 Advances in Automation for Plastics Injection

Moulding, J. Mallon, Yushin Inc.

Report 134 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy of Polymers, J.L. Koenig, Case Western Reserve University.

Report 135 Polymers in Sport and Leisure, R.P. Brown.

Report 136 Radiation Curing, R.S. Davidson, DavRad Services.

Report 137 Silicone Elastomers, P. Jerschow, Wacker-Chemie GmbH.

Report 138 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, N. Chaiear, Khon Kaen University.

Report 139 Rubber Analysis - Polymers, Compounds and Products, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 140 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance, M.S. Evans, Kumho European Technical Centre.

Report 141 Particulate Fillers for Polymers, Professor R.N. Rothon, Rothon Consultants and Manchester Metropolitan University.

Report 142 Blowing Agents for Polyurethane Foams, S.N. Singh, Huntsman Polyurethanes.

Report 143 Adhesion and Bonding to Polyolefins, D.M. Brewis and I. Mathieson, Institute of Surface Science & Technology, Loughborough University.

Report 144 Rubber Curing Systems, R.N. Datta, Flexsys BV.

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J.C. Love, The University of Warwick.

Report 146 In-Mould Decoration of Plastics, J.C. Love and V. Goodship, The University of Warwick.

Report 147 Rubber Product Failure, Roger P. Brown.

Report 148 Plastics Waste – Feedstock Recycling, Chemical Recycling and Incineration, A. Tukker, TNO.

Report 149 Analysis of Plastics, Martin J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 150 Mould Sticking, Fouling and Cleaning, D.E. Packham, Materials Research Centre, University of Bath.

Report 151 Rigid Plastics Packaging - Materials, Processes and Applications, F. Hannay, Nampak Group Research & Development.

Report 152 Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers, A.K. Bledzki, V.E. Sperber and O. Faruk, University of Kassel.

Report 153 Polymers in Telecommunication Devices, G.H. Cross, University of Durham.

Report 154 Polymers in Building and Construction, S.M. Halliwell, BRE.

Report 155 Styrenic Copolymers, Andreas Chrisochoou and Daniel Dufour, Bayer AG.

Report 156 Life Cycle Assessment and Environmental Impact of Polymeric Products, T.J. O’Neill, Polymeron Consultancy Network.

Volume 14Report 157 Developments in Colorants for Plastics,

Ian N. Christensen.Report 158 Geosynthetics, David I. Cook.Report 159 Biopolymers, R.M. Johnson, L.Y. Mwaikambo and

N. Tucker, Warwick Manufacturing Group.Report 160 Emulsion Polymerisation and Applications of Latex,

Christopher D. Anderson and Eric S. Daniels, Emulsion Polymers Institute.

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Report 162 Analysis of Thermoset Materials, Precursors and Products, Martin J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 163 Polymer/Layered Silicate Nanocomposites, Masami Okamoto, Toyota Technological Institute.

Report 164 Cure Monitoring for Composites and Adhesives, David R. Mulligan, NPL.

Report 165 Polymer Enhancement of Technical Textiles, Roy W. Buckley.

Report 166 Developments in Thermoplastic Elastomers, K.E. Kear

Report 167 Polyolefin Foams, N.J. Mills, Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham.

Report 168 Plastic Flame Retardants: Technology and Current Developments, J. Innes and A. Innes, Flame Retardants Associates Inc.

Volume 15Report 169 Engineering and Structural Adhesives, David J. Dunn,

FLD Enterprises Inc.Report 170 Polymers in Agriculture and Horticulture,

Roger P. Brown.Report 171 PVC Compounds and Processing, Stuart Patrick.Report 172 Troubleshooting Injection Moulding, Vanessa Goodship,

Warwick Manufacturing Group.

Report 173 Regulation of Food Packaging in Europe and the USA, Derek J. Knight and Lesley A. Creighton, Safepharm Laboratories Ltd.

Report 174 Pharmaceutical Applications of Polymers for Drug Delivery, David Jones, Queen's University, Belfast.

Report 175 Tyre Recycling, Valerie L. Shulman, European Tyre Recycling Association (ETRA).

Report 176 Polymer Processing with Supercritical Fluids, V. Goodship and E.O. Ogur.

Report 177 Bonding Elastomers: A Review of Adhesives & Processes, G. Polaski, J. Means, B. Stull, P. Warren, K. Allen, D. Mowrey and B. Carney.

Report 178 Mixing of Vulcanisable Rubbers and Thermoplastic Elastomers, P.R. Wood.

Report 179 Polymers in Asphalt, H.L. Robinson, Tarmac Ltd, UK.Report 180 Biocides in Plastics, D. Nichols, Thor Overseas Limited.

Volume 16Report 181 New EU Regulation of Chemicals: REACH,

D.J. Knight, SafePharm Laboratories Ltd.Report 182 Food Contact Rubbers 2 - Products, Migration and

Regulation, M.J. Forrest.Report 183 Adhesion to Fluoropolymers, D.M. Brewis and R.H.

Dahm, IPTME, Loughborough University.Report 184 Fluoroplastics, J.G. Drobny.



ISBN: 978-1-84735-065-7

Epoxy Composites: Impact Resistance and Flame

Retardancy

Debdatta Ratna (IPTME, Loughborough University)


1

Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................3

2. Thermosetting Composites .........................................................................................................................3

3. Epoxy Resins ...............................................................................................................................................3

3.1 Chemorheology and Curing of Epoxy ..............................................................................................5

4. Epoxy Composites ......................................................................................................................................5

4.1 Fracture Testing ................................................................................................................................7

4.2 Fracture Mechanism .........................................................................................................................7

5. Impact Resistant Epoxy Composites ...........................................................................................................8

6. Modification of Epoxy Matrix ....................................................................................................................8

6.1 Flexibilisation of Epoxy ...................................................................................................................8

6.2 Toughening of Epoxy .......................................................................................................................9

6.3 Liquid Rubber Toughening ...............................................................................................................9 6.3.1 Reaction-induced Phase Separation .....................................................................................9 6.3.2 Mechanism of Toughening .................................................................................................11 6.3.3 Morphological Parameters .................................................................................................11 6.3.4 Recent Advances ...............................................................................................................13 6.4 Toughening by Preformed Particle .................................................................................................15

6.5 Thermoplastic Toughening .............................................................................................................16

6.6 Rigid Particle Toughening ..............................................................................................................17

7. Nanoreinforcement of Epoxy ....................................................................................................................17

7.1 Clay Reinforced Epoxy ..................................................................................................................17

7.2 CNT-Reinforced Epoxy ..................................................................................................................20

8. Simultaneous Nanoreinforcement and Toughening .................................................................................21

9. Fire Retardant Epoxy Composites ............................................................................................................22

9.1 Flammability and Smoke Tests ..........................................................................................................22 9.1.1 UL-94 Flammability Test ...................................................................................................22 9.1.2 Cone Calorimetry ...............................................................................................................22 9.1.3 LOI Test ............................................................................................................................2210. Fire Retardant Resin Compositions ..........................................................................................................23

10.1 Halogenated Flame Retardants .......................................................................................................23

10.2 Phosphorus Containing Flame Retardants ....................................................................................23

10.3 Nanoclay-Based Flame Retardants ...............................................................................................24

10.4 Combination of Organoclay and Other Flame Retardants .............................................................26

10.5 Intumescent Fire Retardants ..........................................................................................................26

11. Summary and Outlook .............................................................................................................................26

12. List of Abbreviation and Acronyms ..........................................................................................................27


2

The views and opinions expressed by authors in Rapra Review Reports do not necessarily reflect those of Smithers Rapra Technology or the editor. The series is published on the basis that no responsibility or liability of any nature shall attach to Smithers Rapra Technology arising out of or in connection with any utilisation in any form of any material contained therein.

13. Additional References ...............................................................................................................................27

Subject Index ....................................................................................................................................................99

Company Index ...............................................................................................................................................115




3

1 Introduction

A composite is defined as a combination of two or more materials with a distinguishable interface. The oldest man-made composite is concrete, which is associated with a macrolevel reinforcement. The urge to improve the properties of composite materials, has prompted material scientists to investigate composites with lower and lower reinforcement size, leading to the development of microcomposites and the recent trend in composite research is nanocomposites (with nanometer scale reinforcements). On the basis of the nature of the matrices, composites can be classified into four major categories: polymer matrix composite (PMC), metal matrix composite (MMC), ceramic matrix composite (CMC) and carbon matrix composite or carbon carbon composites. PMC can be processed at a much lower temperature, compared to MMC and CMC. Depending on the types of polymer matrices, PMC are classified as thermosetting composites and thermoplastic composites. In the present review, thermosetting composites with epoxy matrices will be discussed in detail.

2 Thermosetting Composites

Over the last three decades, the use of PMC, has increased tremendously and this dramatic growth is expected to continue in the future. The composites possess many useful properties such as high specific stiffness and strength, dimensional stability, adequate electrical properties and excellent corrosion resistance. The implications are easy transportability, high payload for vehicles, low stress for rotating parts, high ranges for rockets and missiles, which make them attractive for both the civil and defense applications (186, 32). The composite industry is currently dominated by thermosetting resins namely epoxy, vinyl ester, unsaturated polyester, phenolic, polyimides, cyanate ester and so on. This is because of their availability, relative ease of processing, lower cost of capital equipment for processing and low material cost (a.1). The thermosetting resins are available in oligomeric or monomeric low viscosity liquid forms, which have excellent flow properties to facilitate resin impregnation of fibre bundles and proper wetting of the fibre surface by the resin. They are characterised by a crosslinking reaction or curing, which converts those into a three-dimensional (3D) network form (insoluble, infusible). Because of the crosslinked structure, thermoset composites offer better creep properties and environmental stress cracking resistance compared to many thermoplastics e.g., polycarbonate.

Thermoset composites form a major portion of the interior furnishings in today’s commercial aircraft and in semiconductor devices (234, 245).

3 Epoxy Resins

Epoxy resins are a class of versatile polymer materials characterised by the presence of two or more oxirane ring or epoxy groups within their molecular structure. Like other thermosets they also form a network on curing with a variety of curing agents (115) such as amines, anhydrides, thiols etc. Amine curing agents are most widely used because of the better understanding/control of epoxy-amine reactions. The chemical structures of some commonly used curing agents namely: triethylene tetramine (TETA), 4,4́ diaminodiphenyl methane (DDM), 4,4́diaminodiphenyl sulfone (DDS), diethyl toluene diamine (DETDA), polypropyletheramine (Jeffamine) are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Chemical structures of commonly used amine curing

agents


4

Undoubtedly, there exists more publications based on the basic and applied research on epoxy resins than that for any other commercially available thermosetting resins. The broad interest in epoxy resins originates from the versatility of epoxy group towards a wide variety of chemical reactions and the useful properties of the network polymers (a.2) such as high strength, very low creep, excellent corrosion and weather resistance, elevated temperature service capability and adequate electrical properties. Epoxy resins are unique among all the thermosetting resins due to several factors (a.1) (115) namely, minimum pressure is needed for fabrication of products normally used for thermosetting resins:

• shrinkage is much lower and hence there is lower residual stress in the cured product than that encountered in the vinyl polymerisation used to cure unsaturated polyester resins.

• use of a wide range of temperature by judicious selection of curing agent with good control over the degree of crosslinking.

• availability of the resin ranging from low viscous liquid to tack free solid, etc. Because of these unique characteristics and useful properties of network polymers.

• epoxy resins are widely used in structural adhesives, surface coatings, engineering composites, and electrical laminates.

The most commonly used epoxy resin is diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA), which is characterised by two epoxy groups e.g., LY-556, GY-250 (Ciba Gigey). Multifunctional epoxies with functionality of three and four are also available. Chemical structures of DGEBA and multifunctional epoxies namely epoxy novolac (e.g., Dow DEN 438), tetraglycidyl ether of 4,4́-diamino diphenyl methane (TGDDM) (e.g., Araldite MY-720, Ciba Speciality Chemicals), triglycidyl p-amino phenol (TGAP), (e.g. Araldite MY 0510, Ciba Speciality Chemicals), are given in Figure 2. The chemical nature and the amount used of curing agents or hardeners plays an important role in determining thermomechanical properties of the

Figure 2 Chemical structures of difunctional and multifunctional epoxies




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cured networks (243). A wide range of properties can be demonstrated and materials can be developed for extreme applications using the same resin, by judicious selection of curing agents. For example, DGEBA, when cured with an aromatic amine, produces a network with high glass transition temperature (Tg) and is used for high temperature composite applications whereas the same resin, on curing with Jeffamine (Mn > 800 g/mole) generates a flexible/rubbery network, which can be used for vibration damping applications (81).

High Tg epoxy matrices can be made by using an aromatic curing agent such as DDM, DDS, DETDA. The advantage of DETDA over others is that it is a liquid and offers better processability. The Tg can be further increased by using a higher functionality resin. Thermally stable high performance resins are required for use in composite structure for aerospace applications. Polyimides and cyanate ester reins are the leading candidates for exterior structural components. Conventional epoxies are generally not suitable for aerospace applications. However, multifunctional epoxies cured with a suitable aromatic amine, can offer thermal stability comparable to polyimides. Hence, the conventional epoxy resins, with the combination of a multifunctional component, can satisfy the thermomechanical properties, specified for aerospace application.

3.1 Chemorheology and Curing of Epoxy

From the application point of view, the effective use of any thermosetting system requires one to be able to predict the cure kinetics of the system to consistently obtain the maximum Tg and also to predict the flow behaviour of the curing resin, in particular to precisely locate when the sol-gel transitions occurs. This is because the polymer can be easily shaped or processed only before the gel point, where it can still flow and can be easily formed with the stresses applied relaxed to zero thereafter. Accurate knowledge of the gel point would therefore allow estimation of the optimum temperature and time for which the sample should be heated before being allowed to set in the mould.

The gel point of a crosslinking system is defined unambiguously as the instant, at which the weight average molecular weight reaches infinity and as such is an irreversible reaction. The crosslinked polymer at its gel point is a transition state between a liquid and a solid. The polymer reaches its gel point at a critical extent of crosslinking (agel). Before the gel point, that is at a < agel the polymer is called a sol, because it is typically soluble in an appropriate solvent. Beyond the

gel point, that is at a < agel, at least part of the polymer is typically not soluble in any solvent and is called a gel. Kinetically, gelation does not usually inhibit the curing process so the conversion rate remains unchanged. Hence, it cannot be detected by the techniques sensitive only to chemical reaction like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). There are various methods to determine the gel point. The most sophisticated one is determination by using a rheological experiment. Another process, which a thermoset resin undergoes during cure, is vitrification. It is defined as the point at which the Tg of the network has become the same as the cure temperature. At this point, the material is transformed from a rubbery gel to a gelled glass.

Rheological measurement is generally carried out with a controlled stress rheometer using a parallel plate assembly. The dynamic viscoelastic test makes it possible to characterise the gelation and vitrification process during curing. Various parameters such as complex viscosity, storage modulus, loss modulus, loss factor at various frequencies (at a particular temperature) can be determined as a function of cure time. The point at which clear increase in G̋ occurs is defined as gel point and G̋ maximum is defined as the vitrification point. The gelation and vitrification are more clearly determined from a loss factor plot as shown in Figure 3 for a trifunctional epoxy system (154).

This experiment clearly demonstrates the time required for curing an epoxy system at a particular temperature to get a required Tg, which is very important for development of prepregs. It may be noted that when the Tg of the cured system reaches the cure temperature, the curing reaction becomes very slow. That is why when a multifunctional epoxy network, without a post curing treatment at a sufficiently high temperature, is subjected to dynamic mechanical analysis, it shows two loss peaks; one is for the partially cured network and other is for the fully cured network. Hence, it is very important to give a proper post curing treatment to an epoxy system (especially multifunctional epoxy system) to get a network with the desired Tg.

4 Epoxy Composites

A wide variety of composites can be made using epoxy as a matrix as shown in Table 1. They can be broadly grouped into fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) composites, particulate composites and nanocomposites (246, 277, 289, 294). Epoxy-based FRP composites can be tailor-made by judiciously selecting the resin compositions,


6

fibres and by designing the interface. The FRP composites are used in aerospace, automotive and other structural applications (222, 225, 232). Epoxy-based FRP composites (for general purpose use) are made by the wet-lay up technique and followed by compression moulding. On the other hand, the prepreg route (autoclave curing) is the standard production method within the aerospace sector for manufacturing high fibre volume fraction, void free composite materials with good mechanical properties (233). Similar laminated composites, produced by a vacuum impregnation resin transfer moulding (RTM), offer cost savings, health

and safety benefits. However, the main drawback of RTM is the lower fibre volume fraction due to the low pressure involved in the process. Moreover, the property enhancement using 3D woven fabric due to through-the-thickness reinforcement and limiting crack propagation is not achieved in RTM (218), although a similar effect is achieved for wet lay-up with the autoclave curing route. The reason is thought to be due to the 3D weave involved, having a high crimp and low compressibility, hence, higher consolidation pressure than the pressure provided by RTM, is required to realise the actual advantages of a 3D weave.

Figure 3 Loss factor versus time plots of toughened trifunctional epoxy at 140 °C using various frequencies

Reprinted with permission from D. Ratna, R. Varley and G.P. Simon, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2003, 89, 9, 2339. ©2003, John Wiley and Sons

Table 1 Various types of epoxy composites and the manufacturing processes

Composites Reinforcement ProcessFibre reinforced plastic composite

Glass fibre, carbon fibre, kevlar fibre, basalt fibre

Wet lay-up and compression moulding, prepreg lay-up with vacuum bagging and autoclave curing, filament winding with oven curing, pultrusion, resin transfer moulding (RTM), liquid composite moulding, structural reaction engineering moulding

Particulate microcomposite Silica, carbon black, calcium carbonate, glass beads, glass balloons, silicon carbide

Mechanical mixing and casting, compression moulding, matched-die moulding

Nanocomposite Nano silica, nanocalcium carbonate, nanoclay, carbon nanofibres, carbon nanotubes

Mechanical mixing and sonication followed by casting or compression moulding




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However, the epoxy-based composites are known to be highly susceptible to internal damage caused by a low velocity impact due to inherent brittleness of the cured resin, which may lead to severe safety and reliability problems (226, 237). Thus, for high performance applications the improvement of damage tolerance of epoxy composites by enhancing their impact strength is essential and has been the subject of investigation throughout the world (280, 285).

4.1 Fracture Testing

Toughness of a material is defined as the energy absorbed by a material before fracture. Toughness is a very important property in applications where the material has to encounter a lot of mechanical shock and vibration. Fracture toughness (KIc) is one of the most important properties of a material, which is used to design materials for dynamic applications. It basically describes the resistance of a material with a crack to fracture. Since it is almost impossible to make a material for practical purposes without cracks/defects, fracture toughness analysis is extremely important for design applications. The critical stress intensity factor, KIc and impact energy, GIc are determined using ASTM D5045-99 (a.3). The tests were carried out using an Instron machine using a flexure or tensile mode. An initial crack was machined in a rectangular specimen, and tapping on a fresh razor blade placed in the notch generated a natural crack. The parameters can be expressed mathematically as follows:

K

PBW

f xICQ= 1 2/ ( )

(1)

G

EKIC IC= −1 2

2ν (2)

Where: ν is Poisson's ratio PQ is the critical load for crack propagation, B and W are the thickness and width of the

specimen, E is elastic modulus, and f (x) is a nondimensional shape factor given

by:

f x x x x x xx

( ) ( . ( ) ( . . . )(

= − − × − ++

6 1 99 1 2 15 3 93 2 71 2

2

))( ) /1 3 2− x (3)

The thickness of the specimen should be higher than the critical value below which the material shows plane stress behaviour. The KIc and GIc values of a given

material are a function of testing speed and temperature. Furthermore the values may be different under cyclic load. Therefore application of KIc and GIc in the design of service components should be made considering the differences that may exist between the test condition and the field condition.

Apart from the fracture toughness analysis, various impact tests are used for quick assessment of the behaviour of a material under dynamic loading conditions. The impact tests are used to determine the behaviour of a material subjected to shock loading in bending, tension and torsion. Mostly, the Charpy and Izod impact and occasionally tensile impact tests are used. These Izod/Charpy tests are widely applied in industries due to the ease of sample preparation and it is possible to generate comparative data very quickly. Both the tests are done as per ASTM D256 (a.4). In the Charpy test the specimen is supported as a simple beam whereas in Izod test it is supported as a cantilever. The apparatus consists of a pendulum hammer swinging at a notched sample. The energy transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in height of the hammer before and after the fracture. Depending on the instrument, the impact energy (J/m) or the load history during the impact event can be recorded. The test can be carried out using different combinations of impactor mass and incident impact velocity to generate the data on damage tolerance as functions of impact parameters, which are helpful for design of composite materials for a particular application (177).

Another test, which is used to evaluate epoxy composites, is the falling dart impact test. In this test a dart is allowed to fall on a specimen kept in a fixture with an annular hole typically ranging from 2.5 to 7.5 cm. The output of the load transducer can be directly fed into a signal processor and the impact energy or the entire loading history can be recorded. It can also be coupled with ultrasonic c-scan (nondestructive inspection technique composites in which a short pulse of ultrasonic energy is incident on a sample) and microscopic techniques to study the post failure analysis (258, 260). It may be noted that for critical applications, rigorous testing has to be carried out considering the service conditions, to ensure the specified service life (255).

4.2 Fracture Mechanism

The mechanical property of a composite depends on the nature of the matrix, reinforcement and the interface. Hence, the design of interface and processing play an important role in deciding the final properties of a composite. Once the optimum interface is designed and


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the processing is perfected, the mechanical properties can be predicted from the known value of mechanical properties of the individual components. The modulus of a composite material can be approximately calculated from simple linear or logarithmic relationships:

log Ec = log Ee (1-Vr) + log Er (Vr) (4)

Ec = Ee (1-Vr) + Er Vr (5)

Where: Ec, Ee and Er are the bending moduli of composite, epoxy and reinforcement, respectively, and

Vr is the volume fraction of reinforcement in the composite.

Hence, composites show a modulus value, which is in between that of an epoxy and a reinforcement. Interestingly, the impact strength of an FRP composite does not follow the rule-of-mixture (the average strength calculated from individual components) and the value is found to be much higher than the impact strength values of individual components. As for example, the impact strength of pure epoxy network (DGEBA cured with TETA) is about 20 J/m and impact strength of glass is less than that of epoxy, however, the impact strength of an epoxy/glass fibre composite is 950 J/m which is about 50 times more. Various models have been proposed to explain the toughness of the brittle matrix/brittle fibre composites (249, 251). The models considers various energy absorbing processes, which occur during the fracture of composites like fibre pull-out, fibre kinking, stress redistribution, creation of new surface through fibre, matrix and the interface, fiber debonding and so on (205, 268, 298, 299). Since fibre pull out and fibre debonding, largely contribute in energy dissipation during fracture, very high interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) is detrimental for toughness of composites. Thus, the interface has to be designed for an optimum ILSS to get the best mechanical property and toughness.

5 Impact Resistant Epoxy Composites

Impact resistance or damage tolerance of epoxy composites can be improved by improving the resin toughness, using high strain fibres and by designing the interfaces. Design of interface is particularly important for continuous FRP composites, where the impact resistance of a composite can be significantly improved, by controlling and manipulating the microstructure of the interfaces (259, 296). Generally, three techniques are used for such modification:

a) incorporation of discrete layers of tough resin known as interleaving (290, 292)

b) introduction of z-directional fibre (stitching) (153, 267), and,

c) addition of whiskers or short fibres to the interlaminar zone (supplementary reinforcement) (248, 262, 263, 280).

Wimolkiatiask and Bell (275) electropolymerised a high temperature thermoplastic (3-carboxy phenyl maleimide-styrene copolymer) interphase onto a graphite fibre and evaluated the fibre-reinforced epoxy composites. The improvement in critical strain energy factor of about 100% and notched impact of about 60% were achieved while maintaining the interlaminar shear strength at around the same value as for a controlled composite. Cox and co-workers (257) investigated the tensile behaviour of graphite epoxy composites with 3D woven interlock reinforcement and reported the contributions of various mechanism of fracture. The impact strength of an epoxy composite with a particular matrix can be improved by using a high strain fibre or fibre hybridisation (228, 231, 239). However, high strain fibres often show lower modulus and thus cannot satisfy the requirement for dimensional stability in high performance engineering applications (297). This approach is particularly exploited for the application of composites under high-incident-energy conditions, as for example ballistic applications (242, 258). Using a particular reinforcement, low-velocity impact resistance (desirable for structural applications) of a particulate or FRP composite can be improved to a great extent by increasing the toughness of the matrix (291) as discussed next.

6 Modification of Epoxy Matrix

6.1 Flexibilisation of Epoxy

Unlike thermoplastics, in which the fracture toughness and processability can be improved significantly by blending a plasticiser (nonreactive low molecular weight compound) or by physical blending with a ductile polymer, the plasticisation or compatible blending strategies are not successful in thermosets such as epoxies. This is because as a result of curing, the modifier either exudes out from the matrix or undergoes macro-phase separation. Moreover, the accumulation of free liquid plasticiser molecules at the fibre surface can act as a weak boundary layer and cause a substantial decrease in ILSS.




9

Epoxies are flexibilised by using reactive diluents, which are basically mono epoxide compounds or by using long chain hardeners (287). The basic idea is to reduce the effective crosslink density (Xc), thereby making the networks less tight. Epoxy resins can also be chemically modified to extend the chain length between the two epoxy groups leading to the increase in molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc) and development of a tougher (ductile) network (141). A general scheme for chemical modification of epoxy resin is shown in Figure 4.

The major downside of this approach is that the modification is associated with a drastic reduction in Tg, which restricts the use of such materials for high temperature applications. This arises due to the typical plasticisation phenomena observed in case of compatible blending of a rigid plastic with a flexible polymer or low molecular weight plasticiser. This problem can be overcome by using the second phase toughening technology where the modifier is incorporated as a separate phase.

6.2 Toughening of Epoxy

A basic difference between toughening and flexibilisation is that in flexibilisation, the improvement in toughness

is associated with a significant deterioration in thermomechanical properties (especially Tg) whereas for toughening, the same is achieved without significant deterioration in thermomechanical properties. The difference arises due to differences in blend morphology. Flexibilisation is associated with single-phase morphology whereas toughening arises from a two-phase morphology. Unlike flexibilisation where the modifier becomes a part of the epoxy phase, the modifier forms a separate phase in toughening and thus the bulk thermomechanical properties of epoxy matrix, are retained. Depending on the second phase used, epoxy toughening can be grouped into four types: liquid rubber toughening, core-shell particle toughening, thermoplastic toughening and rigid particle toughening.

6.3 Liquid Rubber Toughening

6.3.1 Reaction-induced Phase Separation

Liquid rubber toughening is one of the most successful methods for improvement in toughness of epoxy resins and mostly exploited in the field of FRP composites and adhesives technology (253, 254). Unlike thermoplastics, where the toughening is achieved by a simple physical blending, in an epoxy resin, the same is achieved exclusively through the chemistry and is more challenging to the expertise of a polymer scientist. The basic criteria for a modifier to be a toughening agent for epoxies are:

a) the modifier should be a low molecular weight liquid to ensure miscibility with the epoxy resin,

b) it must have functionalities like carboxyl, amino etc., which can react with the epoxy resin, and,

c) it must have borderline miscibility so that before curing it remains miscible with the epoxy and undergoes a reaction-induced phase separation with the advancement of curing reaction, leading to the formation of a two-phase microstructure (223, 271).

The phenomenon can be explained more clearly by considering the thermodynamics of mixing.

The thermodynamic condition for compatibility is that the free energy change of mixing (ΔGm) at constant pressure (P) and temperature (T), should be negative (a.5):

Figure 4 Chemical modification of epoxy resin


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(ΔGm) P,T < 0 (6)

Combining the Flory-Huggins equation and the Hildebrand equation, the free energy of mixing can be expressed as:

ΔGm /V = φe φr (de - dr)2 + RT(φe/Ve . ln φe + φr / Vr . ln φr) (7)

where φe, φr are the volume fractions, de, dr are the solubility parameters, Ve and Vr are the molar volume of epoxy and rubber, respectively, V is total volume, R is universal gas constant and T is temperature.

Since both φe, φr are fractions, the second term is always negative. High temperature favours miscibility. For a fixed epoxy/rubber composition, ΔGm at constant temperature, depends on dr, i.e., the chemical nature of rubber and Vr which is dependent on the molecular weight of the rubber. A toughening agent has to be designed in such a way that the free energy of mixing is marginally negative at the curing temperature. Then the rubber will be compatible with epoxy before the curing but with the advancement of curing reaction, Ve and Vr will increase due to the increase in molecular weight of the rubber and the epoxy and at a certain stage ΔGm will become positive. At that point rubber starts undergoing phase separation and it is called the cloud point. The process continues until the gelation point, where the phase separation is arrested due to the

tremendous increase in viscosity. The final network is obtained after a heat treatment called post curing. The process is shown schematically in Figure 5.

If (de - dr) is very low, then ΔGm will be highly negative and entropy change (during curing) cannot make ΔGm equal to - ve, before gelation, leading to the formation of a single phase morphology. Again if (de - dr) is very high, then ΔGm will be positive at curing temperature and rubber will be immiscible at the initial stage itself, leading to a macro level phase separation. As an example, carboxyl-terminated polybutadiene is not a suitable toughening agent for epoxies as the solubility parameter of butadiene is much lower than that of epoxy and it is immiscible with epoxy. However, a carboxyl-terminated copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile (CTBN) with 20 to 30 wt.% of acrylonitrile (polar acrylonitrile increases the solubility parameter) has a solubility parameter, which is close to the solubility parameter of the epoxy and is an effective toughening agent for the epoxy. The copolymers are commercially produced by the Goodrich Company and are known as Hycar CTBN. The amine-terminated copolymers of butadiene and acrylonitrile are known as ATBN. CTBN or ATBN with a higher acrylonitrile content, have a better miscibility with the epoxy resin in terms of solubility parameter and undergo phase separation at a later stage of curing and result in lower amount of phase separated rubber. CTBN with an acrylonitrile content of more than 30 wt.%, results in a single-phase

Figure 5 Description of reaction-induced phase separation in rubber-modified epoxy system




11

morphology and the modifier acts as a flexibiliser rather than a toughening agent.

The morphology is controlled by the initial cure temperature and the post curing condition (although it affects the final properties), has no role in morphology development (272). The time from cloud point to gelation is the effective phase separation time (tps). For complete phase separation, the tps has to be higher than the time required for diffusion of rubber from epoxy medium (tdiff). The diffusivity is the controlling factor of phase separation if tdiff is greater than tps. The diffusivity of rubber in epoxy medium (Dr) is considered to be proportional to the temperature viscosity ratio through the Stokes-Einstein equation (a.6):

Dr = kT/6pRr he (8)

Where: k is the Boltzman constant, Rr is the radius of rubber adducts, he is the viscosity of the medium, and, T is absolute temperature.

The characteristic time scale for diffusion in two dimensions is:

tdiff = L2 / 2 Dr (9)

A length scale (L) can be assigned from the average two-dimensional distance between domain centres obtained from micrographs of the cured specimen.

6.3.2 Mechanism of Toughening

The rubber modified epoxy with two-phase microstructure shows improved fracture toughness (178, 272, 279) as the rubber particles, dispersed and bonded to the epoxy matrix act as the centres for dissipation of mechanical energy. A number of theories have been proposed to explain the toughening effect of rubber particles on the brittle epoxy matrix, based on the fractographic features and fracture properties of the rubber toughened epoxy networks. According to recent theories, the most accepted mechanism for rubber toughening is rubber cavitation followed by shear yielding. In rubber modified plastics, under triaxial tensile stresses, voids can be initiated inside the rubber particles. Once the rubber particles are cavitated, the hydrostatic tension in the material is relieved, with the stress state in the thin ligaments of the matrix between the voids being converted from a triaxial to a more uniaxial tensile stress state. This new stress state is favourable for the initiation of shear bands. In other words, the role of rubber particles is to cavitate internally, thereby relieving the hydrostatic tension and

initiating the ductile shear yielding mechanism (269). At the crack tip where the hydrostatic tensile component is large, the magnitude of the concentrated hydrostatic stress in the vicinity of rubber particles is insufficient to promote shear yielding.

The internal cavitations of the rubber particles relieve the plain strain constraint by effectively reducing the bulk modulus and then the magnitude of the concentrated deviatoric stress is sufficient for shear yielding. The voids left behind by the cavitated rubber particles act further as stress concentrators. Li and co-workers (a.7) studied the fracture behaviour of unmodified and CTBN modified epoxies under hydrostatic pressure. They found that when rubber cavitations were suppressed by superimposed hydrostatic pressure, the fracture toughness of CTBN modified epoxy was no higher than that of the unmodified epoxy. This implies that the stress concentration by rubber particles alone will not necessarily induce massive shear yielding and increase the fracture toughness. Hence, rubber cavitations are very important to the toughening of rubber modified epoxies; without cavitations these rubber particles can still cause stress concentration but they are not effective in toughening.

Dompas and Groeninckx (264) developed a criterion for the internal cavitations. The condition has been treated as an energy balance between the strain energy relieved by cavitations and the surface energy required to create a new surface and given by the following equation:

Utotal = Ustrain + Usurface

= - p/12 Kr Δ2 do3 + gpΔ2/3 do

2 < 0 (10)

Where: Kr, Δ, do, g are the rubber bulk modulus, relative volume strain, rubber particle diameter and surface energy per unit area, respectively.

Accordingly, the cavitation of rubber is dependent on the elastic and molecular properties of rubber, rubber particle size and on the applied volume strain, which again depends on the difference in Poisson’s ratio between the matrix and the rubber. Cavitation resistance increases with the decrease in particle size and difference in Poisson’s ratio.

6.3.3 Morphological Parameters

Rubber toughened epoxy networks display a discrete morphology, which consists of spherical particle dispersed in the epoxy matrix. The morphology is characterised by polarised optical microscope, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A typical SEM


12

microphotograph for rubber toughened epoxy network is shown in Figure 6. The morphological parameters dictate the fracture properties of the toughened epoxy networks (145). Various morphological parameters and the molecular parameters, which control the morphology,

are listed in Table 2. It is very difficult to study the effect of an individual parameter on toughening effect as the parameters are interrelated. For example if we want to study the effect of functionality of rubber by changing the functionality, this changes the solubility parameter difference and affects the other morphological parameters.

6.3.3.1 Rubber Content

The impact energy of rubber-toughened epoxy systems increases with increase in rubber volume fraction in the epoxy network due to dissipation of mechanical energy by the rubber particle by various mechanisms as discussed in Section 6.3.2. However, beyond an optimum rubber concentration the impact energy decreases due to rubber agglomeration and phase inversion. Generally, optimum rubber concentration is found to be 10 to 15 wt.%. The effect of rubber content on impact strength of carboxyl-terminated poly(2-ethyl hexyl acrylate) (CTPEHA) rubber (220) is presented in Figure 7.

Table 2 Parameters influencing rubber tougheningMolecular Parameters Morphological

ParametersProcessing Parameters

Epoxy RubberMatrix ductility Polarity Rubber volume fraction Initial cure temperature

Functionality Molecular weight. Particle size Post cure temperature and timeMolecular weight Functionality Particle size distributionCuring agent (type and concentration)

Concentration Matrix ligament thickness

Viscosity Viscosity Particle to matrix adhesion

Figure 6 SEM picture of rubber-toughened epoxy

Figure 7 Effect of acrylate rubber content on impact strength of modified networks

Reprinted with permission from D. Ratna, A.K. Banthia and P.C. Deb, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2000, 78, 4, 716. ©John Wiley and Sons




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6.3.3.2 Particle Size and Distribution

The origin of this size dependence on toughening behaviour arises from the role played by the particles, which is governed by the size of the process zone. Large rubber particles (> 5 mm) lying outside the process zone are only able to act as bridging particles, which provide only a modest increase in fracture energy. Small rubber particles, which lie in the process zone are forced to cavitate by the large hydrostatic stress component that exists in the process zone and contributes to the increase in fracture energy. However, very small particles (< 0.2 mm) cannot cavitate (cavitation resistance increases with decreasing particle size - see Equation 10) and cannot effectively toughen the epoxy matrix.

6.3.3.3 Matrix ligament thickness

Wu and Mongolina (a.8) proposed that the matrix ligament thickness (MLT) i.e., surface-to-surface, interparticle distance is the more fundamental parameter. For effective toughening, the average matrix ligament thickness (t) should be less than that of a critical value (tc) where brittle-tough transition occurs. The tc is independent of rubber volume fraction, particle size and characteristics of the matrix alone at a given test temperature and rate of deformation. For blends with dispersed spherical particles, the tc can be related to the rubber particle size and rubber volume fraction (φr) by the following equation:

tc = do [k (p/6φr )1/3 - 1] (11)

Where: k is a geometric constant and do is the particle diameter.

The existence of critical matrix ligament thickness for an effective rubber toughening, can be explained (203) in the light of two basic mechanisms, namely rubber cavitations followed by formation of a shear band and crazing. The low MLT maintains the connectivity of the yielding process, which then propagates over the entire deformation zone and makes the blend tough. This happens when t is less than tc. In the cases where crazing is the major energy dissipating mechanism the high MLT causes the formation of secondary crazes at the highly stressed region of the ligament which then propagate rapidly leading to the catastrophic failure of the materials.

For a given volume fraction of rubber, the critical MLT is achieved by decreasing the particle size and by improving the dispersion. For most systems, this concept works very well and a decrease in particle

size corresponding to a lower brittle-tough transition temperature. However, it has been found in a number of systems that there exists a minimum particle size below, which the brittle-tough transition no longer shifts to lower temperatures. As a possible explanation for the peculiar behaviour, it has been suggested that particles which are too small are not able to cavitate and therefore do not release the hydrostatic tension in the material to promote ductile shear yielding.

6.3.3.4 Matrix Particle Adhesion

Matrix-rubber particle adhesion is an important parameter for rubber toughening. For effective rubber toughening, the rubber particles must be well bonded to the epoxy matrix. The poor intrinsic adhesion across the particle-matrix interface causes premature particle debonding, leading to the catastrophic failure of the materials (289, 300). Most of the studies, reported in the literature, have been concerned with reactive groups terminated rubbers (functionality = 2 eq/mole) as toughening agents for epoxies, which results in dispersed rubbery particles having interfacial chemical bonds as a consequence of chemical reactivity. It was observed that further increase in functionality of rubber, improved the toughening effect up to an optimum value of functionality (2.3-3 eq/mole). The toughening effect decreases beyond the optimum value of functionality, due to the formation of a single phase morphology (203).

6.3.4 Recent Advances

The commercial toughening agents used widely are CTBN and ATBN from the Goodrich Company. A multifunctional liquid rubber (nitrile-diene-acrylamide terpolymer) for toughening epoxy composites and coatings, was developed by Wolverine Gasket division of Eagle Picher Industries, Inkster, MI, USA (295). A new additive that increases the strength and toughness of amine cured epoxy resins, has been commercialised by Uniroyal Ltd., of Elmira, Canada (a.9). NASA has discovered (279) that fibre-reinforced epoxy composites can be made tougher by incorporating a bromine containing additive which resulted in substantial increase in flexural and impact strength. Addition of small amount of CTBN or ATBN further improved these properties.

In the last two decades a lot of work has been done and various issues in the field have been addressed as listed in Table 3. The commercially available liquid rubber (CTBN, ATBN) toughened epoxy often shows


14

outstanding fracture properties and the technology is exploited in the field of engineering adhesives (124). However, since the butadiene component of the elastomer contains unsaturation, it would appear to be a site for premature thermal and/or oxidative instability and such modified resins are not suitable for application at high temperatures. One would imagine that excessive crosslinking could take place with time, which would detract from otherwise desirable improvements accomplished with these structures. Secondly, there

is some limitation in its use due to the possibility of the presence of traces of free acrylonitrile, which is carcinogenic. Hence, considerable efforts have been made to develop saturated liquid rubber alternative to CTBN.

Several liquid rubbers have been investigated as alternatives to CTBN. The chemical structures of some useful toughening agents are shown in Figure 8. Saturated rubbers namely polyacrylates, polyurethane,

Table 3 Issues involved in toughening research and addressed in the last two decadesIssue SolutionToxicity and poor oxidative stability of commercial toughener (CTBN, ATBN)

Use of saturated modifier e.g., polyacrylates, polyurethanes, polysiloxane, etc.

Depression of epoxy Tg Use of high molecular weight rubber and optimum cure temperature

Processability (high viscosity) Use of hyperbranched polymer based toughening agents

Reduction in modulus Use of liquid crystalline modifiers and nanoreinforcement

Figure 8Chemical structures of some useful toughening agents. ESO = epoxidised soybean oil




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polysiloxane, and epoxidised soybean oil (ESO) (142, 220, 230), offer better oxidative stability and better performance of such materials. Complete phase separation can be achieved for such liquid rubbers by increasing the molecular weight of liquid rubber and decreasing the cure temperature within the processing window (the theoretical reason for the effect of these two parameters have been discussed in Section 6.3.1). However, beyond a certain molecular weight, the liquid rubber undergoes phase separation at a very early stage leading to agglomeration and macrophase separation. The optimum molecular weight for difunctional modifier is reported to be about 7000 g/mole (220).

The modification of epoxy with linear elastomers, as discussed in previous sections, is associated with a considerable increase in viscosity, which is disadvantageous as far as processing is concerned. The problem can be overcome by using dendritic hyperbranched polymer (HBP) based toughening agents (168, 202). Due to the compact 3D structure of dendritic polymers, these molecules mimic the hydrodynamic volume of spheres in solution or melt and flow easily past each other under applied stress. This results in a low melt viscosity, even at high molecular weights, due to a lack of restrictive interchain entanglements (a.5). Indeed, dendritic polymers have been shown to exhibit melt and solution viscosities that are an order of magnitude lower than linear analogues of similar molecular weight (a.5) (168). The high density of functional terminal groups on dendritic polymers also offers the potential for tailoring their compatibility either through conversion of dendritic polymer end groups to chemically suitable moieties or through in situ reaction to form covalently bound networks. These two properties: low viscosity and tailorable compatibility, make HBP excellent candidates as flow additives that could act simultaneously as toughening agents. These polymers are commercially available e.g., Boltron.

The fourth issue is reduction in modulus of cured epoxy as a result of incorporation of rubber. It is necessary to couple a strengthening mechanism with the toughening process to get really tough and strong materials. The successful approach is nanoreinforcement which will be discussed in the following sections.

6.4 Toughening by Preformed Particle

The phase separation, in the case of liquid rubber toughening depends upon the formulation, processing and curing conditions. Incomplete phase separation can result in a significant lowering of the epoxy Tg. Moreover, the rubber phase that separates during the

cure, is difficult to control and may result in uneven particle size distribution. The differences in morphology and volume of the separated phase affect the mechanical performance of the product. The factors that affect the fracture toughness of the modified epoxy such as morphology, particle size and composition are interdependent and hence, it is very difficult to study the effect of the individual parameters. These problems can be minimised by using an insoluble preformed particle directly (265). Since the size, morphology and composition, shell thickness and crosslink density of the rubbery cores can be controlled separately by using emulsion polymerisation techniques, the effects of various parameters on the toughening of epoxies can be investigated.

The control of the particle parameters by emulsion polymerisation has been extensively studied, and various efficient technologies have been developed (283). Monodisperse latex particles with a diameter from submicron to micron range can be prepared. Cohesive strength, which is influenced by crosslink density of the rubber phase, can be controlled by the conversion of polymerisation and the amount of crosslinking agent (a.10). Interfacial architecture can be controlled by changing the following parameters:

1. thickness of the shell which depends on the ratio of the shell-core materials and polymerisation mechanism,

2. chemical bonding and physical interaction between particles and matrix which can be enhanced by introducing functional groups onto the surface of the shell,

3. grafting between the shell and core, and,

4. molecular weight of shell materials.

Various morphologies of the composite such as core shell, occluded or multilayer can be achieved through two or multiple stage emulsion polymerisation (278). The preformed particles are incorporated into the epoxy matrix by mechanical mixing. The dispersibility of the particles can be improved by:

(1) introducing crosslinking into the shell or

(2) using comonomer like acrylonitrile or glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), which increases the interfacial adhesion by polar or chemical interactions (208).


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6.5 Thermoplastic Toughening

Rubber toughening can dramatically increase the fracture resistance of cured epoxy castings and composites. However, the presence of the rubber phase does somewhat decrease the modulus and thermal stability of the materials and increase the tendency of water absorption with an accompanying loss of properties at elevated temperatures. Moreover, the reactive rubbers have been reported as ineffective modifiers for a highly crosslinked system based on an epoxy having a functionality of more than 2 (i.e., 3 or 4). This is because the rubber rich particles, as stress concentrator, induce the plastic deformation of a highly crosslinked matrix to a far less extent and dissipation of fracture energy by the enlargement of deformation zone can hardly be attained (272). The search for an alternative method to rubber toughening led to the development of thermoplastic toughened epoxy (84, 125, 256). Because of their high modulus and high Tg of engineering thermoplastics, the modified epoxy resin will reach or even exceed the corresponding values for the unmodified resin. Unlike the rubber toughening where significant reduction in stiffness and modulus was observed at an ambient temperature, in case of thermoplastic toughened epoxy, reduction in stiffness becomes significant only at temperatures near to the Tg of the thermoplastic moiety.

The initial studies on thermoplastic toughened epoxy were carried out by using unreactive low molecular weight thermoplastics like polyether sulfone) (PES), polyether imide. No significant increase in fracture toughness was observed due to such blending of thermoplastic modifier with difunctional and multifunctional epoxies (302). It was concluded that the lack of improvement of fracture toughness observed in these systems may be due to the fact that cured epoxy resin’s high crosslink density inhibited the primary toughening mechanism ‘namely’ the formation of shear bands.

Hedrick and co-workers (301) considered poor interfacial adhesion to be the main reason for the inability of commercial thermoplastics (nonreactive) to improve the toughness of epoxy resin. They used phenolic -OH ended bisphenol-A based PES and amine-terminated PES oligomers as toughening agents and claimed that this approach resulted in remarkable increase in fracture energy. The theory is similar to liquid rubber toughening. The thermoplastic modifier having reactive end groups, reacts with the epoxy resin. The presence of an excess of epoxy resin essentially produces an epoxy end-capped thermoplastic modifier. The modified and unmodified epoxy resin further reacts with the curing agent and produces the toughened network. Initially

the thermoplastic is compatible with the epoxy resin but as the molecular weight increases due to the curing reaction, the homogeneous mixture starts undergoing phase separate by a spinodal decomposition, resulting in the development of a two-phase microstructure (107). Gorbunova and co-workers (107) reported that incorporation of polysulfone into epoxy networks, resulted in a considerable increase in impact strength and cross-breaking strength of epoxy composites.

In contrast to the liquid rubber modified epoxy systems, which displays a simple particulate microstructure, the thermoplastic-toughened epoxy networks produce different morphology/microstructures at different modifier concentrations (266). Initially at low concentrations of thermoplastic, the thermoplastic becomes miscible in the epoxy matrix and generates a single-phase morphology. On subsequent increase in thermoplastic concentration, the phase separation occurs leading to the development of a two-phase morphology and the microstructure changes from particulate to cocontinuous and finally to the phase-inverted microstructure. The mechanisms responsible for the toughening of epoxy by thermoplastics, are reported to be plastic yielding or drawing and tearing of thermoplastic rich phases.

Once the -OH- terminated bis phenol-A (BPA) based PES was found to be successful for toughening the epoxy matrix, efforts were concentrated on developing amine-terminated oligomers of PES, which can be synthesised by adding a stoichiometric amount of amino phenol as the end-capping agent (282). The oligomeric amines can be reacted with epoxy and DDS to give the toughened thermoset. Pak and co-workers (274) have used PES with pendent amino groups as the modifier for epoxy resin. Like amine-terminated PES, they can be used as such or after modification with maleic anhydride. It has been found that with increase in -NH2 content, the toughness increases initially, passes through a maximum and then decreases. The initial increase in fracture toughness with increase in -NH2 content is due to increase in interfacial adhesion between the epoxy matrix and the dispersed PES particles, which prevents the debonding of particles. The decrease in fracture energy above an optimum -NH2 concentration can be attributed to the formation of a single-phase morphology (undesirable for toughening) as a result of higher miscibility of the PES, containing higher -NH2 content, with the epoxy resin.

Crystalline thermoplastics have also been utilised for toughening epoxy resins (238). Polyethylene oxide (PEO) was reported to be an effective toughening agent for epoxy (284). The -OH groups of PEO react




17

with epoxy at an elevated temperature and form a compatible blend with single-phase morphology or two-phase microstructure depending on the molecular weight of PEO and the curing condition. Nichols and Robertson (a.11) reported a systematic exploration of the relationship between thermal history, morphology and mechanical properties of polybutylene terepthalate (PBT)/epoxy blends. They found that 5 wt.% of a thermoplastic PBT was able to increase the fracture energy (GIc) of a brittle anhydride cured epoxy from 180 to 2000 J/m2 with proper control of morphology. The exceptional higher toughening ability of PBT in comparison to Nylon 6, can be attributed to phase-transformation of PBT at the crack tip (a.11) as observed in toughened ceramics.

6.6 Rigid Particle Toughening

The fourth approach generally taken to improve crack resistance of an epoxy resin, is the incorporation of rigid inorganic fillers such as alumina, silica, glass beads, etc., into glassy epoxy matrix (276, 281, 286). The mechanisms proposed for improvement of fracture resistance are shear yielding and crack pinning. However, unlike rubbery filler which can cavitate, get stretched and remain bonded due to the chemical interaction to sustain the imposed load, the rigid filler cannot deform or cavitate and easily get debonded from the matrix leading to the catastrophic failure of the material. It is difficult also to achieve a good dispersion of such materials in the epoxy matrices. The combinations of glass beads and rubbery fillers have been tried out (253, 273, 276) and it was reported that the fracture energies displayed a strong improvement and a synergistic effect due to the presence of both kinds of particles in the hybrid composites (270, 271).

7 Nanoreinforcement of Epoxy

Nanoreinforced composites or nanocomposites offer a great potential for novel properties because the distinct inorganic organic component properties can be combined in a single material with a uniformity of dispersion at the nano level. Such reinforcement often offers synergistic improvement in properties when the component sizes approach the nano scale (77). The concept of nanoreinforcement arises from the knowledge that control of structure/interactions at the smallest scales and the systematic nanometer by nanometer construction of composites provide the best chance to control the macroscopic properties

(207). An effective exploitation of nanoreinforcement requires an understanding of nonscale structure-property-processing relationships of nancomposites to select the right nancomponent and to process them properly for the target properties (214). The main advantage of the nanocomposite is the property tradeoffs associated with conventional composites. For example, nanomodification can improve the stiffness without sacrificing toughness, can enhance barrier properties without sacrificing transparency and offer flame retardency without deteriorating mechanical property and colour (100, 190, 191). Applications of nanocomposites have been proposed for ballistic armour, capable of withstanding small arms fire (7.62 mm bullets) (209). If the nanoreinforcement effect can be synergistically coupled with the effect of other additives/microfillers, the resultant composite materials will find wider applications leading to the more and more replacement of conventional metallic materials for critical applications (22, 102).

Various nanofillers namely, nanosilica (204) and nano calcium carbonate (33), polyhedral oligomeric silsesquixane (24, 31), have been used to make epoxy-based nanocomposites as described in Table 1. Nanocomposites are now no longer only restricted to the laboratory, they are found in the real world (62). Recently, two new polyamide-6 nanocomposites (NanoTuff and Nanoseal), have been introduced by the Nylon Corporation of America (21). Two technologies namely the technology of polymer/clay and technology of polymer/carbon nanotube (CNT) nanocomposites, will be discussed briefly in the following sections.

7.1 Clay Reinforced Epoxy

Polymer-clay nanocomposite (PCN) is one among very few areas in the field of polymer technology which has drawn considerable interest in recent years (42, 146, 151, 152). The main attractions of PCN are the low cost of clay and the well developed intercalation chemistry, which makes it possible to achieve a nanostructure from a micron size filler. Thus, PCN technology can avoid the potential health hazards involved in other nanomaterials technology.

The clays are made up of a crystal lattice (0.95 nm thick layer) stacked together. A layer consists of two tetrahedral sheets fused to one octahedral sheet of either aluminum or magnesium hydroxide (2:1 layer). These 2:1 layers are not electrostatically neutral. The excess layer charge, caused by isomorphous substitutions of Si4+ for Al3+ in the tetrahedral lattice and Al3+ for Mg2+ in the octahedral sheet, is balanced by interlayer


18

cations, which are commonly Na+, Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions. The strong hydrophilic nature of the clay surface results in a high interfacial tension with organic materials, making the layered silicate difficult to intercalate and disperse homogeneously in an epoxy matrix. That is why in situ polymerisation of epoxy with clay leads to a conventional microcomposite with particle size of about 5 to 15 mm as shown in Figure 9.

That is why it is necessary to modify the montmorillonite or bentonite clays with alkyl ammonium cation, which can be carried out by a simple ion exchange method (133). The introduction of an alkyl chain into the galleries, serves two purposes: firstly it introduces hydrophobic character into the gallery and it expands the spacing between the clay layers. Both these factors facilitate the penetration of polymer molecules into the galleries, leading to the formation of a nanocomposite (158, 166). Toyota Central R&D Laboratories Inc., Japan is the first company to exploit Nylon 6/clay composite for automotive applications. Subsequently, the organoclay for various polymer systems were commercialised by Nanocore Inc., USA and Southern Clay Ltd., and various polymer nancomposites were developed (201, 244, 246). The RTP Company has introduced a polyamide 6 nanocomposite film for extruded film/sheet applications and Bayer has commercialised a LPDU 601 grade, which is transparent with barrier properties. The TNO group has successfully made polyamide, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate and polyurethane using planomer technology, which is based on the concept of modifying the clay with a block copolymer (219). PCN offer better dimensional stability, thermal stability and flame retardency (211). Recently, Foster Corporation (USA) has commercialised a patented nanocomposite technology, which enhanced

the mechanical properties of a wide range of commodity and engineering thermoplastics plus thermosets (37). The process is called ‘Nano Med’, which is intended to be used in medical devices such as catheters. Techmer Lehvoss company, USA commercialised nanocomposite products since 2003 (111). It is estimated that global polymer nanocomposite market will exceed 211 million US Dollars by 2008. According to a report published by Business Communications Inc., USA in 2004, the polymer nanocomposite market is forecast to grow by 18.4% (136).

The organo-modified clay materials can easily be dispersed in liquid thermosetting resins like epoxy resin by simple techniques like mechanical mixing, shear mixing or sonication (17, 53). Curing such nano filled resin mixtures makes epoxy/clay nanocomposites. The fundamental principle behind the formation of layered silicate/thermoset nanocomposites is that both the resin and curing agent molecules are able to intercalate into and react within the silicate layer galleries. The organic modification of clay encourages such intercalation leading to the formation of a nanocomposite after curing. The nanocomposite structures formed after curing can be broadly divided into two types: intercalated nanocomposite in which the silicate is well dispersed in a polymer matrix with polymer chains inserted into silicate layers that retain their lateral order, and exfoliated nanocomposites where the silicate platelets become fully separated or delaminated, essentially individually dispersed in the epoxy matrix as schematically shown in Figure 10. However, the real morphology falls somewhere between these two extremes and the synthesis of true exfoliated nanocomposite, where the greatest property improvement takes place, still remains a challenge.

Figure 9 Formation of epoxy/clay microcomposites




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The key issues found to encourage exfoliation were thought to be the reactivity and diffusion rates of the curing agent due to their effect on extragallery and intragallery reaction rates. When the organoclay is dispersed in an epoxy hardener mixture, the resin mixture penetrates into the gallery and the curing reaction occurs both inside the gallery and outside the gallery which are called intragalery and extragalery reaction respectively. The alkyl ammonium cation presents in the galleries catalyses the epoxy/amine reaction. Hence the intragallery reaction is faster that the extragallery reaction. This helps the clay platelets to push apart leading to a higher extent of intercalation or exfoliation. A high temperature helps the intercalation (159) as is evident from x-ray diffraction analysis

shown in Figure 11. XRD is an important tool which is frequently used for structural characterisation of epoxy/clay nanocomposites. The x-ray technique is often applied to identify intercalated structures through Bragg’s equation:

l = 2d sinθ (12)

Where: l corresponds to the wavelength of the X-ray radiation used (l =1.5405 Å),

d corresponds to the spacing between specific diffraction lattice planes, and,

θ is the measured diffraction angle.

The d value corresponding to the (001) plane (indicative of interlayer distance), increases as a result of intercalation. The absence of the d001 peak indicates exfoliation. As observed from Figure 10, the d001 peak shifted to a lower value indicating the increase in d-space with the increase in cure temperature. Thus high cure temperature favours intercalation, however, it is restricted by the processing window.

XRD study does not detect the exfoliated and intercalated silicates (001 peak) with an interlayer distance greater than 9 nm (42). Hence, TEM is used to study the nanostructure of such composites. TEM micrographs of DGEBA nanocomposites cured at 100 °C and 160 °C are shown in Figure 12. It is clear that though the XRD indicates exfoliation, TEM studies indicated that the tactoid were still present and the

Figure 10 Schematic representations of intercalated and

exfoliated nanocomposites

Figure 11 XRD Plots of TgDDM nanocomposites containing 7.5% organoclay, cured at different temperature profile

Reprinted with permission from O. Becker, Y.B. Cheng, R.J. Varley and G.P. Simon, Macromolecules, 2003, 36, 5, 1616. ©2003, American Chemical Society


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morphology falls in between the intercalated and the exfoliated nanostructure (159).

Incorporation of nanoclay in a carbon fibre reinforced epoxy system, resulted in laminates with microcrack densities lower than those seen in case of unmodified composite system as a response to cryogenic cycle (181). Apart from reinforcing effect, nanoclay significantly reduces the water and solvent permeability of the epoxy matrix (16, 56), which is generally attributed to the creation of a ‘tortuous path’, for the permeant molecules to thread their way among the obstructing platelets (102, 133). Because of their polar nature, the epoxy matrix absorbs moisture, which significantly reduces the mechanical properties and toughness of epoxy composites (252, 260, 261, 303). This is a major concern for utilisation of epoxy composites in hot/wet conditions and underwater applications (86, 87, 252). It is possible to avoid the detrimental effect (due to moisture) by incorporating the nanoclay into the epoxy

composites. Consequently, the application of epoxy composites with nanoreinforcement, is going to be explored extensively and the use of epoxy composites for such applications as for example naval application, is going to be increased in the near future.

7.2 CNT-Reinforced Epoxy

Another method for synthesis of nanocomposites is the direct dispersion of nanoparticles in a polymer matrix. Today, technologies are available for synthesis of a wide variety of nanomaterials such as silicon whiskers, silicon cube, carbon nanotubes and so on. Since the discovery of CNT and subsequently the investigation of their properties, considerable attention has been focused on CNT-based nanocomposites in recent years (96, 105, 138).CNT are seamlessly rolled sheets of hexagonal array of carbon atoms with a diameter ranging from few Angstroms to several tens of nanometers across. These nanometer-sized tubes exist in two forms, singlewall carbon nanotubes (SWNT) in which the tube is formed from only a single layer of carbon atoms and multiwall carbon nanotubes, in which the tube consists of several layers of coaxial carbon tubes. The exceptionally high tensile strength and elastic modulus (~1 TPa) of these tubes renders them ideal candidates as ultra-strong reinforcement of composites.

The technology of epoxy/CNT nanocomposites, is less mature than the contemporary technology of PCN. The probable reasons are difficulty in synthesis of CNT in large scale and their dispersion in epoxy matrix unlike layered silicates which are easily available, and the related intercalation chemistry is well understood. Typically, CNT tend to agglomerate as bundles in solvents or in the host resin and if dispersed, reagglomerate quickly thereafter due to electrostatic attraction. Uniform dispersion within the polymer matrix and improved nanotube/matrix wetting and adhesion are critical issues in the processing of these nanocomposites. Slipping of nanotubes when they are assembled in ropes significantly affects the elastic properties of the composite. In addition to slipping of tubes that are not bonded to the matrix in a composite, the aggregates of nanotube ropes effectively reduces the aspect ratio of the reinforcement (96, 138).

Use of silane coupling agents and initiating the chemical bonding between CNT and the polymer matrix, have been reported for improvement of the dispersion (47, 169) and the final properties of the nanocomposites. As established for microfibre reinforced composites, matrix-CNT interfacial bonding is a critical parameter, which controls the efficiency of stress transfer from CNT

Figure 12TEM micrographs of DGEBA nanocomposites cured

at a) 100 °C and b) 160 °CReprinted with permission from O. Becker, Y.B.

Cheng, R.J. Varley and G.P. Simon, Macromolecules, 2003, 36, 5, 1616. ©2003, American Chemical Society




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to the matrix and the efficiency of stress transfer in turn dictates the mechanical properties of the composites. Thus the current interest in using CNT and anticipated potential applications for CNT-reinforced polymer composites, demands a better understanding of CNT-matrix interfacial characteristics. Since the magnitude of CNT strength is very high (almost 10 times higher than typical carbon fibre) very high interfacial shear strength may be required for more efficient strengthening of polymers with CNT.

When treated with inorganic acid, the outer shells of CNT were damaged to some extent and carboxylic acid groups were formed on the surface. Such functionalised CNT can easily be dispersed in epoxy resin by mechanical mixing, magnetic agitation or high-energy sonication (39, 78). Epoxy/CNT composites can be made by curing the modified resin with a suitable curing agent. The carboxyl groups of CNT, react with the epoxy groups resulting in higher interfacial interactions. Such composites show mechanical strength, several times higher compared to carbon fibre-reinforced composites (78, 131).

Another issue is to breakdown the CNT bundles as individual nanosized tubes. This will lead to the achievement of theoretical elastic modulus for the polymer/CNT composites, which has so far remained a challenge. Recently, Miyagawa and co-workers (143) have used fluorinated SW CNT for making anhydride cured epoxy nanocomposite by sonication as the fluorine atoms present in the nanotubes helps to disrupt the Van der Waals forces between the nanotubes leading to homogeneous dispersion. However, during sonication the fluorine atoms formed free radicals and resulted in partial breakage of the epoxy rings.

8 Simultaneous Nanoreinforcement and

Toughening

Polymer composites with well-dispersed, layered silicate often offer improved thermal stability and elastic modulus at the expense of fracture toughness. A similar trend was observed for CNT based and other nanocomposites, though the toughening

effect has been reported for polymer nanocomposites (35, 130). Increasing tether rigidity improves thermal stability and elastic modulus but decreases the fracture toughness, which is extremely important for engineering applications. Brittle polymers can be toughened by incorporating a rubbery phase as discussed before (in Section 6.2) for epoxy resin. However, rubber modification is accompanied with a substantial decrease in modulus. Hence, the conventional toughening strategy can be coupled with the nanoreinforcement strategy to make really a strong and tough material. The ternary blending strategy (simultaneous nanoreinforcement and toughening) is schematically represented in Figure 13.

Ternary blends consisting of rubber, clay and various polymer matrices have been investigated and show considerable promise (20, 28, 34, 67). However, it was

Figure 13 Schematic representations of simultaneous nanoreinforcement

and toughening


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observed (144) that for epoxies, addition of nanofiller affects the microstructure generated as a result of reaction-induced phase separation. Thus, control of nanostructure and microstructure poses a real challenge for development ternary polymer blends based high performance composites.

9 Fire Retardant Epoxy Composites

The second limitation of epoxy composites (polymer composites in general) is the poor fire resistance. This problem is a major concern in applications, where fire can occur, namely, aircraft cabin, ships, submarines, offshore drilling platforms and rail carriages. The subject of fire retardant composites became a source of interest (160). Several studies have examined the effect of high temperature or fire on the load bearing properties of polymer laminates and sandwich structures (66) (a.12). These studies have shown that thermal softening of the polymer matrix and reinforcement, creep and decomposition of polymer matrix, deteriorate the tension properties, whereas matrix softening and delamination cracking are responsible for the reduction of compression properties. Hence, it is necessary to make the composite materials-based end products flame retardant to ensure reliability and human safety. Before discussing the development of flame retardant composites, it necessary to know about flammability and smoke tests.

9.1 Flammability and Smoke Tests

There are many standards and governing regulatory bodies controlling the level of flame retardency required for various applications as described in earlier issue of Rapra review reports (128). Three most commonly used flame tests, namely, Underwriters laboratory test (UL-94), Cone calorimetry and limiting oxygen index (LOI) test, are very briefly described here.

9.1.1 UL-94 Flammability Test

The UL-94 test is performed on a plastic sample (125 mm by 13 mm with various thickness up to 13 mm) suspended vertically above a cotton patch. The plastic is subjected to a flame exposure for 10 seconds with a calibrated flame in a unit, which is free from the effect of external currents (158). After the first 10 seconds exposure, the flame is removed and the time for the sample to self extinguish is recorded. Cotton

ignition is noted if polymer dripping ensues; dripping is permissible if no cotton ignites. Then the second ignition is performed for the same sample and the self extinguishing time and dripping characteristic recorded. If the plastic self extinguishes in less than 10 seconds after each ignition with no dripping, it is classified as V-0. If it self extinguishes in less than 30 seconds after each ignition with no dripping, it is classified as V-1 and if the cotton ignites then it is classified as V-2. If the sample does not self extinguish before burning completely, it is classified as failed (F).

9.1.2 Cone Calorimetry

Cone calorimeter experiments were performed at an incident heat flask of 50 kW/m. Combustion behavior was assessed according to ASTM E1354-92 (a.13). During the test the materials were subjected to irradiated heat plus the feedback heat from the flame starting from the ignition of the volatile products. The aim is to simulate the conditions likely to occur in a real fire. The data were collected for first 250 seconds, this being regarded as representative of the initial stage of fire when it can still be stopped before becoming uncontrollable after flashover. The heat released was calculated from the consumption of oxygen due to combustion (72). Various parameters like peak heat release rate, mass loss rate, specific extinction area, ignition time (tign), carbon dioxide yield, carbon monoxide yield and specific heat of combustion data are calculated (119, 120). The results obtained from cone calorimeter, are considered reproducible to within 10% error when measured at 50 kW/m2. The average heat release rate is correlated to the heat released in a room where the flammable materials are not ignited in the same time. The data should be reported for a minimum of three replicated instruments.

9.1.3 LOI Test

LOI test is one of the oldest flammability tests - ASTM D2863 (a.14) and frequently used to compare the flame retardant properties of polymer samples. The method of operation is to select the desired initial concentration of oxygen based on the past experience with a similar material (43). The gas is allowed to flow for 30 seconds to purge the system. The specimen is ignited so that entire tip is burning. The relative flammability is determined by adjusting the concentration of oxygen, which will permit the specimen to burn. LOI is calculated from the following formula:




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LOI VV V

O

N O

=+

×100 (13)

where: Vo is the volume of oxygen and VN is the volume of nitrogen.

Thus, a LOI of a polymer sample of 28 indicates that 28% of the oxygen/nitrogen mixture was required to be oxygen in order to support continued combustion of the sample.

10 Fire Retardant Resin Compositions

Since inorganic fibres, used for reinforcement in composites are heat resistant and organic polymers are flammable (250), the fire properties of matrix resin play an important role in determining the fire properties of the related composites. Blending with fire retardant additives or chemical modification of the base resin (195, 196) develops fire retardant resins.

10.1 Halogenated Flame Retardants

Inorganic fillers such as metal hydroxides are used as smoke-reducing, non-toxic flame retardants (93, 99). However, the flame retardant efficiency of the inorganic fillers is very low and it is necessary to load the fillers to a very high concentration (> 60 wt.%) to achieve adequate flame retardency, which in turn drastically reduces the bulk mechanical properties of the matrix resin. A recent trend is to use a nanofiller such as nanosized magnesium hydroxide (26, 108, 126). However, the dispersion of such nanomaterials poses a challenge in regards to processing of the materials (93, 108).

A conventional flame retardant epoxy system consists of antimony trioxide and chlorinated paraffin (CP) or decabromobiphenyl oxide (DB)(27). During fire the antimony trioxide reacts with the chlorine of CP or bromine of DB and forms antimony halides which create a blanket of gaseous layer. This acts as a gas barrier between the fuel gas and condensed phase. Other mechanisms responsible for flame retardancy are: a) generation of free radical chain terminating agents, and b) promotion of char formation through dehydrogenation reactions (161, 163). As a result, oxygen cannot come in contact with the combustion zone and the fire extinguishes. However, low molecular weight CP or DB, have a problem of migration. The

migration problem can be solved by using brominated epoxy resins, which are mostly derived from DGEBA) and tetrabromo bisphenol-A (TBBA) with suitable catalysts. Brominated epoxies of different grades are commercially available from Atul and Vantico. Salakhov and co-workers (27) reported N-trichloromethylolimides of polychlorinated polycyclic dicarboxylic acids as a flame retardant modifier for epoxy.

The problem in general with halogenated flame retardants, is that during combustion the burning is associated with the release of toxic and corrosive gases, such as hydrogen halides, which are a potential health hazard (161, 163, 174). Also they can cause the severe degradation of polymer chains to combustible monomer or similar species (161). In recent years the research on the development of environment friendly, so called ‘green flame retardants’ has received considerable attention (162, 163, 179). The need has not only been expressed by acute government regulations but equally and persuasively by various social concerns for the environment.

10.2 Phosphorus Containing Flame Retardants

Recently, phosphorylation has been considered to be one of the most efficient methods for imparting flame retarding property to epoxy resins (148). Organophosphorus compounds have high flame retardant efficiency in epoxy resins and have also been found to generate less toxic gases and smoke compared to halogen containing compounds (116, 164). Hence, the replacement of halogen containing fire retardants by phosphorus-containing ones has a noteworthy benefit in terms of environmental protection. The presence of phosphorus helps to form a carbonaceous char or a barrier layer of polyphosphoric acid on burning of the polymer in the condensed phase (215). A chemical vapour-phase mechanism is found to be effective in those cases where the phosphorus containing degradation products are capable of being vapourised at the temperature of the pyrolysing surface. Triphenyl phosphine oxide and triphenyl phosphate have been shown to break down in the flame to small molecular species such as PO, HPO2, PO2 and P2. The rate controlling hydrogen atom concentration in the flame has been shown to reduce in the presence of these species. Studies on the systems with phosphorus atom in the chain as well as with the volatile phase species indicate that condensed phase mechanism is more effective than vapour phase mechanism (180).

Flame retardant epoxy systems can be made by blending a suitable organophosphorus compound or by using


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phosphorus containing curing agents (amine, acid or anhydride) and/or phosphorus containing epoxy resins (240). The reactive types of flame retardant exhibit much better flame retardancy and overcome several drawbacks associated with physical blends of the epoxy and the flame retardants (128). By the judicious selection of curing agent of the epoxy, the fire-retardant property can be manipulated taking advantage of phosphorus-nitrogen synergism. Note that the synergistic property probably occurs due to the formation of the P-N bonded intermediates, which are better phosphorylating agents than those of the related phosphorus compounds without nitrogen (180). However, introduction of phosphorus in the resin backbone or in the curing agents may affect the curing behaviour and thermomechanical properties of the cured resin.

Hergenrother and co-workers (112) synthesised the epoxy and the diamine curing agents containing phosphorus and evaluated the resins for composite applications. The optimised formulations showed excellent flame retardation with phosphorus content as low as 1.5 wt.%. The flame retardancy is achieved without any sacrifice in the properties due to incorporation of phosphorus. Braun and co-workers (18) investigated the influence of the oxidation state of phosphorus on the decomposition and fire behavior of epoxy-based composites highlighting the potential for optimising flame retardancy while maintaining the mechanical properties of epoxy/carbon fibre composites. They have used phosphene oxide, phosphinate, phosphonate, and phosphates (phosphorus content about 2.6 wt.%) and found that by increasing the oxidation state of the phosphorus, additional charring is observed. So, the thermally stable residue increases whereas the flame inhibition, which plays an important role for the fire performance of the composites, decreases. The study of the decomposition behaviour indicates that phosphorus-containing groups influence the decomposition of the epoxy, resulting in a clear multi-step decomposition with mass losses between approximately 15 to 20 wt.% in subsequent processes after the main decomposition step. The mass loss of the main decomposition process is reduced as a result of incorporation of phosphorus.

Recently the use of 9,10 dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide based compounds have been shown (13, 155) to induce a significant improvement in the flame retardancy of epoxies, while at the same time avoiding many disadvantages such as poor compatibity, migration of compound and release of toxic gases upon burning as compared to conventional flame retardants. The beauty of this system is that the flame retardancy can be improved at phosphorus content as low as 3 wt.%, thereby limiting processing

difficulties, and the often severe degradation of the thermomechanical properties of the base resin.

Very recently, Braun and co-workers (68) have reported a novel phosphorus modified polysulfone acting as a flame retardant and as an impact modifier for epoxy systems at the same time. Incorporating the modifier in an amine-cured difunctional epoxy they could enhance both the toughness and the flame retardancy without a significant sacrifice in thermomechanical properties. Also it was possible to generate a network of higher Tg under certain curing condition due to the formation of an interlocked epoxy-thermoplastic network. In order to explain the fire property, the decomposition behavior has been investigated (68). The possible decomposition pathway for DGEBA/DDS network is shown in Figure 14 (68). The analysis of decomposed product indicates formation of gases such as SO2, CO, CH4 and so on. The phosphorus-containing polysulfone interacts with the epoxy as shown in Figure 15 during decomposition and favoured the middle pathway (68).

10.3 Nanoclay-Based Flame Retardants

Incorporation of a small amount of modified (organophilic) layered silicates, into a polymer matrix, has been reported to reduce the heat release and mass loss rate as measured by cone calorimetry (170, 182, 192, 236). The improvement in flame retardancy has been investigated using both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins. Evidence was found for a common mechanism of thermal stability and flammability reduction, and it was found that addition of organoclays can substantially aid flame retardancy by encouraging the formation of a carbonaceous char in the condensed phase (137, 170, 174). The nanoscale dispersed lamellae of clay, either intercalated or exfoliated in polymer matrix, all enhance the formation of charring upon burning (212). After pyrolysis the nanocomposite forms a char with a multilayered carbonaceous silicate structure (121, 139). The exfoliated clay layers firstly collapse into an intercalated structure which is transformed into a multilayered carbonaceous-silicate structure later (30, 193, 199). The carbonaceous char builds up on the surface during burning and insulates the underlying materials. This limits the passage of degradation products from the matrix which supports the continuous fueling of the fire (38, 127). The advantages of organoclay over conventional flame retardants are manifolds: no generation of toxic gases (truly green flame retardant) and no discoloration (175, 176, 198). Use of organoclay improves the mechanical properties unlike conventional flame retardants which




25

usually cause a deterioration in the thermomechanical properties (224, 227, 229).

However, it is usually found that such clay additions are not themselves sufficiently effective to be classified as a flame retardant. The clay modified polymer compositions perform poorly when tested by the industrially significant UL-94 standard with respect

to extinction time (19, 49). The failure is attributed to the adsorbed onium salt present in the clay (making it organophilic), which increases the early ignition. Also at high temperature the onium ions present in the galleries of the clay undergo decomposition destroying the nanocomposite structure (19). Moreover, a major limitation of organoclay is that they work in ‘condensed phase’ and do not work in the vapour phase (49, 52).

Figure 14 Part of possible decomposition pathway for DGEBA-DDS epoxy material. Verified decomposition products are

shown in grey and charring/crosslinking is indicated by zigzag line. Reprinted with permission from U. Braun, U. Knoll, B. Schartel, T. Hoffmann, D. Pospiech, J. Artner, M.

Ciesielski, M. Döring, R.P. Graterol, J.K.W. Sandler and V. Altstädt, Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 2006, 207, 16, 1501. ©2006, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KgaA

Figure 15 Proposed interaction of phosphorus-containing FR and epoxy

Reprinted with permission from from U. Braun, U. Knoll, B. Schartel, T. Hoffmann, D. Pospiech, J. Artner, M. Ciesielski, M. Döring, R.P. Graterol, J.K.W. Sandler and V. Altstädt, Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics,

2006, 207, 16, 1501. ©2006, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KgaA


26

10.4 Combination of Organoclay and Other Flame Retardants

Recent studies on the combined effects of organoclay and flame-retardants on polymer blends system reveal that the presence of an organoclay increases the compatibilisation of the blend (61). The results have been attributed to the barrier effect or specific interaction of both the polymer with the clay which resulted in change in free energy of mixing. The modern flame retardants are basically organic molecules with halogen or phosphorus groups, and are not well dispersed in polymer system. Hence, it can be postulated that the presence of clay might enhance the compatibility between the polymer and the fire retardant resulting in improvement in fire properties (184, 188). Thus, by using a small amount of clay, it is possible to significantly reduce the amount of conventional fire retardant additives, required for optimum flame retardant properties. The conventional flame retardants always have some detrimental effects on the mechanical properties of the polymer system, hence by using nanoclay, such detrimental effects can be minimised and compensated for. The synergistic effect of nanoclay and conventional fire retardant (decabromodiphenyl oxide plus antimony trioxide) for polypropylene-g-maleic anhydride system was investigated (189). The synergy between the brominated fire retardant and antimony trioxide was found in nanocomposite system whereas no synergy was observed in the virgin polymer matrix. Synergistic effects of inorganic flame retardants (aluminum trihydrate) and phosphorus-based flame retardants with nanoclay, were reported for epoxy (52, 94, 188) and other polymer systems like vinyl ester (88, 98), ethylene vinyl acetate (43), polystyrene (147), polypropylene (189) and silicone rubber (41). TEM and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry measurements of serially burned samples indicate that the clays play various roles on quenching the flame, such as promoting the char formation, improving the dispersion of fire-retardants and catalysing the chain reaction for dissociation of halogenated compounds.

10.5 Intumescent Fire Retardants

Intumescent fire retardants (IFR) are a new class of flame retardants which develop a carbonaceous shield under heat flux (216). The solid first begins to melt and dissipates thermal energy in the process. A state of viscoelastic material is achieved which can trap the evolving gases. This material starts to expand and grow, i.e., to intumesce. The intumescent coating so formed no longer traps the evolving gases when the internal pressure increases and it degrades under the

heat flux and thus protects the structure. The final state consists of a carbonaceous residue which contains polyaromatic and phosphorus oxides. IFR consists of three main components: the acid source, carbon source and gas source. Polyphosphates-pentaerytritol-melamine system has been successfully used to develop intumescent coating and additive for thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers (165, 216, 217). It was reported that amine cured epoxy-based intumescent compositions can be developed using a ammonium polyphosphate, calcium borate and phenanthrene dehydropolycondensation product containing chromium and nickel, as additives (160). The composites based on intumescent epoxy formulation and fire retardant cellulose fibres have been studied (160). Physical and chemical interactions of the three components lead to synergistic effect resulting in an enhanced char formation.

11. Summary and Outlook

The limitations of conventional epoxy-based FRP composites for high performance applications are poor damage tolerance and fire resistance. The damage tolerance can be improved by using a tough resin, high strain fibres and by manipulation of the interfaces. The most successful method for improvement of impact strength of an epoxy composite for structural applications, is the toughening of epoxy resin. Liquid rubber toughening is recommended for a difunctional epoxy and thermoplastic toughening is the most suitable for a multifunctional epoxy network. The toughening strategy can be coupled with a suitable nanoreinforcement by using a nanofiller like nanoclay and CNT, to produce strong and tough composites. The control of both microstructures and nanostructures is required for achieving optimum properties. Since the magnitude of CNT strength is very high (almost 10 times higher than that of a typical carbon fibre), very high interfacial shear strength may be required for a more efficient strengthening of polymers with CNT. Recent strategy of using functionalised CNT, shows a considerable promise and the chemical means to improve interfacial adhesion between CNT and the polymer matrix, is likely to be a major focus in near future.

In recent years, a lot of studies have been carried out to predict the composite properties in fire and to develop efficient fire-retardant composites. Though various methods can be adopted to improve the performance of composites in fire, the use of flame retardant resins, is inevitable. Phosphorus-containing flame retardants




27

are reported to be better in terms of environmental protection compared to the halogen-based ones. Development of phosphorus-containing modifiers, which can simultaneously act as a flame retardant and as an impact modifier for epoxy resins, shows encouraging results, although the detailed mechanical properties and long-term performance of the related composite structures, are yet to be established. Organoclays offer the fire retardancy without any environmental hazard (‘green’ flame-retardants), however, they are not themselves alone sufficiently effective. They can be used in combination with other flame retardants to achieve required fire properties with a minimum amount of flame retardants and to compensate the degradation in thermomechanical properties of the composites occurring due to the addition of flame retardants. Chemically reactive phosphorus-containing flame retardants, in addition with organoclays, or the combinations of both, are going to be the future materials for development of high performance, flame retardant composites.

12. List of Abbreviation and Acronyms

3D Three-dimensional

ATBN Amine-terminated copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile

BPA Bisphenol-A

CMC Ceramic matrix composite

CNT Carbon nanotube(s)

CP Chlorinated paraffin

CTBN Carboxyl-terminated copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile

CTPEHA Carboxyl-terminated poly(2-ethyl hexyl acrylate)

DB Decabromobiphenyl oxide

DDM 4,4́ Diaminodiphenyl methane

DDS 4,4́ Diaminodiphenyl sulfone

DETDA Diethyl toluene diamine

DGEBA Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A

Dr Diffusivity of rubber

DSC Differential scanning calorimetry

ESO Epoxidised soybean oil

FRP Fibre reinforced plastic

HBP Hyperbranched polymer(s)

IFR Intumescent fire retardant(s)

ILSS Inter laminar shear strength

LOI Limiting oxygen index

MLT Matrix ligament thickness

MMC Metal matrix composite

Mn Number average molecular weight

NASA N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s a n d S p a c e Administration

PBT Polybutylene terepthalate

PCN Polymer-clay nanocomposite

PEO Polyethylene oxide

PES Polyether sulfone

phr Parts per hundred rubber

PMC Polymer matrix composite(s)

R&D Research and Development

RTM Resin transfer moulding

SEM Scanning electron microscope

SWNT Singlewall carbon nanotube

TEM Transmission electron microscopy

TETA Triethylene tetramine

Tg Glass transition temperature

TGA Thermogravimetric analysis

TGAP Triglycidyl p-amino phenol

TGDDM Tetraglycidyl ether of 4,4́ diamino diphenyl methane

UL-94 Underwriters Laboratory test

XRD X-ray diffraction

13. Additional References

a.1 B.Z. Jang, Science and Engineering of Composite Materials, 1991, 2, 1, 29

a.2 H. Lee and K. Neville, Handbook of Epoxy Resins, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, NY, USA, 1967.

a.3 ASTM D5045-99(2007)e1, Standard Test Methods for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness and Strain Energy Release Rate of Plastic Materials, 2007.


28

a.4 ASTM D256-06a, Standard Test Methods for Determining the Izod Pendulum Impact Resistance of Plastics, 2006.

a.5 P.J. Flory, Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, USA, 1975.

a.6 R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, Wiley, New York, NY, USA, 1969.

a.7 D. Li, A.F. Yee, I.-W. Chen, S-C. Chang and K. Takahashi, Journal of Materials Science, 1994, 29, 8, 2205.

a.8 S. Wu and A. Mongolina, Polymer, 1990, 31, 5, 972.

a.9 Canadian Plastics, 1985, 43, 4, 23.

a.10 M.P. Merkel, V.L. Dimonie, M.S. El-Asser and J.W. Vanderhoff, Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition, 1987, 25, 5, 1219.

a.11 M.E. Nichols and R.E. Robertson, Journal of Materials Science, 1994, 29, 22, 5916.

a.12 J.V. Bausano, J.J. Lesko and S.W. Case, Composite Part A, 2006, 37, 7, 1092.

a.13 ASTM E1354-04a, Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter, 2004.

a.14 ASTM D2863-06a, Standard Test Method for Measuring the Minimum Oxygen Concentration to Support Candle-Like Combustion of Plastics (Oxygen Index), 2006.



References and Abstracts

© Copyright 2007 Smithers Rapra Technology 29

References from the Polymer Library Database

Item 1Polymer48, No.8, 2007, p.2345-2354UNDERSTANDING THE DECOMPOSITION AND FIRE PERFORMANCE PROCESSES IN PHOSPHORUS AND NANOMODIFIED HIGH PERFORMANCE EPOXY RESINS AND COMPOSITESWeichang Liu; Varley R J; Simon G PMonash,University; CSIRO

This paper investigates the decomposition mechanism and fire performance of high performance epoxy amine resins and laminate systems, using thermogravimetry (TGA), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), cone calorimetry and Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR). Two different, commercially-important epoxy resins, tetraglycidyl methylene dianiline (TGDDM) and diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) have been cured separately with diethyl toluene diamine (DETDA) and bis(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl phosphonate (BAPP) and their relative combustion performance has been examined and discussed in terms of their decomposition profile. This paper highlights the close relationship between char yields (TGA and cone calorimetry) and thermal decomposition with the peak heat release rate, highlighting the role of the condensed phase in minimizing combustion. The lower decomposition temperatures and higher char yields of the tetra-functional epoxy (TGDDM) are therefore seen to provide superior fire performance compared to the bi-functional (DGEBA) epoxy. FTIR shows that the decomposition occurs through initial cleavage of P-O-C bonds in preference to other covalent bonds, which allows dehydration and subsequent charring and/or chain scission. TGA demonstrated that the laminated systems did not show a significant difference to the neat resin systems, with respect to initial decomposition of the network and the thermal stability of the char layer. Nanoclay addition was also found to have little effect upon degradation and fire performance. 33 refs. Copyright (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.992032

Item 2Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering46, No.1-3, Jan.-March 2007, pp.227-232SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF MONTMORILLONITE AND INTUMESCENT FLAME RETARDANT ON FLAME RETARDANCE ENHANCEMENT OF ABSYing Xia; Xi-gao Jian; Jian-feng Li; Xin-hong Wang; Yan-yan XuDalian,Institute of Light Industry; Dalian,University of Technology; Dalian,University of Light Industry

Synergistic effects of organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT) and an intumescent flame retardant (IFR) based on ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and pentaerythritol (PER) on the enhancement of flame retardance of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (ABS) were examined by a range of methods. The limiting oxygen index value and vertical flame tests showed that OMMT has a synergistic flame-retardant effect with the IFR, and the LOI value of ABS/OMMT/IFR (96:4:20) reached 28.7%. Thermogravimetry showed that the incorporation of OMMT and IFR is very effective in enhancing the thermal stability of the ABS/OMMT/IFR system at temperatures above 500 deg.C. X-ray diffractometry showed that the ABS/OMMT composite is type of intercalated nanocomposite with a gallery height of 3.5 nm. Microstructural studies with SEM showed that suitable amounts of OMMT and IFR can promote the formation of compact intumescent charred layers in ABS blends. 15 refs.CHINA

Accession no.992294

Item 3Composites and Polycon 2006. Proceedings of a conference held St.Louis, Mo., 18th-20th Oct.2006.Arlington, Va., ACMA, 2006, Paper 29, pp.16, CD-ROM, 012POLYPROPYLENE BASED NOVEL FLAME RETARDANT NANOCOMPOSITE COMPOSITIONSDeodhar S; Shanmuganathan K; Patra P; Qinguo Fan; Calvert P; Warner S; Wilkie C; Dembsey NMassachusetts,University; Marquette,University; Worcester,Polytechnic Institute(American Composites Manufacturers Association; ICPA)

Polypropylene/ca lc ium carbonate /ammonium polyphosphate nanocomposites with five different percentage loadings of additives were prepared by melt mixing and the effect of the additives on the flame spread rate of PP films investigated using a standard horizontal flame spread test. The decomposition behaviour of the additives, mixtures thereof and nanocomposite films was studied by TGA and the interaction between the additives and their effects on the heat stability of PP examined by TGA and TGA-FTIR analysis. The char residue obtained after burning of the nanocomposite films was examined by X-ray diffraction and synergism between the additives in reducing PP flammability discussed. 18 refs.USA

Accession no.991646


30 © Copyright 2007 Smithers Rapra Technology

Item 4European Polymer Journal43, No.3, 2007, p.725-742PREPARATION, THERMAL PROPERTIES, MORPHOLOGY, AND MICROSTRUCTURE OF PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING EPOXY/SIO”2 AND POLYIMIDE/SIO”2 NANOCOMPOSITESChing Hsuan Lin; Chen Chia Feng; Ting Yu HwangTaiwan,National Chung-Hsing University

A phosphorus-containing tri-ethoxysilane (dopo-icteos) reacting from the nucleophilic addition reaction of 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene 10-oxide (dopo) and 3-(trieoxysilyl) isocyanate (icteos) was synthesised. The structure of dopo-icteos was confirmed by 1H, 13C, 31P NMR and IR spectra. A triethylamine catalyzed mechanism for the dopo-icteos synthesis was proposed and verified by NMR spectra. The phosphorus-containing epoxy/SiO2 and polyimide/SiO2 nanocomposites were prepared from the in-situ curing of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA)/4,4-diaminodiphenylmethane(DDM)/dopo-icteos, and imidisation of poly(amic acid) of pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA)/4,4’-oxydianiline (ODA)/dopo-icteos, respectively. The microstructure and morphology were investigated by 29Si NMR, scanning electron microscope (SEM), EDS (Si and P mapping) analysis and atomic force microscope (AFM). The thermal properties, flame retardancy and dielectric properties of the organic-inorganic hybrids were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), limiting oxygen index (LOI), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and dielectric analyzer (DEA). 24 refs. Copyright (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd.TAIWAN

Accession no.989950

Item 5Polymer48, No.6, 2007, p.1596-1605EFFECT OF SUB-MICRON SILICA FILLERS ON THE MECHANICAL PERFORMANCES OF EPOXY-BASED COMPOSITESBugnicourt E; Galy J; Gerard J F; Barthel HLyon,Institut National des Sciences Appliquees; Wacker-Chemie AG

Solid state thermo-mechanical properties, as well as low and large strain mechanical behaviour, of epoxy composites filled with sub-micron pyrogenic silica are discussed in this paper. The reinforcement mechanisms involved are investigated. Two distinct series of pyrogenic silica were used: hydrophilic silica with various specific surface areas and silica grafted with various organo-modifications. Furthermore, two series of networks, having either a high or low crosslink density, and resulting thus either in glassy or rubbery materials at room temperature, were considered. Dynamic mechanical analysis, uniaxial tensile tests and fracture mechanic tests were performed. All our results showed that pyrogenic silica leads to an improvement

of network mechanical properties both in the glassy and rubbery states. The simultaneous increase of stiffness and toughness was observed, demonstrating the great potential of pyrogenic silica for the reinforcement of thermosetting systems. This exceptional behaviour has been interpreted in terms of the interactions and morphology developed. 23 refs. Copyright (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.990041

Item 6Polymer Engineering and Science47, No.3, 2007, p.330-336FLAME RETARDING EFFECTS OF NANOCLAY ON WOOD-FIBER COMPOSITESGuo G; Park C; Lee Y; Kim Y; Sain MToronto,University

This research article focuses on investigating the effects of nanoclay particles on the flame retarding characteristics of wood-fibre/plastic composites (WPC) using ASTM D635. The processing aspects of nanocomposites with WPC are presented. The processing techniques for controlling the degree of exfoliation and the cost aspect are also described. It turns out that the coupling agent used for wood-fibres is also effective for the exfoliation of clay, and therefore, no additional cost is required. This research indicates that the structure of nanocomposites (i.e., the degree of exfoliation) and the clay content used have a large impact on the flame retardancy of WPC. The flame retardancy is investigated as a function of these parameters. Based on this, a cost-effective way to improve flame retardancy of WPC is presented. 33 refs.CANADA

Accession no.990194

Item 7IRC 2005 Yokohama. Proceedings of a conference held Yokohama, Japan, 24th-28th Oct.2005.Yokohama, Japan,Society of Rubber Industry, 2005, Paper 59, pp.4, CD-ROM, 012FLAME RETARDANCY OF EVA-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITESNishizawa H; Okoshi MNishizawa,Technical Institute; Fuji Xerox Co.Ltd.(Japan,Society of Rubber Industry; Foundation for Advancement of International Science)

An investigation was carried out into the flame retardancy of organic-inorganic EVA nanocomposites containing either treated or untreated clay using magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles as flame retardant. The nanocomposites were prepared in a twin-screw extruder or press mould and the interaction between the clay and polymer investigated through the Ziegler effect and spin-spin relaxation time. 9 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.990607





Item 8High Performance Polymers19, No.1, Feb.2007, p.33-47SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CYANATE EPOXY COMPOSITESJayakumari L S; Thulasiraman V; Sarojadevi MAnna,UniversityAnthraquinone dicyanate was prepared by treating CNBr with 1,4-dihydroxy anthraquinone in the presence of triethylamine at -5 to 5 deg.C. The dicyanate was characterised by FTIR spectroscopy. The prepared dicyanate was blended with commercial epoxy resin in different ratios and cured at 120 deg.C for 1 h, 180 deg.C for 1 h and post-cured at 220 deg.C for 1 h using diaminodiphenylmethane as the curing agent. Castings of neat resin and blends were prepared and characterised by FTIR analysis. The composite laminates were also fabricated from the same composition. The mechanical properties such as TS, flexural strength and fracture toughness were measured as per ASTM D 3039, D 790 and D 5528, respectively. The TS increased with increasing cyanate content (3, 6, and 9%) from 52.1 to 80.1 MPa. The values of fracture toughness also increased from 0.7671 kJ m-2 for the neat epoxy resin to 0.9168 kJ m-2 for the 9% cyanate ester epoxy-modified system. The thermal properties were also studied. The 10% weight loss temperature of pure epoxy was 358 deg.C and it increased to 381 deg.C with incorporation of cyanate ester resin. The incorporation of cyanate ester up to a 9% loading level did not affect the Tg to a very great extent. These new cyanate-modified epoxy composites could have the potential to provide better performance in engineering and aerospace applications. 17 refs.INDIA

Accession no.990785

Item 9International Polymer Science and Technology34, No.2, 2007, p. T/1-8FLAME RETARDANCY OF TPU AND PVC NANOCOMPOSITESBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

The thermooxidative stability of thermoplastic polyurethane- and plasticised PVC-based nanocomposites was investigated with reference to the use of organoclays. The PU nanocomposites were synthesised using virgin and also conventional flame retarded thermoplastic polyurethanes. A 70% reduction in the peak heat release rate and no dripping of the burning polymer, was achieved. For PVC nanocomposites containing organoclays, a rapid HCl release through an accelerated chain stripping reaction of the polymer, catalysed by the quaternary ammonium compound in the organoclays, was found. This resulted in severe discoloration. Synthesis routes based on EVA or TPU masterbatches of organoclays substantially reduced the darkening of the PVC compounds. Cone calorimeter experiments showed no significant improvement in the

flame retardancy properties of PVC filled organoclays. 31 refs.(Article translated from Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe, No.8, 2006, p.493-498).BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.988766

Item 10Polymer Materials Science and Engineering22, No.6, Nov.2006, p.205-208ChineseSYNERGISTIC FIRE RETARDANT EFFECT OF NANO CG-ATH AND RED PHOSPHORUS FOR PBTTing-Song Cai; Fen Guo; Jian-Fen ChenChina,Ministry of Education; Beijing,University of Chemical TechnologyNano CG-ATH and encapsulated red phosphorus were added to PBTP in varying amounts and the fire retardancy and mechanical properties, including tensile strength, elongation at break and impact strength, and limiting oxygen index of the nanocomposites investigated. The synergistic effect of CG-ATH and red phosphorus is discussed. 8 refs.CHINA

Accession no.989463

Item 11Composites Science and Technology67, No.6, 2007, p.974-980EFFECT OF DISPERSION OF NANO-MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE ON THE FLAMMABILITY OF FLAME RETARDANT TERNARY COMPOSITESGui H; Zhang X; Liu Y; Dong W; Wang Q; Gao J; Song Z; Lai J; Qiao JBeijing,University of Chemical Technology; Beijing,Research Inst.of the Chemical IndustryA novel flame-retardant ternary composite of polymer/crosslinked rubber/nano-magnesium hydroxide (MH), prepared by blending thermoplastic polymer with a special compound powder of crosslinked rubber/nano-MH, was introduced in this paper. The special compound powder of crosslinked rubber/nano-MH was prepared by co-spray drying the fluid mixture of nano-MH slurry and irradiated rubber latex. The cone testing results showed that the new flame-retardant ternary composite had better flame retardancy than the composite obtained by conventional process, such as longer “time to ignition” and lower “mean heat release rate in initial time”. Thermogravimetry and transmission electron microscope were used to analyze the reason of different flame retardancy. It is found that more uniform dispersion of nano-MH in the new ternary composite than in conventional one may be the main reason for better flame retardancy. 23 refs. Copyright (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd.CHINA

Accession no.987799



Item 12Polymer Degradation and Stability92, No.1, 2007, p.86-93SELF-EXTINGUISHING POLYMER/ORGANOCLAY NANOCOMPOSITESSi M; Zaitsev V; Goldman M; Frenkel A; Peiffer D G; Weil E; Sokolov J C; Rafailovich M HNew York,State University at Stony Brook; New York,Yeshiva University; ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Co.; Brooklyn,Polytechnic University

We demonstrated that self-extinguishing polymer nanocomposites, which can pass the stringent UL 94 V0 standard, can be successfully prepared by combining modified organoclays with traditional flame retardant (FR) agents. Using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we determined that the addition of modified clays, which can intercalate or exfoliate in the matrix, also improved the dispersion of the FR agents. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) indicated that the clays increased the modulus of the polymer above Tg, which prevented dripping during burning. Cone calorimetry test showed that the nanocomposites with both FR and organoclay, had a lower peak heat release rate (PHRR) and average mass loss rate (MLR) than those with only clay or the FR agents. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data confirmed that no FR/clay interactions occurred in the solid phase, and that the synergistic effects were due to gas phase reactions. Since this mechanism is not specific, it opens the possibility of formulating self-extinguishing materials from a large class of polymers. 16 refs.USA

Accession no.986624

Item 13Polymer48, No.3, 2007, p.778-790NOVEL PHOSPHORUS-MODIFIED POLYSULFONE AS A COMBINED FLAME RETARDANT AND TOUGHNESS MODIFIER FOR EPOXY RESINSPerez R M; Sandler J K W; Altstadt V; Hoffmann T; Pospiech D; Ciesielski M; Doring M; Braun U; Balabanovich A I; Schartel BBayreuth,University; Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research; Karlsruhe,Forschungszentrum; Berlin,Federal Inst.For Mat.Res.& Testing

A novel phosphorus-modified polysulphone (P-PSu) was employed as a combined toughness modifier and a source of flame retardancy for a DGEBA/DDS thermosetting system. In comparison to the results of a commercially available polysulphone (PSu), commonly used as a toughness modifier, the chemorheological changes during curing measured by means of temperature-modulated DSC revealed an earlier occurrence of mobility restrictions in the P-PSu-modified epoxy. A higher viscosity and secondary epoxy-modifier reactions induced a sooner vitrification

of the reacting mixture; effects that effectively prevented any phase separation and morphology development in the resulting material during cure. Thus, only about a 20% increase in fracture toughness was observed in the epoxy modified with 20wt.% of P-PSu, cured under standard conditions at 180 deg.C for 2h. Blends of the phosphorus-modified and the standard polysulphone (PSu) were also prepared in various mixing ratios and were used to modify the same thermosetting system. Again, no evidence for phase separation of the P-PSu was found in the epoxy modified with the P-PSu/PSu blends cured under the selected experimental conditions. The particular microstructures formed upon curing these novel materials are attributed to a separation of PSu from a miscible P-PSu-epoxy mixture. Nevertheless, the blends of P-PSu/PSu were found to be effective toughness/flame retardancy enhancers owing to the simultaneous microstructure development and polymer interpenetration. 62 refs. Copyright (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.986756

Item 14Journal of Applied Polymer Science103, No.2, 15th Jan.2007, p.670-680PHASE CHARACTERIZATION AND MECHANICAL AND FLAME-RETARDING PROPERTIES OF NANO-CASO4/POLYPROPYLENE AND NANO-CA3(PO4)2/POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITESMishra S; Mukherji AJalgaon,North Maharashtra University

The synthesis of nano-CaSO4 and nano-Ca3(PO4)2 and the formation and characterisation of polypropylene composites with these is described. The observed transition from the alpha-phase to the beta-phase is confirmed by FTIR. The thermal properties of composites containing varying amounts of nano-filler are reported. The mechanical properties are related to observed morphological properties and phase behaviour. 21 refs.INDIA

Accession no.984446

Item 15Journal of Applied Polymer Science103, No.3, 5th Feb.2007, pp.1681-1689FIRE-RESISTANT EFFECT OF NANOCLAY ON INTUMESCENT NANOCOMPOSITE COATINGSZhen-yu Wang; En-hou Han; Wei KeShenyang,Chinese Academy of Sciences

The interactions of ammonium polyphosphate, pentaerythritol, melamine and a nanocomposite of methyl methacrylate-styrene copolymer were examined. The effect of the added nanoclay on the fire performance was studied by a fire-protection test and by measuring the limiting





oxygen index and effective thermal conductivity. The distribution of nanoparticles in the acrylic nanocomposite was characterised by transmission electron microscopy. The flame-retarding efficiency of the intumescent nanocomposite coating was improved by the presence of 1.5% of well-distributed nanoclay particles. However, the addition of 3% of nanoclay had a negative effect on the fire performance of the coating. The fire-retardant property of a conventional intumescent coating is destroyed by ageing, whereas nanocomposite coatings modified with 1.5% of nanoclay showed good resistance to ageing and fire. 16 refs.CHINA

Accession no.984623

Item 16Polymer Engineering and Science46, No.12, 2006, p.1667-1673NANOREINFORCEMENT OF FLEXIBLE EPOXY USING LAYERED SILICATERatna D; Chakraborty B C; Dutta H; Banthia A KIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory; Indian Institute of Technology

Flexible epoxy matrices, having a good vibration damping capability, were nanoreinforced using an organoclay. The nanocomposites were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. The effect of matrix flexibility on the reinforcing effect was investigated. It was found that the reinforcing effect increased with an increase in flexibility of the matrix. The reinforcement is achieved without any sacrifice in flexibility and Tg. In addition, a reduction in solvent diffusion and flammability has been demonstrated. DMA study indicates that the height of the loss peak, decreases with incorporation of the clay because of the intercalation. Nevertheless, the nanocomposite samples having up to 10 wt% of the clay show a high damping capability as evident from the tan deltamax values. 38 refs.INDIA

Accession no.984691

Item 17Polymers and Polymer Composites14, No.8, 2006, p.805-812EFFECT OF EPOXY MODIFIER ON FLAME RETARDANCY AND RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ABS/MONTMORILLONITE COMPOSITESBo Liu; Chaoying Wan; Yong Zhang; Yinxi Zhang; Yu Su; Jiliang JiShanghai,Jiao Tong University

The effect is studied of an epoxy modifier on the morphology, flame retardancy and rheology of an organically modified montmorillonite-reinforced ABS. It was shown that the processing condition of epoxy modification had a significant influence on the morphology

and structure of the composites. In the case of the direct addition of epoxy, the composite had an intercalated structure, whereas when the epoxy was used to pre-treat the composite, it demonstrated an exfoliated structure in which the modified montmorillonite was well-dispersed at the nano-scale. Cone calorimetry experiments showed that the intercalated structure was a little more effective than the exfoliated one in terms of flame retardancy, due to the char formation following pyrolysis. Composites with an exfoliated structure exhibited a solid-like response and had a higher storage modulus and viscosity in the low frequency zone than those with an intercalated structure. 29 refs.CHINA

Accession no.983443

Item 18Polymer47, No.26, 2006, p.8495-8508INFLUENCE OF THE OXIDATION STATE OF PHOSPHORUS ON THE DECOMPOSITION AND FIRE BEHAVIOUR OF FLAME-RETARDED EPOXY RESIN COMPOSITESBraun U; Balabanovich A I; Schartel B; Knoll U; Artner J; Ciesielski M; Doring M; Perez R; Sandler J K W; Altstadt V; Hoffmann T; Pospiech DGermany,Federal Institute for Materials Research & Testing; Karlsruhe,Forschungszentrum; Bayreuth,University; Leibniz-Institut fuer Polymerforschung Dresden EV

A systematic and comparative evaluation of the pyrolysis of halogen-free flame-retarded epoxy resins containing phosphine oxide, phosphinate, phosphonate, and phosphate (phosphorus contents around 2.6wt.%) and the fire behaviour of their carbon fibre composites is presented. Decomposition pathways are proposed based on the thermal analysis (TG), TG coupled with evolved gas analysis (TG-FTIR), kinetics and analysis of the residue with FTIR and XPS. All organophosphorus-modified hardeners containing phenoxy groups lead to a reduced decomposition temperature and mass loss step for the main decomposition of the cured epoxy resin. With increasing oxidation state of the phosphorus the thermally stable residue increases, whereas the release of phosphorus-containing volatiles decreases. The flammability of the composites was investigated with LOI and UL 94 and the fire behaviour for forced-flaming conditions with cone calorimeter tests performed using different irradiations. The flame retardancy mechanisms are discussed. With increasing oxidation state of the phosphorus additional charring is observed, whereas the flame inhibition, which plays the more important role for the performance of the composites, decreases. The processing and the mechanical performance (delamination resistance, flexural properties and interlaminar bonding strength) of the fibre-reinforced composites containing phosphorus were maintained at a high level and, in some cases, even improved. The potential



for optimising flame retardancy while maintaining mechanical properties is highlighted in this study. 44 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.983496

Item 19Polymers for Advanced Technologies17, No.9-10, Sept.-Oct.2006, p.772-777SOME COMMENTS ON THE MAIN FIRE RETARDANCY MECHANISMS IN POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITESSchartel B; Bartholmai M; Knoll UGermany,Federal Institute for Materials Research & Testing

The two main general fire retardancy mechanisms for polymer nanocomposites, i.e. barrier formation and increasing the melt viscosity, were examined. These mechanisms resulted in specific effects on fire properties that then caused varying flame retardancy efficiency in different fire tests. The barrier formation mainly retarded flame spread (peak of heat release rate) in developing fires, but did not reduce fire load (total heat evolved), ignitability or flammability (limiting oxygen index). This flame retardancy effect also increased with increasing irradiation and disappeared with decreasing irradiation. The increased melt viscosity prevented dripping, which was beneficial or disadvantageous depending on the fire test used. In some tests, it became the dominant influence, transforming self-extinguishing samples into flammable materials or causing wicking. Advantages and disadvantages for exploiting the main general fire retardancy mechanisms of polymer nanocomposites were compared. It was concluded that barrier formation and changing the melt viscosity in nanocomposites were not sufficient for most applications, but should be accompanied by additional mechanisms in special systems or in combination with other flame retardants. 29 refs. (8th International Symposium on Polymers for Advanced Technologies 2005, Budapest, Hungary, Sept.2005)EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.984240

Item 20Composites Science and Technology66, No.16, 2006, p.3097-3114MICRO- AND NANO-SCALE DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF NYLON 66-BASED BINARY AND TERNARY NANOCOMPOSITESDasari A; Zhong-Zhen Yu; Mingshu Yang; Qing-Xin Zhang; Xiao-Lin Xie; Yiu-Wing MaiSydney,University; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Huazhong,University of Science & Technology

The primary aim of this paper is to provide an insight on the effect of the location of organoclay on the micro- and

nano-scale deformation processes in melt-compounded nylon 66/organoclay/SEBS-g-MA ternary nanocomposites prepared by different blending sequences. In addition, the deformation processes of the ternary nanocomposites were compared to the binary nanocomposites (nylon 66/organoclay and nylon 66/SEBS-g-MA) and neat nylon 66. The incorporation of SEBS-g-MA particles toughened nylon 66 markedly; but the flexural modulus and strength were both reduced. Conversely, the use of organoclay increased the modulus but decreased the fracture toughness of nylon 66. Nylon 66/SEBS-g-MA/organoclay ternary nanocomposites exhibited balanced elastic stiffness and toughness. Stress-whitening studies of the fracture surfaces in terms of gray level were also performed and an attempt was made to correlate the optical reflectivity characteristics with fracture toughness. It was concluded that the capability of SEBS-g-MA particles to cavitate was decreased by the presence of organoclay in the SEBS-g-MA phase, resulting in reduced toughening efficiency. The best micro-structure for toughness and other mechanical properties is thus to maximize the amount of exfoliated organoclay in the nylon 66 matrix rather than to have it embedded in the finely dispersed SEBS-g-MA particles. 66 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.AUSTRALIA; CHINA

Accession no.981505

Item 21High Performance PlasticsAug.2006, p.6NANOCLAY-REINFORCED PA FOR FUEL TANK

”NanoTuff” and “NanoSeal” are two new polyamide-6 nanocomposites which have been recently introduced by Nylon Corp. of America (Nycoa). The grades reportedly offer novel combinations of stiffness, toughness, and barrier properties. Brief details are provided in this concise article.Nylon Corp.of America; NycoaUSA

Accession no.982079

Item 22Medical Device Technology17, No.7, Sept.2006, p.10-12NEXT GENERATION POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITESHeijkants R G J C; Batenburg L FTNO Science and Industry

It is explained here that developments in nanocomposite technology are now offering designers a much wider set of combinations of materials and properties to use. This in turn will result in medical devices with improved mechanical properties and enhanced integration of different functions. This detailed article describes some of the possibilities. Section headings include: definitions, commercialisation, next-generation possibilities, and,





expanding design combinations. 2 refs.General Motors; Hybrid Plastics Corp.; Foster Corp.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD

Accession no.982114

Item 23Journal of Applied Polymer Science98, No.6, 15th Dec.2005, p.2563-71MECHANICAL AND FLAME-RETARDING PROPERTIES OF STYRENE-BUTADIENE RUBBER FILLED WITH NANO-CACO3 AS A FILLER AND LINSEED OIL AS AN EXTENDERMishra S; Shimpi N GNorth Maharashtra,University

A nanosized calcium carbonate filler is synthesised and incorporated into styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) with 2% linseed oil as an extender. The SBR/nano-CaCO3 composite is compounded and moulded for analysis. Properties such as specific gravity, swelling index, hardness, tensile strength, abrasion resistance, modulus at 300% elongation, flame retardancy and elongation at break are measured. The strong rubber-filler interactions increase the physical, mechanical and thermal properties of the composites. 20 refs.INDIA

Accession no.953695

Item 24Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics206, No.20, 24th Oct.2005, p.2075-83EPOXY RESIN CONTAINING OCTAMALEIMIDOPHENYL POLYHEDRAL OLIGOMERIC SILSESQUIOXANENi Y; Zheng SShanghai,Jiao Tong University

The synthesis of octamaleimidophenyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) by imidisation of octaaminophenyl POSS and maleic anhydride, and its characterisation by FTIR and proton, carbon-13 and silicon-29 NMR, is described. The synthesis of nanocomposites of epoxy resin with various proportions of octamaleimidophenyl POSS and their characterisation by TEM, DSC and TGA was investigated and the flame retardant properties of the products are discussed. 46 refs.CHINA

Accession no.953809

Item 25China Synthetic Fiber Industry28, No.5, Oct.2005, p.39-42ChineseRESEARCH PROGRESS OF APPLICATION OF FLAME RETARDANTS FOR POLYPROPYLENE FIBER

Yao Xueli; Ma Xiaoyan; Zhu Yahong; Wang JinhuaXian,Northwestern Polytechnical University

A review is presented on flame retardants (including phosphorus-, halogen- and silicon-containing compounds, metal hydrates and oxides and nanocomposites) for PP fibres. Properties and methods of enhancing flame retardant efficiency are covered. 24 refs.CHINA

Accession no.955300

Item 26Polymers and Polymer Composites13, No.8, 2005, p.835-8THE CURE AND THERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF MG(OH)2/EPOXY RESIN/DEEA NANOCOMPOSITES PREPARED BY A NOVEL METHOD. BRIEF COMMUNICATIONCheng Yiyun; He Pingsheng; Cui RonghuiChina,University of Science & Technology

Magnesium hydroxide is a smoke-reducing and non-toxic additive that has been extensively used in halogen-free flame retardant polymeric materials. However, it’s low flame retardant efficiency and the very high loadings that are consequently required when used in its ordinary form, lower the mechanical properties of a flame-retarded polymeric composition. It has been reported that nanosized magnesium hydroxide/polymeric compositions have the potential to solve such problems due to the mechanically reinforcing and flame retardant functions of nanosized composite materials. This study reports on the cure and thermal behaviour of these epoxy resin/magnesium hydroxide composites. The results of tests indicate enhanced thermal stability. This is claimed to be partly attributable to the prevention of out-diffusion of the volatile gas from the thermally decomposed particles, because magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles, when well-dispersed in epoxy networks, act as gas barriers, reducing the permeability of the volatile gas. 10 refs.CHINA

Accession no.956569

Item 27International Polymer Science and Technology32, No.10, 2005, p. T/61-3NEW FLAME-RETARDANT MODIFIERS FOR EPOXY RESINSSalakhov M S; Agadzhanov R G; Umaeva V SAzerbaijan,Academy of Sciences

Th i s a r t i c l e desc r ibes t he syn thes i s o f N-trichloromethylolimides of polychlorinated polycyclic dicarboxylic acids and their use as fire retardant modifiers of epoxy resins. Tabulated test results are included of physicomechanical and dielectric properties of modified epoxy composites. The test results show that these properties are improved by comparison to unmodified



epoxy composites. This is attributed to the fact that at the moment of curing, the polyethyleneamine curing agent enters into chemical interaction, not only with the epoxy ring of the bisphenol A epoxy resin, but also with the modifier. It is claimed that the hydroxyl group seems to take part in additional crosslinking between itself, as a result of which a three-dimensional structure is formed that promotes an increase in the physicomechanical properties of the composite. 5 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.2, 2005, p.37-8)AZERBAIJAN

Accession no.956584

Item 28Polymer46, No.25, 2005, p.11600-9INVESTIGATION ON THE POLYAMIDE 6/ORGANOCALY NANOCOMPOSITES WITH OR WITHOUT A MALEATED POLYOLEFIN ELASTOMER AS A TOUGHENERChiu F-C; Lai S-M; Chen Y-L; Lee T-HTaiwan,Tao-Yuan University; Taiwan,National I-Lan University

Details are given of the preparation of nylon-6 based nanocomposites using a melt-mixing technique. An organoclay and a maleated polyolefin elastomer were used as filler and toughener. Dispersion was examined using X-ray diffraction, SEM and TEM. Crystallisation kinetics were determined using DSC. Thermal stabilities were confirmed using TGA. Dynamic mechanical properties of compression moulded samples were investigated. 31 refs.CHINA

Accession no.957186

Item 29Polymer Bulletin54, No.4-5, July 2005, p.271-8POLY(BUTYLENE TEREPHTHALATE)/CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES DIRECTLY PREPARED FROM PRISTINE MONTMORILLONITE (MMT)Junfeng Xiao; Yuan Hu; Qingkong Kong; Lei Song; Zhengzhou Wang; Zuyao Chen; Weicheng FanHefei,University of Science & Technology

The preparation of poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT)/clay nanocomposites by melt intercalation from montmorillonite (MMT) using cetyl pyridinium chloride as compatibiliser is described. The effect of the proportion of compatibiliser relative to the clay on the structure and properties of the nanocomposite is studied by X-ray diffraction, TEM, TGA and cone calorimetry. The optimum composition is established for well-dispersed intercalation morphology and enhanced flame-retarding properties. 16 refs.CHINA

Accession no.957773

Item 30International Polymer Science and Technology32, No.12, 2005, p.T/30-41NANOCOMPOSITE POLYMERIC MATERIALS BASED ON ORGANIC CLAYS WITH HIGH FLAME RESISTANCEMikitaev A K; Kaladzhyan A A; Lednev O B; Mikitaev M A; Davydov E MRussian Academy of Sciences; Mendeleev D.I.,Russian Chemico-Technological University; Moscow,State Scientific Establishment,Centre for Composite Materials

A review article is presented of the use of flame retardants in polymer materials, and with special emphasis on the use of organic clays in nanocomposites to provide high flame resistance. The mechanism of inhibition of reactions in the flame in the presence of different additives is discussed with reference to halogen-containing organic compounds, metal compounds phosphorous compounds, synergistic blends of metal- and halogen-containing flame retardants, synergistic blends of phosphorus- and halogen-containing flame retardants, bromine- and sulphur-containing flame retardants and flame-retarding systems, phosphorus- and nitrogen-containing flame retarding systems, and nanocomposites based on organic clays. On the basis of experimental data reported in this study, it is claimed not to be possible to give a precise answer concerning the mechanism of increase in flame resistance of polymer nanocomposites based on organic clays. It is however, reported that the increased thermal stability and flame resistance of these materials is attributed to the clays present the polymer matrix as nanoparticles which act as heat insulators and elements preventing the liberation of flammable decomposition products. 45 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.4, 2005, p.36-43)RUSSIA

Accession no.958919

Item 31Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition44, No.3, 1st Feb.2006, p.1093-105EPOXY RESIN CONTAINING POLYPHENYLSILSESQUIOXANE: PREPARATION, MORPHOLOGY, AND THERMOMECHANICAL PROPERTIESYong Ni; Sixun ZhengShanghai,Jiao Tong University

The preparation, morphology and thermomechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f c o m p o s i t e s c o n t a i n i n g polyphenylsilsesquioxane (PPSQ) and epoxy resin are reported. Phase separation induced by polymerisation occurs when physical blending is used, but nanostructured composites are obtained when a catalytic amount of aluminium triacetylacetonate is added. Organic-inorganic composites with different morphologies display quite different thermomechanical properties. DSC and DMA





show the nanostructured composites to possess higher Tgs. Nanoreinforcement of PPSQ domains enhances the dynamic storage modulus. The composites also display improved thermal stability and flame retardancy. 51 refs.CHINA

Accession no.960248

Item 32Offshore66, No.2, Feb.2006, p.94COMPOSITE MATERIALS CONTINUE THEIR MOVE OFFSHORE

The trend of replacing more conventional metal alloys with non-metallic, composite materials of construction continues in the building of shelters and storage units. Offshore rigs rely on resilient and long-lasting shelters and storage containers to protect equipment, inventories and personnel from harsh environmental factors of wind, rain, ocean waves and temperature extremes. Alkan Shelter’s alternative to metallic alloys is based on fibre-reinforced epoxy composites. Alkan reports success with carbon fibres as a reinforcement material, pointing to their high level of specific stiffness and very high tensile and compression strength as being ideally suited for use in performance structures. The company’s Non-Expandable ISO containers provide 8x8x20 cu ft of well-insulated, corrosion and fatigue resistant cargo space, and can be stacked nine-high.Alkan Shelter LLCUSA

Accession no.960325

Item 33Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering44, No.3, 2005, p.463-73COMPARATIVE STUDY ON IMPROVEMENT IN MECHANICAL AND FLAME RETARDING PROPERTIES OF EPOXY-CACO3 NANO AND COMMERCIAL COMPOSITESMishra S; Sonawane S; Chitodkar VNorth Maharashtra,University

The physical, mechanical and flame retardant properties of nanocomposites and commercial composites of epoxy resin filled with different contents of calcium carbonate nanoparticles or microparticles respectively were investigated by XRD, tensile and impact testing, and rate of burning. The results are discussed in terms of exfoliation in the nanocomposites. 11 refs.INDIA

Accession no.960365

Item 34Polymer International55, No.2, Feb.2006, p.204-15

MORPHOLOGY, THERMAL AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYPROPYLENE NANOCOMPOSITES TOUGHENED WITH POLY(ETHYLENE-CO-OCTENE)Jian Wei Lim; Hassan A; Rahmat A R; Wahit M UMalaysia,Universiti Teknologi

Rubber-toughened PP(RTPP) nanocomposites containing organophilic layered silicates were prepared by means of melt extrusion at 230C using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder in order to examine the influence of the organoclay and the addition of PP grafted with maleic anhydride(PPgMAH) as a compatibiliser on the morphological, mechanical and thermal properties. From tensile and flexural tests, the optimum loading of organoclay in RTPP was found to be 6 wt %. The optimum loading of PPgMAH, based on the tensile and flexural properties, was also 6 wt %. The increase in the organoclay and PPgMAH content resulted in a severe embrittlement, manifested by a drop in the impact strength and tensile EB. X-ray diffraction studies revealed that intercalated RTPP nanocomposites were successfully prepared where the macromolecular PP segments were intercalated into the interlayer space of the organoclay. In addition, the organoclay was dispersed more evenly in the RTPP nanocomposites as the PPgMAH content increased. TGA results revealed that the thermal stability of the RTPP nanocomposites improved significantly with the addition of a small amount of organoclay. 50 refs.MALAYSIA

Accession no.961205

Item 35POLYOLEFINS 2005. Proceedings of a conference held Houston, Tx., 27th. Feb. - 2nd. March 2005.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2005, Paper 6, pp.7, CD-ROM, 012TOUGHENING MECHANISM OF NANOCLAY-FILLED POLYPROPYLENE

Jin Zhao; Hoang Pham; Fibiger R; Garcia-Meitin E; Lizhi Liu; Juarez V; Bouchard K; Matthews W; Esparza GDow Chemical Co.(SPE,South Texas Section; SPE,Thermoplastic Materials & Foams Div.; SPE,Polymer Modifiers & Additives Div.; Society of Plastics Engineers)

Materials science guidelines that determine the toughness of PP-clay nanocomposites are described by means of an understanding of the failure mechanism transitions based on temperature and rate of deformation, including quantification of the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. Increased stiffness is usually associated with a decrease in toughness. Studies have shown that toughening took place at low clay loading where exfoliation was optimised by use of a completely maleated PP matrix polymer, but that loss of impact performance was found with above 5 wt% organoclay content. An investigation is reported into the key factors that influence the stiffness-toughness balance for PP nanocomposites with between 1 and 10



wt.% organoclay, and where the maleated PP content is a minor component, versus neat PP. The failure mechanism was investigated with a notched Izod impact test in the temperature range from -30 to 110 deg.C, combined with TEM analysis. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.962366

Item 36Plastics Science and TechnologyNo.6, Dec.2005, p.16-9ChineseSTUDY ON THE FLAME RETARDANCY OF HIGH IMPACT POLYSTYRENE/MONTMORILLONITE COMPOSITES BY DYNAMIC MELTING INTERCALATIONWang Lichun; Zhang Jun; Wang Rong; Huang QingsongChina,Ministry of Education; Qingdao,University of Science & Technology

Composites of high-impact PS with montmorillonite and with sodium montmorillonite were prepared by dynamic melt intercalation and their flame retardancy investigated and compared. Heat release rates, smoke production rates and mass loss rates were determined and the mechanism of flame retardance examined through flammability studies, microstructure analysis and decomposition product analysis. 5 refs.CHINA

Accession no.962754

Item 37Plastics Technology51, No.8, Aug.2005, p.29PATENTED NANO-TECHNOLOGY FOR WIDE RANGE OF RESINS

Foster Corp. of the USA has commercialised a recently-patented nanocomposite technology which enhanced the mechanical properties of a wide range of commodity and engineering thermoplastics and thermosets. The company has called the process, which is aimed at medical devices such as catheters, “NanoMed”. Brief details are given here.Foster Corp.USA

Accession no.962994

Item 384th. European Additives and Colors Conference. Proceedings of a conference held Aachen, Germany, 16th.-17th. March 2005.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2005, Paper 18 pp.5, 30 cm, 012NANOCOMPOSITES AS A NEW CONCEPT FOR FLAME RETARDANCY OF POLYMERS - FROM THEORY TO REALITYBeyer G

Kabelwerk Eupen AG(SPE,Additives & Color Europe Div.)

Flame retardant nanocomposites based on EVA with modified layered silicates as nanofillers are investigated for use in coaxial cable sheathing. In addition, further improvements in flame retardancy are examined by the use of nanofillers in conjunction with traditional fillers based on antimony trihydrate. Thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimetry were used to investigate the flame retardancy of the EVA compounds. A layered silicate based on montmorillonite, modified by dimethyl distearylammonium cations was used as the nanofiller, and ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers with different weight% vinyl acetate were used in the study. 7 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.963379

Item 39Composites Science and Technology66, No.3-4, 2006, p.599-603THE REINFORCEMENT ROLE OF CARBON NANOTUBES IN EPOXY COMPOSITES WITH DIFFERENT MATRIX STIFFNESSCi L; Bai J BParis,Ecole Centrale

The preparation of nanocomposites of a bisphenol A epichlorohydrin-based epoxy resin with carbon nanotubes with different matrix stiffness by control of the curing process using triethylenetetramine as hardener is described. The effects of the nanotubes on the reinforcement of the matrix were investigated by tensile testing and SEM of fracture surfaces, and the results are discussed in terms of interfacial interactions. 23 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.963635

Item 40Journal of Fire Sciences24, No.1, Jan.2006, p.47-64FLAME RETARDATION OF ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATE COPOLYMER USING NANO MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE AND NANO HYDROTALCITEJiao C M; Wang Z Z; Ye Z; Hu Y; Fan W CChina,University of Science & Technology

The flammability and mechanical properties of EVA filled with nano magnesium hydroxide (NMH) and nano hydrotalcite (NHT) were investigated by limiting oxygen index measurements, the UL-94 test, the cone calorimeter test, thermogravimetry and tensile measurements. The morphology of fracture surfaces of the filled EVA was analysed by scanning electron microscopy and carbonaceous charred layers were examined by Raman spectroscopy. The flame retardant effect of NHT was better





than that of NMH whereas the mechanical properties of EVA containing NMH were better than those of EVA containing NHT. 27 refs.CHINA

Accession no.964049

Item 41Journal of Applied Polymer Science99, No.6, 15th March 2006, p.3275-80MORPHOLOGY, THERMAL, AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAME-RETARDANT SILICONE RUBBER/MONTMORILLONITE NANOCOMPOSITESLing Yang; Yuan Hu; Hongdian Lu; Lei SongChina,University of Science & Technology

Morphology, mechanical properties, thermal stability and flammability of composites of silicone rubber and montmorillonite, with magnesium hydroxide and red phosphorus as synergistic flame retardant additives, were examined using X-ray diffraction, environmental scanning electron microscopy, tensile testing, thermogravimetric analysis and limiting oxygen index measurements. Addition of 1 percent montmorillonite clay lifted the decomposition temperature above that of the base silicone rubber. Good flame retardant properties with higher thermal stability were observed in the nanocomposites. 17 refsCHINA

Accession no.964509

Item 42SPE Automotive TPO Global Conference 2005. Proceedings of a conference held Sterling Heights, Mi., 10th.-12th. Oct. 2005.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2005, Paper 15, pp.11, CD-ROM, 012THE DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION OF TPO NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIALS IN AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONSRodgers W R; Fasulo P D; Balow M J; Bolthouse C LGeneral Motors; Basell Advanced Polyolefins(SPE,Detroit Section)

The practical implementation of thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO) composites in the automotive industry has been challenging, it is stated. Initial applications were where overall part quality and thermal properties were considered more important than maximising the mechanical properties. More recently, there has been an impetus to improve the property profile, and the maximisation of exfoliation is known to be the key to reaching these objectives. This paper, therefore, reviews the current state of the effort to improve the physical properties of thermoplastic polyolefin nanocomposite materials for use in automotive applications. Improvements in platelet exfoliation have been made by chemical modification of the organoclay and also by the refining of compounding techniques. Such techniques are examined and TPOs based on recent talc

and nanoclay products are compared and tested in terms of properties, filler levels, processability, dimensional stability, and colour. 6 refs.USA

Accession no.965244

Item 43Macromolecular SymposiaNo.233, 2006, p.180-90POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES: HOW TO REACH LOW FLAMMABILITY?Bourbigot S; Duquesne S; Jama CENSCL

The flammability properties of nanocomposites of polymers such as ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer, polystyrene and poly(ether-b-amide) block copolymer, with montmorillonite clay, organically modified montmorillonite clay, polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes and carbon nanotubes are reviewed in terms of heat release rate, UL-94 testing and limiting oxygen index. The characterisation of dispersion of nanoparticles by solid-state NMR and TEM, and the synergistic effects of combining nanoparticles with flame-retardants or plasma treatment are discussed. 54 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.966495

Item 44Journal of Materials Science41, No.2, Jan.2006, p.363-7MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE SULFATE HYDRATE WHISKER FLAME RETARDANT POLYETHYLENE/MONTMORILLONITE NANOCOMPOSITESHongdian Lu; Yuan Hu; Junfeng Xiao; Zhengzhou Wang; Zuyao Chen; Weicheng FanChina,university of Science & Technology

Exfoliated nanocomposites were fabricated from maleated PE, magnesium hydroxide sulphate hydrate (MHSH) whiskers and organomodified montmorillonite by direct melt intercalation. The morphology, combustion behaviour and heat stability of the nanocomposites were investigated by X-ray diffraction, TEM, cone calorimetry and TGA and the effects of MHSH and modified montmorillonite on nanocomposite properties evaluated. A synergistic flame retardant effect was observed in the nanocomposites containing both MHSH and modified montmorillonite. This effect was attributed to the release of water from MHSH, which accelerated the transportation of silicate layers to accumulate over the substrate. 16 refs.CHINA

Accession no.966763



Item 45High Performance Fillers 2006: 2nd International Conference on Fillers for Polymers. Proceedings of a conference held Cologne, Germany, 21st-22nd March 2006.Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2006, Paper 16, pp.6, 29 cm, 012POSS AS PROMISING FIRE RETARDANTS IN POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITESGamino G; Fina A; Tabuani DTorino,Politecnico(Rapra Technology Ltd.)

The organic-inorganic chemical structure of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) makes them suitable for use as versatile nanofillers for flame retarded polymer nanocomposites. The thermal stability of the organic Si-O structure is combined with good dispersibility due to the compatibility of POSS organic substituents. In this work, nanocomposites were prepared by melt processing POSS in polypropylene nylon-6 and PBTP. The thermal and combustion properties of the nanocomposites were evaluated. It was found that POSS-polymer nanocomposites produced a thermally stable ceramic layer during the early stage of thermal decomposition which protected the underlying material from oxygen, reduced diffusion of volatile degradation products and limited heat transfer. This combined physical action reduced the rate of heat release during combustion. Cone calorimetry was used to investigate the fire performance of the POSS nanocomposites. 13 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.967313

Item 46London, Interscience Communications Ltd., 2006, 30 papers, pp.xii, 283, ISBN 0954121678, 24cm, 012FLAME RETARDANTS 2006. PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE HELD LONDON, 14TH-15TH FEB.2006(BPF; Interscience Communications Ltd.; Plastics Europe; European Flame Retardant Assn.)

Thirty papers are presented following the twelfth International Flame Retardants conference series. This series concentrates on the practical applications of flame retardants and polymers and brings together the manufacturers and users with legislators, fire test experts and fire scientists. Papers include fire safety, smoke toxicity and acidity, ignition of solids - what have we learned in a half-century of research, progress with nanocomposites and new nanostructured FRs, mechanisms of phosphorus flame retardants, acceptable fire safety, the need for full scale fire testing of sandwich panels.EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.967538

Item 47Polymer Engineering and Science46, No.5, 2006, p.670-9STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MULTIWALLED CARBON NANOTUBES/CYANATE ESTER COMPOSITESZhengping Fang; Jianguo Wang; Aijuan GuZhejiang,University

Two types of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MW-CNTs) with different structure and morphology were used to fabricate cyanate ester (CE) matrix composites. Mechanical, thermal, and transmission electron microscopy tests were performed to evaluate the different effects of the two types of MW-CNTs on the structure and properties of MW-CNT/CE composites. Results showed that the bundled MW-CNTs were easier to be dispersed in CE matrix than single MW-CNTs, and could improve the toughness and stiffness of CE material more significantly. Functionalisation of the two types of MW-CNTs, which was achieved by grafting triethylenetetramine groups onto the surface of MW-CNTs, was helpful in improving the dispersion of the MW-CNTs in CE, and thus in fabricating MW-CNT/CE composites with improved mechanical and thermal properties. 27 refs. Copyright 2006 Society of Plastics EngineersCHINA

Accession no.967583

Item 48Journal of Materials Chemistry16, No.16, 28th April 2006, p.1549-54STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION AND THERMAL OXIDATION PROPERTIES OF LLDPE/MGAL-LDH NANOCOMPOSITESDu L; Qu BHefei,University of Science & Technology

The synthesis of nanocomposites of linear low density polyethylene with various proportions of magnesium-aluminium layered double hydroxide by melt intercalation, and their characterisation by FTIR, XRD, TEM, DSC and TGA, is described. The thermal properties of the products are discussed in terms of potential applications as flame-retardants for polymeric materials. 26 refs.CHINA

Accession no.967693

Item 49Polymers for Advanced Technologies17, No.4, April 2006, p.206-17FLAME RETARDED POLYMER LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITES: A REVIEW OF COMMERCIAL AND OPEN LITERATURE SYSTEMSMorgan A BDow Chemical Co.





A review is presented of polymer nanocomposites used for flame retardancy applications, including commercial materials and open literature examples. Where possible, details of the way in which the nanocomposite and flame retardant work together are discussed. The key lesson from this review is that, while the polymer nanocomposite can be considered to be flame retarded (or a flame retardant) by definition, these materials by themselves are unable to pass regulatory fire safety tests such as UL-94V. Additional flame retardants are, therefore, needed in combination with the polymer nanocomposite to pass these tests. In multiple examples, the nanocomposite works with other flame retardants in a synergistic or cooperative manner to lower the polymer flammability (heat release rate). Finally, a discussion on research needs and the outlook for polymer nanocomposite flammability research is included. 68 refs.USA

Accession no.969162

Item 50Polymers for Advanced Technologies17, No.4, April 2006, p.218-25FLAME RETARDANCY OF NANOCOMPOSITES BASED ON ORGANOCLAYS AND CARBON NANOTUBES WITH ALUMINIUM TRIHYDRATEBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

The addition of aluminium trihydrate as a microfiller to organoclays or carbon nanotubes is shown to be essential to generate EVA nanocomposites with adequate flame retardant properties, as required by industry. Cables containing a combination of organoclays or carbon nanotubes and aluminium trihydrate are used to demonstrate the applications of these nanocomposites as a new concept for flame retardancy. Small-scale fire tests with Bunsen burner flames attacking the wire insulation show that the char is strengthened by the long L/D ratio of the multi-walled carbon nanotubes. The improved char results in better flame retardant performances of the wires. 36 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.969163

Item 51Polymers for Advanced Technologies17, No.4, April 2006, p.235-45POLY(PROPYLENE)/CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES AND THEIR APPLICATION IN FLAME RETARDANCYYuan Hu; Yong Tang; Lei SongChina,University of Science & Technology

PP/clay and PP/clay/calcium carbonate nanocomposites were prepared by a one-step method, using pristine montmorillonite(MMT) with surfactant loading at different

ratios. The nanocomposite structure was examined using X-ray diffraction, TEM and high resolution electron microscopy. This study showed that the presence of maleic anhydride-modified PP and the ratio of surfactant to MMT both influenced the dispersion of MMT in the hybrids. The thermal stability and flame retardant properties were investigated. The synergistic effect between MMT and an intumescent flame retardant (ammonium polyphosphate/pentaerythritol) and the flame retardant mechanism are discussed. 23 refs.CHINA

Accession no.969165

Item 52Polymers for Advanced Technologies17, No.4, April 2006, p.281-93PHOSPHONIUM-MODIFIED LAYERED SILICATE EPOXY RESINS NANOCOMPOSITES AND THEIR COMBINATIONS WITH ATH AND ORGANO-PHOSPHORUS FIRE RETARDANTSSchartel B; Knoll U; Hartwig A; Puetz DBAM Federal Institute for Materials Research & Testing; Fraunhofer-Institut fuer Fertigungstechnik und Ang.Materialforschung

Phosphonium-modified layered silicate epoxy resin nanocomposites were evaluated by testing the thermal/thermomechanical properties (DSC, TGA, torsion pendulum, Sharpy toughness), flammability (limiting oxygen index) and fire behaviour (cone calorimeter with different irradiations). The morphology of the composites was determined using SEM and TEM. The drying conditions of phosphonium-modified layered silicate were varied in order to improve nanocomposite formation and properties. The results were compared with those obtained by using a commercial ammonium-modified montmorillonite. Enhanced nanocomposite formation was found for the commercial systems due to the amount of excess surfactant, but this effect was overcompensated through the advanced morphology of the phosphonium-modified systems. Several fire retardancy mechanisms and their specific effect on various fire properties are discussed. The main mechanism of layered silicate is a barrier formation influencing the flame spread in developing fires. Several minor mechanisms are significant, but important fire properties such as flammability or fire load are hardly influenced. Combinations with aluminium hydroxide and organo-phosphorus flame retardants were, therefore, evaluated and the combination with aluminium hydroxide was shown to be a promising approach. 42 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.969170

Item 53Polymers for Advanced Technologies17, No.4, April 2006, p.294-303FLAME-RETARDANT UNSATURATED



POLYESTER RESIN INCORPORATING NANOCLAYSNazare S; Kandola B K; Horrocks A RBolton,University

The use of polymer-layered silicate nanoclays as potential flame retardants in unsaturated polyester resins was investigated. Preparation, characterisation and flammability properties of polyester-clay hybrids were studied. X-ray diffraction studies provided evidence that dispersion of functionalised clays in the polymer matrix depended on the type of functional group of the organic modifier used. Flammability properties studied using cone calorimetry suggested that incorporation of nanoclays (5% w/w) reduced peak heat release rate(PHRR) by 23-27% and total heat release(THR) values by 4-11 %. The fire growth rate index was also reduced by 23-30% following nanoclay inclusion. While incorporation of condensed-phase flame retardants such as ammonium polyphosphate, melamine phosphate and alumina trihydrate reduced the PHRR and THR values of polyester resin, the inclusion of small amounts of nanoclay (5% w/w) in combination with these char-promoting flame retardants caused total reductions of the PHRR of polyester resin in the range 60-70%. Ammonium polyphosphate alone and in combination with polyester-nanoclay hybrids showed better results than the other flame retardants. 26 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.969171

Item 54Polymer Degradation and Stability91, No.6, 2006, p.1319-1325THERMAL STABILITY AND FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES OF HETEROPHASIC PP-EP/EVA/ORGANOCLAY NANOCOMPOSITESValera-Zaragoza M; Ramirez-Vargas E; Medellin-Rodriguez F J; Huerta-Martinez B MCoahuila,Centro de Investigacion en Quimica Aplicada; San Luis Potosi,Universidad Autonoma

A study on the thermal behaviour and flammability properties of the heterophasic polypropylene-(ethylene-propylene) copolymer (PP-EP)/poly(ethylene vinyl acetate) (EVA)/montmorillonite nanocomposite is presented. Nanoclay nanocomposites were prepared using a twin screw extruder. Both the fluidity of the EVA phase and compatibility conditions between PP-EP and EVA were used in order to obtain the required nanocomposites. Therefore, no additional compatibiliser was required to achieve the clay dispersion. Products exhibited the partially exfoliated/intercalated nanoclay dispersion. Thermogravimetric analyses indicated that nanoclays retard thermal degradation depending on nanoclay concentration. The retarding process was assigned to the exfoliation and dispersion of the silicate layers which impeded heat diffusion to the macromolecules. Thermal studies, under non-isothermal crystallisation, indicated the

lack of influence of nanoclay on the thermal behaviour. Flammability characteristics were however affected by the nanoclay layers which overall generated flame retardation both in the EVA host and in the complex nanocomposites. 25 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.MEXICO

Accession no.969414

Item 55Composites Part B37, No.6, 2006, p.399-407STUDY ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, THERMAL STABILITY AND CRYSTALLIZATION BEHAVIOR OF PET/MMT NANOCOMPOSITESWang Y; Gao J; Ma Y; Agarwal U SDonghua,University; Eindhoven,University of Technology

PET/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites were prepared via melt-blending and its nano-dispersion morphology was confirmed by X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Its non-isothermal crystallisation behaviour was studied by DSC. It is found that the crystallisation rate of PET nanocomposite was increased significantly. The Avrami equation parameters related to crystallisation, such as n, Zc and t1/2, were calculated and analyzed. The thermal property and mechanical property of the composite were studied. When the MMT content was 1%, the composite has a desired comprehensive property. At this composition, the thermal degradation onset temperature and the thermal deformation temperature of PET were increased by 12 and 35 deg.C, respectively, and the tensile strength of the PET was increased by 25% with slightly increase of the notched impact strength. 23 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.CHINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.971214

Item 56International Journal of Plastics Technology9, No.1-2, Aug-Dec.2005, p.546-555THERMAL, MECHANICAL AND WATER BARRIER PROPERTIES OF CLAY-UNSATURATED POLYESTER NANOCOMPOSITESJawahar P; Balasubramanian MIndian Institute of Technology

Clay-polyester nanocomposites were prepared using organically-modified clay (dodecylamine-treated montmorillonite) as the reinforcement. Conventional clay-filled composites were prepared by using inorganic clay. X-ray diffraction and TEM analyses confirmed the formation of nanocomposites with organically-modified clay. TGA was carried out to determine the thermal stability of nanocomposites and there was an improvement in the nanocomposites. Dynamic mechanical analysis





showed an increase in Tg for the nanocomposites. Tensile properties and impact strength of nanocomposites were better than those of conventional composites. Water barrier properties of nanocomposites were also better than those of conventional composites. 23 refs.INDIA

Accession no.972169

Item 57Composites Technologies for 2020. Proceedings of the Fourth Asian-Australasian Conference on Composite Materials (AACM-4), held Sydney, Australia, 6th-9th July 2004.Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing, 2004, p.742-747, ISBN 1855738317, 25 cm, 012PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF TOUGHENED NOVOLAC TYPE PHENOLIC/SILICON DIOXIDE FLAME RETARDANT NANOCOMPOSITEChen-hi Ma; Hsin Tai; Chin-Lung Chiang; Hsu-Chiang Kuan; Jen-Chang Yang; Chia-Wen HsuTaiwan,National Tsing Hua University; Hung-Kuang,University; Chung Shan,Institute of Science(Asian-Australasian Association for Composite Materials)

I n t h i s s t u d y, h y d r o x y l g r o u p t e r m i n a t e d polydimethylsiloxanes were used to toughen 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane-modified novolac-type phenolic resins reinforced with silicon dioxide in an organic/inorganic nanocomposite via the sol-gel method. The properties of the hybrid nanocomposites are investigated, and improvements in impact strength, flexural strength and modulus and toughness are discussed. 8 refs.CHINA

Accession no.972323

Item 58Composites Technologies for 2020. Proceedings of the Fourth Asian-Australasian Conference on Composite Materials (AACM-4), held Sydney, Australia, 6th-9th July 2004.Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing, 2004, p.748-753, ISBN 1855738317, 25 cm, 012SYNTHESIS, THERMAL PROPERTIES AND FLAME RETARDANCE OF NOVEL PHENOLIC RESIN/SILICA NANOCOMPOSITESChin-Lung Chiang; Chen-Chi Ma; Hey Rey Chang; Shiu-Chun LuHung-Kuang,University; Taiwan,National Tsing Hua University; Ming Hsin,University of Science & Technology(Asian-Australasian Association for Composite Materials)

Novel phenolic/silica hybrid ceramers were synthesised by the sol-gel process and FTIR and NMR were used to characterise the structure of the hybrids. The sol-

gel process provided promising opportunities for the preparation of a variety of organic-inorganic hybrid materials at the molecular level, and was used in this study to improve the flame retardance and thermal stability. A coupling agent was used to form the covalent bonding between organic and inorganic phases to promote the miscibility of the hybrid creamers. Thermal properties were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. The char yields of the hybrids increased with increasing tetraethoxysilane content. Limiting oxygen Index and UL-94 tests revealed that the hybrid ceramer possessed excellent flame resistance. 31 refsCHINA

Accession no.972324

Item 59European Polymer Journal42, No.6, 2006, p.1362-1369THERMAL STABILITY AND FLAME RETARDANT EFFECTS OF HALLOYSITE NANOTUBES ON POLY(PROPYLENE)Mingliang Du; Baochun Guo; Demin JiaSouth China,University of Technology

Naturally occurred halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) with hollow nanotubular structures were used as a new type filler for poly(propylene) (PP). Nanocomposites based on PP and HNTs were prepared by melt blending. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) results suggested HNTs were dispersed in PP matrix evenly at nanoscale after facile modification. Thermal stability of the nanocomposites was found remarkably enhanced by the incorporation of HNTs. Cone calorimetric data also showed the decrease of flammability of the nanocomposites. Entrapment mechanism of the decomposition products in HNTs was proposed to explain the enhancement of thermal stability of the nanocomposites. The barriers for heat and mass transport, the presence of iron in HNTs, are all responsible for the improvement in thermal stability and decrease in flammability. Those results suggested potential promising flame retardant application of HNTs in PP. 18 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.CHINA

Accession no.972489

Item 60Polymer Degradation and Stability91, No.9, 2006, p.1937-1947EFFECT OF ACRYLIC POLYMER AND NANOCOMPOSITE WITH NANO-SIO”2 ON THERMAL DEGRADATION AND FIRE RESISTANCE OF APP-DPER-MEL COATINGWang Z; Han E; Ke WShenyang,Institute of Metal Research

Acrylic nanocomposite and flame retardant coatings with different acrylic polymers were prepared. The effect of molecular structure and molecular weight of acrylic resins



and nanocomposite with nano-SiO2 on the interaction and char formation of ammonium polyphosphate-dipentaerythritol-melamine (APP-DPER-MEL) coating was investigated using differential thermal analysis (DTA), thermogravimetry (TG), Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and fire protection test. The interaction of APP, DPER, MEL and 3F-1 acrylic resin led to the formation of intumescent coherent char at 300-450 deg.C. Owing to low molecular weight and lack of benzene rings, F-963 acrylic resin decomposed at lower temperature than APP, and hence their endothermic interaction was destroyed. The well-distributed nano-SiO2 particles in acrylic nanocomposite could modify char formation and anti-oxidation of char structure at high temperature. It is noted that the fire protection properties of nanocoating with acrylic nanocomposite were better than those of flame retardant coatings with conventional acrylic resins. 36 refs.CHINA

Accession no.972527

Item 61Macromolecules39, No.14, 11th July 2006 p.4793-4801COMPATIBILIZING BULK POLYMER BLENDS BY USING ORGANOCLAYSSi M; Araki T; Ade H; Kilcoyne A L D; Fisher R; Sokolov J C; Rafailovich M HNew York,State University; North Carolina,State University; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory; Uniondale,Hebrew Academy

The compatibilising effects of addition of two commercial Cloisite organoclays on blends of polymers including polystyrene/polymethyl methacrylate; polycarbonate/styrene acrylonitrile copolymer or polymethyl methacrylate/ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer were studied transmission electron microscopy, X-ray microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis. In all cases, in comparison to blends without clay, large reductions in domain size were observed with localisation of clay platelets along polymer interfaces. Increases in modulus and in some cases unification of glass transition temperatures were observed. System models were proposed indicating in-situ grafting of polymers to clay platelets, and the technology may be of value in recycling of mixed polymers. 32 refs.USA

Accession no.972942

Item 62Plastics Technology52, No.2, Feb.2006, p.56/68NANOCOMPOSITES DO MORE WITH LESSSchut J H

Nanocomposites are at last out of the laboratory and into the real world! This detailed article highlights new

developments in nanoclay materials now available for use in applications from automotive to agricultural, materials handling, and electrical wire and cable jacketing. It demonstrates how these new nanoclay blends are lowering costs and raising performance.Co-Op Chemical Co.; DDG Cryogenics; Degussa Corp.; Dieter Scientific; Dyneon LLC; Elam El Industries; Elementis Specialties Inc.; Executive Conference Management; Naturalnano Inc.; NanoSperse LLC; PolyOne Corp.; Premix Thermoplastics; Putsch Kunststoffe GmbH; Pyrograph Products Inc.; Sachtleben Chemie GmbH; Sud-Chemie; Ube America Inc.; DMS Xplore; Geoflow; Toro Co.; Delphi Corp.; Audi; Volkswagen; Kabelwerk Eupen; Nexans; Draka Cable; Toyota Corp.; US,Air Force; Wright-Patterson AFB; Dayton,University; BoeingBELGIUM; EU; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; GERMANY; ISRAEL; JAPAN; NETHERLANDS; NORTH AMERICA; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.973225

Item 63Flame Retardants 2006, Proceedings of a conference held London, 14th -15th Feb.2006..London, Interscience Communications Ltd., 2006, p.123-133, ISBN 0954121678, 24CM, 012PROGRESS WITH NANOCOMPOSITES AND NEW NANOSTRUCTURED FRSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(BPF)

This study explores the use of organoclays as flame retardants for thermoplastic polyurethanes and plasticised PVC, and also reports on the flame retardant properties of nanostructured fillers, sepiolite and carbon nanofibres. When modified layered silicates as fillers were dispersed at a nm-level within a thermoplastic polyurethane matrix, thermal stability and peak of heat release rates were improved, but time to ignition of the nanocomposite were reduced. PVC with organoclays showed a fast HCl release by an accelerated chain-stripping reaction of the polymer catalysed by the ammonium compound of the organoclays. Synthesis routes based on EVA or TPU masterbatches of organoclays were found to avoid the darkening of PVC compounds. Test using a cone calorimeter did not show any remarkable improvement in the flame retardancy of PVC filled with organoclays. The use of modified sepiolite and also carbon nanofibres were found to be effective nanostructured flame retardants in EVA. 14 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.974428





Item 64Journal of Applied Polymer Science101, No.6, 15th Sept.2006, p.3862-3868FLAME RETARDANCY OF POLYCARBONATE-POLYDIMETHYLSILOXANE BLOCK COPOLYMER/SILICA NANOCOMPOSITESNodera A; Kanai TIdemitsu Kosan Co.Ltd.; Kanazawa,University

Details are given of the flame retardancy and thermal degradation of carbonate-dimethylsiloxane copolymer/silica nanocomposites. The dispersibility of the silica of different particle sizes was investigated. The influence of silica particle size on flame retardancy of the nanocomposites was determined. 22 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.974889

Item 65PU Magazine3, No.3, May 2006, p.171-173FLAME RETARDANCY OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANE NANOCOMPOSITESBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

The use of organoclays, specifically dimethyldistearylammonium-exchanged montmorillonite, as flame retardants for thermoplastic PUs was studied. The properties of the nanocomposites were investigated using cone calorimetry and TGA. The results obtained showed an improvement in thermooxidative stability, a reduction of up to 70% for the peak of heat release and a non-dripping behaviour of the burning polymer. 11 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.975357

Item 66Composites Part A37, No.9, 2006, p.1286-1295STRUCTURAL RESPONSE OF LIQUID-COOLED GFRP SLABS SUBJECTED TO FIRE - PART I: MATERIAL AND POST-FIRE MODELINGKeller T; Tracy C; Zhou ASwiss Federal Institute of Technology

Temperature-dependent material properties of glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites were derived from tests performed on the material itself, from references concerned with similar polymer materials and from observations during full-scale fire experiments on load-carrying slabs for building and bridge applications. Effective material properties were determined, which include the effects of evaporation of absorbed moisture, endothermic decomposition of the resin, the shielding effect of delaminated fibre layers, and the loss of glass fibre layers beyond their softening temperature. Two types of post-fire models have been developed: a two-layer model

and a three-layer model. Results from the two-layer model showed that the determination of the boundary between the two layers by visual inspection leads to a considerable overestimation of the remaining stiffness of the specimens. However, the stiffness prediction based on a boundary at the depth of the glass transition temperature corresponded well with the results from post-fire measurements. Similar accuracy was obtained for the post-fire behavior prediction using the two-layer model and a more complicated three-layer model with an intermediate partially-degraded layer. 25 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier LtdSWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.975784

Item 67Polymer47, No.19, 2006, p.6874-6879FLAME RETARDANT NANOCOMPOSITES OF POLYAMIDE 6/CLAY/SILICONE RUBBER WITH HIGH TOUGHNESS AND GOOD FLOWABILITYWeifu Dong; Xiaohong Zhang; Yiqun Liu; Qingguo Wang; Hua Gui; Jianming Gao; Zhihai Song; Jinmei Lai; Fan Huang; Jinliang QiaoBeijing,University of Chemical Technology; Beijing,Research Inst.of the Chemical Industry

A novel flame retardant, silicone elastomeric nanoparticle (S-ENP) with Tg of -120 deg.C and particle size of ~100 nm has been developed and used as a modifier for polyamide 6 (nylon-6). It has been found that S-ENP can not only increase the toughness and improve the flame retardancy of nylon-6 but also helps unmodified clay exfoliate in nylon-6 matrix. It has been also found that the S-ENP and exfoliated clay platelet in nylon-6 have a synergistic flame retardant effect on nylon-6. A novel flame retardant nanocomposite of nylon-6/unmodified clay/S-ENP with high toughness, high heat resistance, high stiffness and good flowability has been prepared and a mechanism of synergistic flame retardancy has also been proposed. 30 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.CHINA

Accession no.976861

Item 68Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics207, No.16, 23rd Aug.2006, p.1501-1514NOVEL PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING POLY(ETHER SULFONE)S AND THEIR BLENDS WITH AN EPOXY RESIN: THERMAL DECOMPOSITION AND FIRE RETARDANCYBraun U; Knoll U; Schartel B; Hoffmann T; Pospiech D; Artner J; Ciesielski M; Doring M; Perez-Graterol R; Sandler J K W; Altstadt VBerlin,Federal Inst.for Mat.Res.& Testing; Dresden,Institute of Polymer Research; Karlsruhe,Forschungszentrum; Bayreuth,University

The thermal decomposition of phosphorus-containing



polymers, poly(oxyphenylene-sulphonylphenylene-oxydiphenyl phenylene phosphine oxide), 2,5-dihydroxy-1-biphenylene-phosphine oxide-based polysulphone, poly(sulphonyl-diphenylphenylene phosphonate) and bisphenol A-based polysulphone was studied using TGA. The pyrolysis and fire retardancy properties of blends of the polymers with epoxy resin were investigated by limiting oxygen index and cone calorimetry measurements and the results are discussed in terms of the heat release rate, char formation and flame inhibition. 45 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.977226

Item 69SAMPE ‘05: New Horizons for Materials and Processing Technologies. Proceedings of a conference held Long Beach, Ca., 1st-5th May 2005.Covina, Ca., ACS, SAMPE International Business Office, 2005, paper 125, pp.11, CD-ROM, 012NAVY R & D PROGRAMS: MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIRE SAFETY OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURESSorathia U; Perez IUS,Naval Surface Warfare Center; US,Office of Naval Research(SAMPE)

Current research by, or funded by, the naval authorities in fire retardant structural systems for use in marine applications is discussed. Resin systems based on brominated polyvinyl ester resins with nanoclay additives and phosphate fire retardants, phthalonitrile resins, polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane resin systems and bisphenol-C resins were compared. New core materials such as carbon foam and phenolic foam were compared to balsa wood and other thermoplastic foam cores such as polyvinyl chloride and polymethacrylamide. 10 refs.USA

Accession no.977357

Item 70SAMPE ‘06: Creating New Opportunities for The World Economy: Volume 51. Proceedings of a conference held Long Beach, Ca., 30th April-4th May 2006.Covina, Ca., SAMPE International Business Office, 2006, Paper 70, pp.7, CD-ROM, 012A NEW FLAME RETARDANT ADDITIVE FOR POLYMERIC COMPOSITESRogers M; Small A; Amos T; Johnson A; Sterner LLuna Innovations(SAMPE)

A novel flame retardant composed of superabsorbent polyacrylamide microspheres containing an inorganic phosphate was prepared and evaluated in vinyl ester and epoxy matrix resins for glass fibre-reinforced composite systems using the horizontal burn test and UL94 vertical

burn test. The tensile and compression properties of the flame retarded composites were also investigated. The flame retardant readily mixed with the resins and provided cast materials with a V-O UL94 rating. 5 refs.USA

Accession no.977528

Item 71SAMPE ‘06: Creating New Opportunities for The World Economy: Volume 51. Proceedings of a conference held Long Beach, Ca., 30th April-4th May 2006.Covina, Ca., SAMPE International Business Office, 2006, Paper 74, pp.11, CD-ROM, 012FLAME RETARDED POLYUREA NANOCOMPOSITES FOR EXPLOSION RESISTANT COATINGSZammarano M; Gilman J WNIST(SAMPE)

The flammability of polyurea explosion-resistant coatings containing a combination of conventional flame retardants (ammonium polyphosphate or melamine polyphosphate) and nanofillers (layered double hydroxides, polyhedral oligosilsesquioxane and carbon nanofibres) was investigated by means of the modified horizontal radiant panel test and cone calorimetry. The effect of partially replacing the conventional flame retardants with the nanofillers on the flammability of the coatings was examined. The results obtained indicated that partial replacement of the flame retardants with layered double hydroxides or polyhedral oligosilsesquioxanes could provide a significant improvement in flammability and toughness and possibly anti-blast properties. 13 refs.USAAccession no.977531

Item 72SAMPE ‘06: Creating New Opportunities for The World Economy: Volume 51. Proceedings of a conference held Long Beach, Ca., 30th April-4th May 2006.Covina, Ca., SAMPE International Business Office, 2006, Paper 79, pp.13, CD-ROM, 012EARLY IGNITION OF FLAME RETARDED PLASTICS AS MEASURED BY CONE CALORIMETERMorgan A B; Bundy MDayton,University,Research Institute; NIST(SAMPE)

The results are reported of flame retardancy studies carried out on a range of flame retarded polymers and nanocomposites, including high-impact PS, polycarbonate, polycarbonate/ABS blend and PS and PP nanocomposites, using the UL-94V test procedure and cone calorimeter. The phenomenon of early ignition in some of these materials is addressed and the relationship between UL-94V and cone calorimeter is examined. 44 refs.





USA

Accession no.977535

Item 73POLYOLEFINS 2006. Proceedings of a conference held Houston, Tx., 26th Feb.-1st March 2006.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2006, Paper 21, pp.15, CD-ROM, 012RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN LOW-SMOKE ZERO-HALOGEN FLAME RETARDANT POLYOLEFINSCogen J M; Wasserman S H; Brown G D; Bunker S P; Gowell R W; Lin T S; Whaley P DDow Chemical Co.

(SPE,South Texas Section; SPE,Thermoplastic Materials & Foams Div.; SPE,Polymer Modifiers & Additives Div.; Society of Plastics Engineers)

Low-smoke zero-halogen(LSOH) polyolefin compounds typically require high levels of additives, which significantly affect mechanical properties and processability. This poses unique material development challenges. This paper presents recent developments in LSOH polyolefin technology, including novel nanoclay flame retardants, coupling technology, metal hydroxide structure-property relationships, new functional fillers for wet electrical applications, rheology of filled polyolefin systems, and fire testing methodology. These developments provide new tools for creation of novel LSOH materials. 26 refs.USA

Accession no.979055

Item 74Composites Science and Technology66, No.15, 2006, p.2758-2768THE NATURE OF THE GLASS FIBRE SURFACE AND ITS EFFECT IN THE WATER ABSORPTION OF GLASS FIBRE/EPOXY COMPOSITES. THE USE OF FLUORESCENCE TO OBTAIN INFORMATION AT THE INTERFACEOlmos D; Lopez-Moron R; Gonzalez-Benito JMadrid,Universidad Carlos III

The effect of the nature of glass fibre surface in the water absorption of glass fibres/epoxy composites was studied. Three different silane coatings were used to change the nature of the surface of the glass fibre. Aqueous solutions of dansyl labelled silanes (5-dimethylamino-1-naphthalene-sulfonylchloride): (i) 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, APTES; (ii) 3-aminopropylmethyldiethoxysilane, APDES and (iii) 3-aminopropyldimethylmonoethoxysilane, APMES were used to get respectively three different coatings. Gravimetry and FTNIR measurements were used to complementary study the water absorption process in the whole composites systems. Besides, to locally study the ingress of water exactly at the interfaces of the composites the fluorescence from dansyl label was used. The presence

of the silanised fibres seems to induce changes in the water absorption process of the epoxy resin decreasing the relative gain of mass at equilibrium and suggesting that the glass fibre surface may induce a change in the structure of the epoxy matrix in comparison with this polymer without reinforcement. Besides, the fluorescence measurements point out that the water accessibility to the interface is delayed respect to the water absorption of the polymer matrix and the relative amount of water absorbed by the interface depends on the nature of the glass fibre surface, being absorbed less water the lower the functionality of the silane was. 49 refs. Copyright (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.979340

Item 75ANTEC 2006. Proceedings of the 64th SPE Annual conference held Charlotte, NC., 7th-11th May 2006.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2006, p.273-7, PDF 103537, CD-ROM, 012BIO-BASED POLYURETHANE NANOCOMPOSITESEtekallapalli R K R; Ibeh C CPittsburg,State University(SPE)

Polyols derived from soybean oil are new polyurethane raw materials derived from the renewable resources, and with isocyanates they produce polyurethanes that can compete in many aspects with ones derived from the petrochemical polyols. Combined with polyisocyanurates, they produce materials of good thermal, oxidative and weather stability. The main objective of this research is to synthesize mechanically reinforced polyurethanes, and study the influence of the concentration of nanoparticles on the properties of the new material. Two different soybean oil based polyols, SOY169 and SOY201 were selected to synthesize the polyurethane nanocomposites using a diisocyanate (pure MDI) as a curing agent. The clay used at different concentrations (0%, 1%, 3%, and 5%) in the synthesis of the nanocomposite polyurethanes was organo modified Montmorillonite clay, Cloisite 10A. Methanol was chosen as solvent media in preparing the samples. Several methods were used to analyze the samples like, mechanical tests, Tensile strength, Flexural modulus, and Notched Izod Impact strength; Thermal analysis, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA), and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA); Structural analysis, Atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier Transform Infrared spectra (FTIR). 4 refs.USA

Accession no.980311

Item 76ANTEC 2006. Proceedings of the 64th SPE Annual conference held Charlotte, NC., 7th-11th May 2006.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2006, p.317-20, PDF 103641, CD-



ROM, 012EFFECT OF EPOXY MODIFIER ON FLAME RETARDANCY AND RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE-STYRENE(ABS)/MONTMORILLONITE(MMT) COMPOSITESBo Liu; Yong Zhang; Chaoying Wan; Yinxi ZhangShanghai,Jiao Tong University(SPE)

ABS/MMT composites were prepared via melt intercalation to MMT with or without pretreatment of liquid epoxy resin. For the direct addition of epoxy, the composite has intercalated structure; while for the pretreatment of MMT with epoxy, the composite has exfoliated structure. Cone analysis results reveals slight difference in flame retardancy between the two composites. At low frequency zone, the composite with intercalated structure has higher storage modulus than the composite with exfoliated structure. 11 refs.Accession no.980320

Item 77ANTEC 2006. Proceedings of the 64th SPE Annual conference held Charlotte, NC., 7th-11th May 2006.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2006, p.377-81, PDF 103655, CD-ROM, 012STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE OF ABS-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES BY MELT COMPOUNDINGQua E H; Major I F M; Lew C Y; McNally G M; Clarke A HBelfast,Queen’s University; Oxford,University(SPE)

ABS layered-silicate nanocomposites were manufactured by melt compounding. X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy analysis confirmed the achievement of hybrid intercalated and exfoliated structures, giving significant improvement in the mechanical, thermal and rheological properties. 8 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.980333

Item 78Composites Part B37, No.4-5, 2006, p.273-277MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SWNT/EPOXY COMPOSITES USING TWO DIFFERENT CURING CYCLESDe Villoria R; Miravete A; Cuartero J; Chiminelli A; Tolosana NInstituto de Ciencias de Materiales de Aragon

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) presents outstanding mechanical properties and therefore are considered very promising reinforcing materials associated to polymeric matrices for high performance applications.

In order to obtain such composite materials, it is necessary to purify the SWNTs, and obtain a homogeneous dispersion in the matrix. This paper describes a purification/dispersion process. Two different curing cycles are applied, and their mechanical properties are obtained. The Young’s modulus and the tensile strength are studied in both cases. 27 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.980537

Item 79Journal of Macromolecular Science AA43, No.11, 2006, p.1867-1875A NEW NANO-STRUCTURED FLAME-RETARDANT POLY(ETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE)Ming Wang; Meifang Zhu; Bin SunDonghua,University

A novel flame retardant additive was obtained by dispersing a layered hydrotalcite in a brominated PS solution followed by solvent evaporation and characterised by X-ray diffraction, TEM and TGA. PETP composites were fabricated by melt compounding the flame retardant compound with PETP and the flammability, nanostructure and mechanical properties of the composites investigated. 12 refs. (2005 International Conference on Advanced Fibres and Polymer Materials, Shanghai, China, Oct.19-21, 2005).CHINA

Accession no.981001

Item 80Journal of Applied Polymer Science94, No.1, 5th Oct.2004, p.116-22EFFECT OF NANO-MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE ON THE MECHANICAL AND FLAME-RETARDING PROPERTIES OF POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITESMishra S; Sonawane S H; Singh R P; Bendale A; Patil KNorth Maharashtra,University; India,National Chemical Laboratory

A PP-nano-magnesium hydroxide composite was prepared by melt extrusion blending. Adding nano-magnesium hydroxide at a concentration of 12 wt% to PP increased the Young’s modulus by up to 433%, the hardness by 50% and improved the flame retardancy of PP by 35%. These improvements were due to the fact that the nano-magnesium hydroxide was evenly dispersed in the PP, it intercalated and nucleated the polymer chains and was endothermic in nature. 12 refs.INDIA

Accession no.927065





Item 81Polymers for Advanced Technologies15, No.10, Oct.2004, p.583-6NOVEL EPOXY COMPOSITIONS FOR VIBRATION DAMPING APPLICATIONSRatna D; Manoj N R; Chandrasekhar L; Chakraborty B CIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory

The preparation of three novel epoxy compositions cured with polyether amine hardeners having different polyether chain lengths is described and the mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of these compositions are reported. The epoxy compositions exhibit low Tgs and broad and high loss factor values over a wide range of frequencies and temperature and are considered potentially suitable as viscoelastic materials in constrained layer vibration damping. 27 refs.INDIA

Accession no.927978

Item 82Fire and Materials28, No.6, Nov.-Dec.2004, p.423-9FLAME RETARDANCY OF NANOCOMPOSITESOkoshi M; Nishizawa HKyoto,Institute of Technology; Nishizawa,Technical Institute

An overview is presented of work carried out on the development of flame retardant nanocomposites at the above institutions. It covers EVA-clay nanocomposites with improved mechanical properties and flame retardancy obtained by reactive processing, a novel method to control the orientation of montmorillonite nanofiller by reactive processing, the preparation of aluminium hydroxide nanoparticles and a novel coating to react a sol-gel onto polycarbonate. 3 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.928748

Item 83Journal of Applied Polymer Science94, No.4, 15th Nov.2004, p.1676-89CURE KINETICS OF EPOXY/ANHYDRIDE NANOCOMPOSITE SYSTEMS WITH ADDED REACTIVE FLAME RETARDANTSTorre L; Lelli G; Kenny J MPerugia,University

Details are given of montmorillonite nanocomposite systems obtained from epoxy cured using anhydride and the addition of a reacting flame retardant. A thermokinetic analysis of the behaviour of five different compounds was performed using DSC. A model describing the cure behaviour is proposed which takes into account the fact that the reaction mechanism of each system is composed of a couple of parallel phenomena namely the fast opening of the anhydride ring and resin networking. The

verification of the model was performed by comparing the experimental data with theoretical predictions. 12 refs.EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.929591

Item 84Polymer Composites25, No.6, Dec. 2004, p.563-8TENSILE PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FABRIC HILDEGARDIA POPULIFOLIA/POLYCARBONATE TOUGHENED EPOXY COMPOSITESRajulu A V; Rao G B; Devi L GSri Krishnadevaraya University

The aim of this work is to produce environmentally friendly composites, using epoxy resin toughened with polycarbonate as the matrix material and biodegradable uniaxial natural fabric, Hildegardia populifolia as the reinforcing material. The effect of the reinforcement content in the tensile strength of the composite was studied and also the effect of the fibre orientation, the use of a silane coupling agent, and alkali treatment of the fabric, on the tensile properties of the composites produced. 23 refs.INDIA

Accession no.930120

Item 85Polymer Degradation and Stability87, No.1, 2005, p.111-6STUDY ON THE PROPERTIES OF FLAME RETARDANT POLYURETHANE/ORGANOCLAY NANOCOMPOSITELei Song; Yuan Hu; Yong Tang; Rui Zhang; Zuyao Chen; Weicheng FanChina,University of Science & Technology

The use of organically modified clay as filler in nanocomposites consisting of polyurethane, organoclay and flame retardant, prepared by in situ polymerisation, was examined by X-ray diffraction, high resolution electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis and mechanical properties. Flame retardant properties were evaluated using a cone calorimetry. Compared to the base polyurethane, the nanocomposite had improved mechanical properties, char formation and flame retardant properties, with a synergistic effect apparent between organoclay, flame retardant and polymer. 21 refs.CHINA

Accession no.930595

Item 86Composites Science and Technology64, Nos.13-4, 2004, p.1991-2007MOISTURE EFFECT ON THE FATIGUE CRACK



GROWTH OF GLASS PARTICLE AND FIBER REINFORCED EPOXIES WITH STRONG AND WEAK BONDING CONDITIONS. II. MICROSCOPIC STUDY ON TOUGHENING MECHANISMKawaguchi T; Pearson R ALehigh,University

The toughening mechanisms in three types of glass-filled epoxy composites subject to fatigue loading are studied by several different microscopy techniques. The observed toughening mechanisms are then related to the macroscopic fatigue crack propagation behaviour. The role of matrix-reinforcement adhesion is systematically investigated. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission optical microscopy (OM) studies reveal that toughening mechanisms such as microcracking, crack pinning, shear yielding, fibre bridging, and fibre debonding and pull-out are dependent on the surface treatment of the reinforcements as well as the shape of reinforcements. The nature of the toughening mechanisms observed agree with the fatigue crack propagation behaviour predicted by crack tip shielding concepts. Interestingly, matrix shear yielding turns out to be the prevalent toughening mechanism in those mechanisms subjected to moisture exposure. In dry as-moulded composites, a careful investigation involving SEM, OM, fluorescent microscopy and atomic force microscopy indicate that the particular micromechanisms observed are indeed microcracks, and not micro-shear bands as has been suggested by other researchers. 39 refs.USA

Accession no.931385

Item 87Composites Science and Technology64, Nos.13-4, 2004, p.2271-8EFFECT OF WATER IMMERSION AGEING ON LOW-VELOCITY IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF WOVEN ARAMID-GLASS FIBRE-EPOXY COMPOSITESImielinska K; Guillaumat LGdansk,University; ENSAM

Two different woven glass-aramid-fibre/epoxy laminates are subjected to water immersion ageing followed by instrumented low velocity impact testing. The hybrid aramid-glass reinforcement consists of ten plies of woven aramid-glass-fibre fabric or alternatively aramid-fibre fabric with glass-fibre fabric interlayers. The impacted plates are re-tested statically in compression to determine residual strength for assessment of damage tolerance. The maximum water absorption (4.1-4.4%) and water diffusion coefficients are found to be only slightly dependent on reinforcement configuration. The delamination threshold load and impact energy absorption are not significantly affected by the absorbed water. Due to low fibre-matrix adhesion, the prevailing failure modes at low impact energy are fibre/matrix debonding and interfacial cracking.

The compression strength suffers significant reductions with water absorbed (28%) and impact (maximum 42%). The least sensitive to impact damage are wet samples of interlaminated composite. The experimental results of residual compression strength are compared with predictions based on a simple, empirical model. 26 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; POLAND; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.931405

Item 88Journal of Fire Sciences23, No.1, Jan.2005, p.75-87FLAME RETARDANCY OF NANOCOMPOSITES - FROM RESEARCH TO TECHNICAL PRODUCTSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

Flame-retardant nanocomposites were synthesised by melt-blending EVA with modified layered silicates as nanofillers. TGA performed in air demonstrated a clear increase in the thermal stability of the layered silicate-based nanocomposites. The cone calorimeter was used to investigate fire hazards. The nanocomposites caused a large decrease in the peak of heat release rates. Char formation was the main important factor for the improvement of flame retardancy and its function was examined. Further improvements of the flame retardancy by using combinations of nanofillers and traditional flame retardant additives based on metal hydroxides were also studied. The nanocomposites based on nanofillers and aluminium trihydrate could be used as efficient systems for flame-retardant cables. The corresponding results obtained for a coaxial cable complying with the UL 1666 riser test are presented. 17 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.932175

Item 89Polymer Degradation and Stability86, No.3, 2004, p.535-40PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF HALOGEN-FREE FLAME-RETARDED POLYAMIDE 6/ORGANOCLAY NANOCOMPOSITELei Song; Yuan Hu; Zhihua Lin; Shangyong Xuan; Shaofeng Wang; Zuyao Chen; Weicheng FanChina,University of Science & Technology

Halogen-free flame retarded nylon-6/organoclay (PA6/OMT) nanocomposite was prepared by using magnesium hydroxide (MH) and red phosphorus (RP) as a flame retardant and organoclay (OMT) as synergist, via a melt blend technique. The morphology was characterised by X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy.





The effects of the organoclay on the mechanical properties and the flammability of the flame retarded nylon-6 were investigated. The addition of OMT is shown to improve the mechanical properties of the composite, and cone calorimetry tests showed that a synergistic effect occurred as MH-RP and OMT were added to nylon-6. The flame retardant property of PA6 containing MH-RP and OMT was better than PA6 containing MH-RP or OMT. 27 refs.CHINA

Accession no.932283

Item 90Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition42, No.23, 1st Dec.2004, p.6163-6173POLYPROPYLENE/MONTMORILLONITE NANOCOMPOSITES AND INTUMESCENT, FLAME-RETARDANT MONTMORILLONITE SYNERGISM IN POLYPROPYLENE NANOCOMPOSITESYong Tang; Yuan Hu; Baoguang Li; Lei Liu; Zhengzhou Wang; Zuyao ChenHefei,University Of Science & Technology

Polypropylene (PP)-montmor i l loni te (MMT) nanocomposites were prepared by melt intercalation with pristine MMT, PP and maleic acid-modified PP, using the cationic surfactant hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide. The dispersibility of MMT in the PP matrix was studied by X-ray diffraction, TEM and high-resolution electron microscopy. An intumescent flame retardant (IFR) was added to the nanocomposites and the flammability properties were studied by cone calorimetry. Increasing the surfactant or compatibiliser concentration improved the dispersion of MMT and SCT-DFT theory predicted that this reduces the free energy of the system. An optimum value for the synergistic effect between MMT and IFR was found and the mechanism of synergism was discussed. 32 refs.CHINA

Accession no.933197

Item 91ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.29, CD-ROM, 012EFFECT OF INTERFACES IN FLAME RETARDED NANOCOMPOSITESMarosi G; Anna P; Szabo ABudapest,University of Technology & Economics(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

A 5% concentration of layered silicate (montmorillonite, MMT) was introduced into systems containing PP,

polyamide or EVA and various flame retardants. It was concluded that the introduction of MMT into a polymer may improve the flame retardancy even without interface modification via a viscosity increasing effect. Surface treatment of MMT with a cationic surfactant of higher heat resistance increased the mechanical properties while the flame retardancy was increased of decreased, depending on the type of flame retardant system used. Well-dispersed MMT combined with charring flame retardants showed a char stabilising effect. MMT had a catalytic effect on the charring process which could be increased by replacing its surface ions. Depending on its surface layer, MMT could promote or hinder the migration of flame retardants to the surface. Expandable MMT, formed by intercalation with a well-designed synergist, was the most rapid way of delivering the nanolayers and flame retardants to the surface. 10 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY

Accession no.934474

Item 92ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.34-5, CD-ROM, 012EFFECT OF LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITES ON BURNING BEHAVIOUR OF CONVENTIONALLY FLAME-RETARDED UNSATURATED POLYESTERSKandola B K; Nazare S; Horrocks A RBolton Institute(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Unsaturated polyester-organically modified montmorillonite (5% w/w) nanocomposites incorporating a flame retardant (ammonium polyphosphate, 20% with respect to resin-clay mixture) were prepared by in-situ intercalative polymerisation. Thermal analysis of these materials was compared with that of resin-organoclay nanocomposites and resin-flame retardant samples. The results showed that in unsaturated polyester resins, nanoclays on their own were nor effective as char promoters although significant reduction of heat release values occurred. When conventional flame retardants were added to the nanocomposites, char formation was enhanced and the peak heat release rate was reduced. The results were discussed. 3 refs.EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.934477

Item 93ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric



Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.36, CD-ROM, 012MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE AND NANO COMPOSITE FR DEVELOPMENTSInnes JFlame Retardants Associates Inc.(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

The torque effect of incorporation of nano magnesium hydroxide in flame retardant formulations was studied. One control formulation with PP was used which contained a standard, ultrafine particle magnesium hydroxide flame retardant. Two other formulations with PP partially replaced the ultrafine magnesium hydroxide with nano magnesium hydroxide materials. The relative torque results were compared during compounding of the formulations. The assumption that the torque throughout the compounding process would be increased by the inclusion of nano magnesium hydroxide did not appear to be borne out by the results. There was a substantial difference in torque results between the two nano magnesium hydroxide materials, despite the fact that their particle sizes were similar. Further work was needed to investigate the findings. 1 ref.USA

Accession no.934478

Item 94ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.39-40, CD-ROM, 012COMBINED FIRE RETARDANT ACTION OF PHOSPHONATED STRUCTURES AND CLAYS DISPERSION IN EPOXY RESINCamino G; Tartaglione G; Frache A; Manferti C; Finocchiaro PTorino,Politecnico; Torino,Universita degli Studi; Catania,University(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Epoxy-organical ly modif ied montmori l loni te nanocomposites, containing 10 wt% of the organoclay, were prepared by in-situ polymerisation of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether crosslinked with methyl tetrahydrophthalic anhydride. The flame retardant additive used was 2,2-bis(3-diethyloxyphosphonyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propane (5 wt%). Thermogravimetric analysis showed that in the nanocomposites, the diffusion of oxygen to the epoxy matrix was restricted. The presence of the organoclay in the nanocomposites reduced the peak heat release rate, but the addition of the flame retardant strongly reduced this further. 21 refs.EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.934480

Item 95ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.86-7, CD-ROM, 012THERMAL STABILITY AND FLAMMABILITY OF POLYMER/SILICA NANOCOMPOSITES PREPARED VIA EXTRUSIONFeng Yang; Yngard R; Nelson G LFLORIDA,INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

PS/silica and PMMA/silica nanocomposites were prepared using a single screw extruder. The polymer/silica nanocomposites alone were not flame retardant but, in fact, burned even faster than the polymers themselves. Materials treated with phenethyltrichlorosilane burned with the formation of char while dripping heavily. Composites with PDMS also burned with char formation but did not drip heavily. Materials with 40 wt% of brominated PS added to the pure polymer were flame retardant. When 10% silica was added to PS, only 35 wt% brominated PS was needed to make the material flame retardant. All the nanocomposites showed improved thermal stabilities. The results were discussed. 6 refs.USA

Accession no.934505

Item 96ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.90-1, CD-ROM, 012FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES OF PMMA-SINGLE WALLED CARBON NANOTUBE NANOCOMPOSITESKashiwagi T; Fangming Du; Winey K I; Groth K M; Shields J R; Harris R H; Douglas JNIST,Building & Fire Research Laboratory; Pennsylvania,University; NIST,Polymers Div.(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

The flammability of PMMA-single walled carbon nanotube nanocomposites (containing up to 1% mass fraction of nanotubes) was studied. The mass loss rates of the samples were measured in a gasification device in a nitrogen atmosphere rather than in a cone calorimeter. The results showed that the addition of the single walled carbon nanotubes significantly reduced the mass loss rate of PMMA, even at contents of less than 1% mass fraction. The structure of the residues collected after the tests were studied by SEM. The final residue was a network structure consisting of a rope-like structure of intertwined carbon nanotubes. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.934507





Item 97Polymer Degradation and Stability87, No.3, 2005, p.411-8INVESTIGATION OF INTERFACIAL MODIFICATION FOR FLAME RETARDANT ETHYLENE VINYL ACETATE COPOLYMER/ALUMINA TRIHYDRATE NANOCOMPOSITESZhang X; Guo F; Chen J; Wang G; Liu HBeijing,University of Chemical Technology

Details are given of the preparation of EVAC/alumina trihydrate nanocomposites by melt blending. A titanate coupling agent and maleated EVAC were used as interfacial modifiers. The effects of modifiers on the properties of EVAC nanocomposites were studied by TGA, tensile measurements and combustion tests. The dispersion and adhesion patterns of the nanoparticles in the EVAC matrix were characterised through Molau solution test, TEM and SEM. 15 refs.CHINA

Accession no.936305

Item 98ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering. 2004, p.156-7, CD-ROM, 012SYNERGY BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL PHOSPHORUS-BASED FIRE RETARDANTS AND NANOCOMPOSITE FORMATION FOR VINYL ESTERSChigwada G; Jiang D D; Wilkie C AMarquette,University(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Cone calorimetry, X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the synergistic effects of addition of a wide range of phosphorus containing fire retardants to vinyl ester nanocomposite resins. Average mass loss rate and peak heat release rates were lowered proportionally by addition of increasing amounts of phosphates, but different phosphates behaved differently. Ignition times appeared to be unaffected. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.937249

Item 99ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering. 2004, p.162-3, CD-ROM, 012RECENT ADVANCES IN THE USE OF ZINC BORATES AS MULTIFUNCTIONAL FIRE

RETARDANTS IN HALOGEN-FREE POLYMERSShen K K; Olson ELuzenac(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Use of commercial zinc borate fire retardants in aluminium trihydroxide filled, and nanoclay filled, cable materials based on ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers is discussed. Formation of strong chars when these materials are used in both composite and nanocomposite materials increased the flame retardancy in all examples studied. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.937252

Item 100Plastics Technology50, No.11, Nov.2004, p.56-61CHASING NANOCOMPOSITESSherman L M

It is explained that nano-sized particles have mammoth potential in plastics because loadings are so small compared with other additives. This article highlights the latest developments in the field of nanocomposites, as presented at three recent conferences. Research and development is focusing on boosting plastics’ mechanical and barrier properties, flame retardancy, and electrical conductivity.BASELL NORTH AMERICA INC.; FOSTER CORP.; HONEYWELL SPECIALTY POLYMERS; HYPERION CATALYSIS INTERNATIONAL; MITSUBISHI GAS CHEMICAL AMERICA INC.; NANOCOR INC.; NOBLE POLYMERS; POLYONE CORP.; PYROGRAPH PRODUCTS INC.; SOUTHERN CLAY PRODUCTS INC.; SUD-CHEMIE INC.; ZYVEX CORP.; BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS CO.; GENERAL MOTORS; HITE BREWERY CO.; OHIO STATE,UNIVERSITYSOUTH KOREA; USA; WORLD

Accession no.937421

Item 101Polymer Materials Science and Engineering21, No.1, Jan.2005, p.164-7ChineseSTUDIES ON FLAME RETARDED PROPERTY OF COAL-BASED POLYETHYLENE/MONTMORILLONITE COMPOSITESWang G-L; Zhou A-N; Ge L-M; Qu J-LXian,University of Science & Technology

The effect of ammonium polyphosphate-pentaerythritol-melamine copolymer as an intumescent flame retardant on the flammability of the above composites is investigated and the synergism between the components examined. Limiting oxygen index, thermooxidative degradation and char rates of the composites are discussed. 6 refs.CHINA

Accession no.939438



Item 102Chemical WeeklyL, No.39, 17th May 2005, p.197-202NANOTECHNOLOGY: A BEGINNERS’ GUIDE TO A FUTURISTIC TECHNOLOGY. PART 2: NANOCOMPOSITESPrasad N

Polymeric nanocomposites (PNCs) or polymer nanostructured materials represent a radical alternative to conventional-filled polymers or polymer blends. Uniform dispersion of nanoscopically sized filler particles produces ultra-large interfacial area per volume between the nanoelement and host polymer. The value of PNC technology is not based solely on mechanical enhancements of the neat resin. Rather, it comes from providing value-added properties not present in the neat resin, without sacrificing the inherent processability and mechanical properties of the resin. PNC fabrication methodologies are outlined. Nanocomposites and nanoclays for packaging applications are examined. Nanocomposites can slow transmission of gases and moisture vapour through plastics by creating a “tortuous path” for gas molecules to thread their way among the obstructing platelets. Nylon 6 and 66, PETP, EVOH, PP, TPO and acetal nanocomposites are discussed.INDIA

Accession no.941125

Item 103Polymer Degradation and Stability88, No.3, 2005, p.382-93SYNERGY BETWEEN NANOCOMPOSITE FORMATION AND LOW LEVELS OF BROMINE ON FIRE RETARDANCY IN POLYSTYRENESChigwada G; Jash P; Jiang D D; Wilkie C AMarquette,University

The preparation of nanocomposites of polystyrene (PS) and a montmorillonite clay organically modified with ammonium salts containing an oligomeric material based on vinylbenzyl chloride, styrene and dibromostyrene, by bulk polymerisation and by melt blending, and their characterisation by XRD, TEM, TGA and cone calorimetry, is described. The effects of the bromine-containing organically modified clay on the flame retardancy of PS are discussed. 22 refs.USA

Accession no.941263

Item 104Journal of Fire Sciences23, No.3, May 2005, p.209-24FLAMMABILITY OF POLYMER-CLAY AND POLYMER-SILICA NANOCOMPOSITESFeng Yang; Yngard R; Nelson G LFlorida,Institute of Technology

The flammability of nanocomposites of polystyrene and poly(methyl methacrylate) with montmorillonite clays and with silica were investigated in terms of peak heat release rate (cone calorimetry), limiting oxygen index, thermal stability and horizontal and vertical burning tests, with and without the addition of flame-retardant additives. The results are discussed in comparison with those for the corresponding polymers. 28 refs.USA

Accession no.941344

Item 105Fire and Materials29, No.2, March-April 2005, p.61-9FILLER BLEND OF CARBON NANOTUBES AND ORGANOCLAYS WITH IMPROVED CHAR AS A NEW FLAME RETARDANT SYSTEM FOR POLYMERS AND CABLE APPLICATIONSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

Multi-wall and single-wall carbon nanotubes were evaluated as flame retardant fillers in LDPE and the multi-walled carbon nanotubes found to act as efficient flame retardants in the polyethylene. A blend of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and organoclays was then employed as a synergistic flame retardant system in EVA-based systems and formulations optimised to produce a cable compound, which exhibited improved char and enhanced flame retardant properties. 8 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.941756

Item 106Journal of Applied Polymer Science97, No.1, 5th July 2005, p.366-76BRIEF REVIEW ON FIRE RETARDANTS FOR POLYMERIC FOAMSWang J Q; Chow W KBeijing,Institute of Technology; Hong Kong,Polytechnic University

The change to CFC-free polyurethane foams has promoted the change to brominated fire retardants to meet fire resistance specifications. Polystyrene foams usually contain additive fire retardants, with bromine compounds increasingly replacing chlorine compounds. The use of intumescent fire retardants is an alternative to halogen-containing compounds. They normally comprise three ingredients: a catalyst, usually a phosphorus compound; a polyhydric char former; and a blowing agent. Nanocomposites exhibit enhanced fire resistance compared with the parent polymer, and have potential use as fire retardants. 27 refs.CHINA; HONG KONG

Accession no.942515





Item 107International Polymer Science and Technology31, No.10, 2004, p. T/34-8FEATURES OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF EPOXY BINDERS MODIFIED WITH A THERMOPLASTICGorbunova I Y; Kerber M L; Shustov M V

In order to increase heat resistance and resistance to impact loads of epoxy composites, this study investigates the use of blends of thermosetting plastics with thermoplastic polymers as binders in the production of articles with reinforcing fibres. The properties are reported of a composite based on epoxy oligomer ED-20, curing agent diaminodiphenylsulphone and polysulphone as the modifier. In the course of this work, a study was made of the process of curing of the given system and the influence of the curing schedules on its properties and on the internal stresses arising in the material. The effect of a thermoplastic modifier on the properties of the composite was also studied. It was shown that the introduction of polysulphone led to a reduction in the glass transition temperature determined by the DMA method. It was established that the Tg of a system could be used as a criterion characterising the degree of conversion, and that the introduction of polysulphone led to a considerable increase in the impact strength and cross-breaking strength of the epoxy-based composite. 3 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.12, 2003, p.38-40)RUSSIA

Accession no.943307

Item 108High Performance Fillers 2005. Proceedings of a conference held Cologne, Germany, 8th-9th March 2005.Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2005, Paper 3, pp.7, 29cm, 012NEW PERSPECTIVES IN FIRE RETARDANT POLYMER MATERIALSCamino GTorino,Politecnico(Rapra Technology Ltd.)

Recent developments in fire retardant polymeric materials are described. The traditional fire retardants generally show unsatisfactory performance in terms of environmental impact and fire hazard. The replacement of the strategy used in the past, which involved quenching the flame in the gas phase, by condensed phase mechanisms aimed at reducing the supply of combustible gases to the flame, below the self-sustaining combustion level, is discussed. The new generation of polymer materials based on dispersion of nanosize inorganic fillers in the organic matrix, in which the improvement of fire retardance is combined with improvement of physical and mechanical properties, is considered. 7 refs.EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.944254

Item 109High Performance Fillers 2005. Proceedings of a conference held Cologne, Germany, 8th-9th March 2005.Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2005, Paper 5, pp.7, 29cm, 012FLAME RETARDANCY OF POLYMERS BY NANOCOMPOSITES. A NEW CONCEPTBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(Rapra Technology Ltd.)

Flame retardant nanocomposites were synthesised by melt-blending EVAs with modified layered silicates (montmorillonites) as nanofillers. TGA performed in air demonstrated a clear increase in the thermal stability of the layered silicate-based nanocomposites. A cone calorimeter was used to investigate fire hazards. The nanocomposites caused a large decrease in heat release. The char formation by the nanofillers as char promoter was the most important factor for the improvement and its function was examined. Further improvements of the flame retardancy by combinations of nanofillers and traditional flame retardant additives based on metal hydroxides were also studied. The nanocomposites based on nanofillers and aluminium trihydrate could be used as very efficient systems for flame-retardant cables. The corresponding results were outlined for a coaxial cable fulfilling the UL 1666 riser test. 9 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.944255

Item 110Addcon World 2004. Proceedings of the 10th International Plastics Additives and Modifiers Conference, held Amsterdam, 28th - 29th Sept., 2004..Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2004, p.69-82, 29 cm, 012NANOCOMPOSITES - ANEW NANOTECHNOLOGY CONCEPT FOR FLAME RETARDANT POLYMERS AND CABLESBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(Rapra Technology Ltd.)

The concept of nanocomposites for the production of flame retardant polymers and cable coverings is discussed. Traditional flame retardant systems can be costly and the high levels of flame retardant required can cause problems with processing and subsequent mechanical properties. This paper examines the use of layered silicates as fillers, the synthesis of nanocomposites, the structure and properties of nanocomposites, their thermal stability and flame retardancy in a variety of polymer matrixes.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.944296



Item 111Plastics News(USA)17, No.20, 18th July 2005, p.9-10TECHMER, LEHVOSS FORM COMPANYEsposito F

Techmer PM and Lehmann & Voss have formed Techmer Lehvoss Compounds. In June, the new firm opened a 40,000-square-foot expansion in Clinton, Tennessee. The project represents an investment of more than 5m US dollars and is connected to partner Techmer PM’s plant there. The two firms had been distributing each other’s products for several years before linking up late last year to buy the Electrafil and Plaslube engineering resin compound businesses from DSM Engineering Plastics Americas. Both Electrafil and Plaslube can be based on nylon, polycarbonate and other engineering resins. One area where Techmer Lehvoss may find future growth is in nanocomposites. Techmer PM has had commercial products available in this area since 2003.Techmer PM LLC; Lehmann & Voss & Co.USA

Accession no.944518

Item 112Polymer46, No.14, 2005, p.5012-24FLAME RETARDANT AIRCRAFT EPOXY RESINS CONTAINING PHOSPHORUSHergenrother P M; Thompson C M; Smith J G; Connell J W; Hinkley J A; Lyon R E; Moulton RNASA Langley Research Center; US,National Institute of Aerospace; US,Federal Aviation Administration; Applied Poleramics Inc.

The possibility of incorporating phosphorus compounds into epoxy resins to enhance the fire resistance for aircraft exterior composite structures was investigated. Phosphorus was introduced as part of the diamine curing agent or as part of the epoxy compound. Compositions containing 1.5 wt% of phosphorus exhibited flame resistance, and those containing 3 wt% achieved the fire resistance requirements defined by the Federal Aviation Administration heat release rate test for large area aircraft cabin interior components. The reduction in flammability was attributed to the promotion of charring by phosphorus in the condensed phase, the phosphorus acting as a catalyst for char formation. The presence of phosphorus did not significantly affect the mechanical properties, including fracture toughness, compressive strength and compressive modulus. 33 refs.USA

Accession no.944672

Item 113Polymer Degradation and Stability89, No.1, 2005, p.85-100FIRE RETARDANCY OF VINYL ESTER

NANOCOMPOSITES: SYNERGY WITH PHOSPHORUS-BASED FIRE RETARDANTSChigwada G; Jash P; Jiang D D; Wilkie C AMarquette,University

Nanocomposites were fabricated from various vinyl ester polymers, several clays and polyhedral oligosilsesquioxane and flame retarded with various phosphorus compounds. Nanocomposites with and without flame retardants were characterised by X-ray diffraction, TEM and TGA. The flammability of the phosphorus-containing nanocomposites was investigated using a cone calorimeter and the synergy between the nanocomposites and flame retardants evaluated. 21 refs.USA

Accession no.945013

Item 114International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives

25, No.5, 2005, p.404-9INFLUENCE OF FIBRE REINFORCEMENT AND PEEL PLY SURFACE TREATMENT TOWARDS ADHESION OF COMPOSITE SURFACESBenard Q; Fois M; Grisel MLe Havre,Unite de Recherche en Chimie Organique et Macromoleculaire; Le Havre,University

The surface properties of carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy composites with and without a peel ply-type surface treatment were investigated by contact angle and roughness measurements and characterised by scanning electron microscopy and FTIR spectroscopy combined with microscopy. The composites were also subjected to single lap shear testing and the relationship between the surface properties and lap shear strength of the composites examined. 14 refs.EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERALAccession no.945156

Item 115International Journal of Plastics Technology8, No.2, Dec.2004, p.279-86EVALUATION OF FRP COMPOSITES BASED ON CONVENTIONAL AND MULTIFUNCTIONAL EPOXY RESINS: A COMPARATIVE STUDYSamui A B; Chakraborty B C; Ratna DIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory

The mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of conventional difunctional and multifunctional epoxy resins as castings and composites reinforced with glass and carbon fibres were compared. The cured tetrafunctional epoxy network exhibited higher modulus and Tg than the difunctional epoxy resin. The mechanical properties of tetrafunctional epoxy-based composites were found to be inferior to those of composites based on conventional epoxy





resin, which was thought to be due to the high viscosity of tetrafunctional epoxy resin. The blending of tetrafunctional epoxy resin with low viscosity trifunctional epoxy resin resulted in a marked improvement in mechanical properties of composites due to reduction in viscosity. The results were explained in terms of interlaminar shear strength analysis of the composites. 21 refs.INDIA

Accession no.946316

Item 116Polymer Materials Science and Engineering21, No.3, May 2005, p.1-5ChineseTHE LATEST DEVELOPMENT OF NON-HALOGEN FLAME-RETARDED PAYu-Xiang OuBeijing,Institute of Technology

The latest developments in non-halogen flame retarded polyamides, including those treated with melamine derivatives and reactive phosphorus compounds and inorganic nanocomposites. Flame retardant mechanisms and the future of non-halogen flame retarded polyamides are also considered. 36 refs.CHINA

Accession no.948085

Item 117ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2004. Volume 91. Proceedings of a conference held Philadelphia, Pa., 22nd-26th Aug.2004.Washington, D.C., ACS, Division of Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering, 2004, p.738-9, CD-ROM, 012THERMAL PROPERTIES AND FLAME RETARDANCE OF NANOCOMPOSITES OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE AND NANOHYDROTALCITEWang XBeijing,University of Chemical Technology(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Details are given of the preparation of PVC modified with hydrotalcite as a heat stabiliser. The thermal degradation of the nanocomposite was investigated. Characterisation was also undertaken using TEM, TGA and FTIR. 9 refs.CHINA

Accession no.949897

Item 118Polymers and Polymer Composites13, No.5, 2005,p.529-38FLAME RETARDANCY OF NANOCOMPOSITES - FROM RESEARCH TO REALITY. REVIEWBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

Nanocomposites incorporating modified layered silicates as fillers dispersed at the nm-level within a polymer matrix are examined with respect to their inherent flame retardancy. The flame retardancy mechanism is reported to be based on the char formation and its structure. The char insulates the polymer from heat and acts as a barrier, reducing the escape of volatile gases from the polymer combustion. In addition, the combination of organoclays with traditional flame retardants is shown to be a means of further improving the flame retardant properties of polymers. The cone calorimeter is used as a tool for the investigation of flame retardancy. 9 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.950361

Item 119Fire and Materials29, No.5, Sept.-Oct.2005, p.283-94CONE CALORIMETRIC AND THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS EVALUATION OF HALOGEN-CONTAINING POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITESWang D; Echols K; Wilkie C AMarquette,University

The morphology and fire retardancy of nanocomposites of bromine-containing polymers, such as copolymers of styrene and dibromostyrene, with various proportions of montmorillonite clay, organically modified with a fluorine-containing quaternary ammonium salt, were investigated by XRD, TGA and cone calorimetry studies. The effects of bromine content and method of preparation on the results are discussed. 15 refs.USA

Accession no.950949

Item 120Journal of Applied Polymer Science97, No.6, 15th Sept.2005, p.2375-81TENSILE AND FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES OF POLYPROPYLENE-BASED RTPO/CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES FOR CABLE INSULATING MATERIALHong C H; Lee Y B; Bae J W; Jho J Y; Nam B U; Nam G J; Lee K JSeoul,National University; Korea,University of Technology & Education; LG Cable Ltd.

Nanocomposites were prepared by blending polypropylene-based reactor thermoplastic polyolefin, maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene oligomer compatibiliser, organically-modified montmorillonite clay and magnesium hydroxide flame retardant. The tensile strength increased, whilst the elongation at break decreased, with increasing clay content. From consideration of the tensile properties, it was concluded that the nanocomposites containing 10 wt% clay were candidate materials for cable applications.



The nanocomposites exhibited heat release rates which were significantly less than that of the neat polymer, combining was very high char yields. Although the clay enhanced the flame retardant properties, it was considered that a conventional flame retardant, such as magnesium hydroxide, was necessary to provide adequate flame retardant properties for cable applications. 32 refs.KOREA

Accession no.951085

Item 121IRC 2005: Creating Value throughout the Supply Chain. Proceedings of the North European International Rubber Conference held Maastricht, The Netherlands, 7th-9th June 2005.London, IOM Communications, 2005, p.327-37, 21cm, 012NANOCOMPOSITES AS A NEW CONCEPT FOR FLAME RETARDANCY OF POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(UK,Institute of Materials,Minerals & Mining)

Nanocomposites were fabricated from EVA and dimethyldistearylammonium cation-modified montmorillonite as nanofiller with or without alumina trihydrate as flame retardant and their morphological properties, heat stability, flammability and thermal degradation behaviour investigated. Coaxial cables with an outer sheath made from the nanocomposites containing the above flame retardant were fabricated and tested for flame retardancy and found to exhibit enhanced flame retardancy due to the formation of a char layer during nanocomposite combustion. 20 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.951129

Item 122Polymer Degradation and Stability89, No.3, 2005, p.418-26THERMAL STABILITY AND FIRE RETARDANT PERFORMANCE OF PHOTO-OXIDIZED NANOCOMPOSITES OF POLYPROPYLENE-GRAFT-MALEIC ANHYDRIDE/CLAYDiagne M; Gueye M; Vidal L; Tidjani ACheikh Anta Diop,University; Institut de Chimie des Surfaces et Interfaces

PP-grafted maleic anhydride (PPgMA)/montmorillonite clay nanocomposites were prepared by extrusion and by injection moulding. The thermal degradation and fire retardant behaviour of the nanocomposites were improved compared with those of pure PPgMA and this improvement was greater for injection moulded specimens than for extruded specimens. These properties deteriorated in UV-irradiated nanocomposites. However, UV-irradiated pure PPgMA showed an outstanding improvement in fire

retardant properties. Reasons for these observations were discussed. 18 refs.EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; SENEGAL; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.951264

Item 123Addcon World 2005. Proceedings of the 11th International Plastics Additives and Modifiers Conference, held Hamburg, 21st-22nd Sept.2005.Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2005, Paper 11, pp.8, 29cm, 012PROGRESS WITH NANOSTRUCTURED FLAME RETARDANTSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(Rapra Technology Ltd.)

A brief report is presented on work carried out to improve the fire performance of polymers and cables using nanostructured materials. Results are reported for thermoplastic PU cables containing organoclays, PE and LDPE filled with polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes, EVA filled with sepiolite and EVA flame retarded with a masterbatch of carbon nanofibres in EVA as carrier matrix. 8 refs.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.952277

Item 124Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology17, No.12, 2003, p.1655-68MODIFICATION OF EPOXY RESINS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF ADHESION. A CRITICAL REVIEWRatna DIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory

An overview is presented of the modification of epoxy resins for improvement of adhesion. Improvements in bond strength and impact strength of epoxy resins by chemical modification with a suitable flexible modifier are discussed. 95 refs.INDIA

Accession no.903264

Item 125Advances in Polymer Technology22, No.4, Winter 2003, p.373-7INTERLAMINAR SHEAR STRENGTH OF POLYCARBONATE-TOUGHENED EPOXY COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH GLASS ROVINGSRajulu A V; Rao G B; Devi L G; Balaji P J; Jiasong He; Jun ZhangSri Krishnadevaraya University; Bharath Dynamics Ltd.; Beijing,Institute of Chemistry





The interlaminar shear strength(ILSS) of a composite composed of glass rovings in a polycarbonate-toughened epoxy resin matrix was studied. The variation of ILSS with the contents of glass rovings and of polycarbonate was investigated. For a given content of polycarbonate in the matrix, the ILSS increased with volume fraction of glass rovings. For a given content of rovings, the ILSS decreased with increasing polycarbonate content. The ILSS of the composites with epoxy resin alone as the matrix was, however, found to be higher than that of the epoxy resin/polycarbonate blend and this was attributed to better adhesion between epoxy resin and reinforcement than that between epoxy resin/polycarbonate blend and reinforcement. This was further confirmed by SEM of ILSS fractured samples. 13 refs.CHINA; INDIA

Accession no.904275

Item 126Composite Structures62, No.3-4, Nov.-Dec.2003, p.391-5PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MG(OH)2 NANOPARTICLES AND FLAME-RETARDANT PROPERTY OF ITS NANOCOMPOSITES WITH EVALongzhen Qiu; Rongcai Xie; Peng Ding; Baojun QuChina,University of Science & Technology

Magnesium hydroxide nanocrystalline particles with needle- or lamella-like morphologies were synthesised by a surfactant-mediated solution method. The structures and morphologies of magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles were characterised by X-ray diffraction, TEM and FTIR spectroscopy. Magnesium hydroxide/EVA nanocomposite was also prepared and was shown to have a limiting oxygen index value of 38.3. The high-resolution TEM picture showed that the magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles dispersed homogeneously in EVA matrix and the SEM images indicated that the char formed after combustion of the nanocomposite was very compact. 21 refs.CHINA

Accession no.904327

Item 127Polymer45, No.3, 1 Feb. 2004, p.881-91FLAME RETARDANT MECHANISM OF POLYAMIDE 6-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITESKashiwagi T; Harris R H; Xin Zhang; Briber R M; Cipriano B H; Raghavan S R; Awad W H; Shields J RNIST,Building & Fire Research Laboratory; Maryland,University

The thermal and flammability properties of polyamide-6/clay nanocomposites containing 2 and 5% by mass of clay were measured to determine their flame retardant performance. The gasification of the nanocomposite samples at an external radiant flux of 50 kW/sq m was

examined in a nitrogen atmosphere, and the residues were analysed thermogravimetrically and by transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Up to 80% by mass of the blackened residues consisted of clay particles and the remainder was thermally stable organic components with a possible graphitic structure. Clay particles were stacked in the carbonaceous floccule residues and the d-spacing of the clay platelets was 1.3-1.4 nm compared with the well exfoliated original sample. There are two possible mechanisms that explain the accumulation of the initially well-dispersed clay particles in the sample on burning or gasifying the sample surface: recession of the polymer resin from the surface by pyrolysis to leave with the de-wetted clay particles; and transportation of clay particles by rising bubbles of degradation products and the associated convection flow in the melt from the interior of the sample toward the surface. Neither PA6/clay nanocomposite sample produced a sufficient amount of protective floccules to cover the entire sample surface, and vigorous bubbling was observed over the sample surface that was not covered by protective floccules. 30 refs.USA

Accession no.905576

Item 128Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2003, pp.138, 29 cm. Rapra Review Report 168,. vol. 14, no. 12, 2003. NALOANPLASTIC FLAME RETARDANTS: TECHNOLOGY AND CURRENT DEVELOPMENTSInnes J; Innes AEdited by: Humphreys S(Rapra Technology Ltd.)Rapra Review Report No.168

A comprehensive review is presented of flame retardants for plastics, with particular reference to US and European legislation, test methods and product developments. A market overview is included with indications of market drivers, major end-use applications, and safety standards. Particular emphasis is given to flammability and smoke tests. Flame retardants are considered under the headings of halogen flame retardants; metal hydrate flame retardants; phosphorous flame retardants, smoke suppressants, and other flame retardants, including recent technology advances, including nanotechnology. 434 refs.EUROPE-GENERAL; USA

Accession no.907057

Item 129Journal of Materials Science. Materials in Electronics15, No.3, March 2004, p.175-82FLAME RESISTANT GLASS-EPOXY PRINTED WIRING BOARDS WITH NO HALOGEN OR PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDSIji M; Kiuchi Y



NEC Corp.

The development of printed wiring boards made from flame-resistant glass fibre-reinforced epoxy composites free from halogen- or phosphorus-based flame retardants is described and their flammability, chemical resistance, dielectric properties and solder-heating resistance are reported. The printed wiring boards contain a phenol aralkyl-type epoxy resin and a small amount of aluminium hydroxide and can be safely burned, disposed and reused as a filler after pulverisation. 13 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.906137

Item 130Journal of Applied Polymer Science91, No.4, 15th Feb.2004, p.2649-52PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MODIFIED-CLAY-REINFORCED AND TOUGHENED EPOXY-RESIN NANOCOMPOSITESKailiang Zhang; Lixin Wang; Fang Wang; Guangjian Wang; Zuobang LiHebei,University of Technology; Tianjin,University of Technology

Organically modified layered clay was dispersed in an epoxy resin (bisphenol A diglycidyl ether) and epoxy-clay nanocomposites were prepared via curing with methyl tetrahydro acid anhydride at 80-160C. The nanocomposites consisted of individual clay layers embedded within a crosslinked epoxy matrix. The impact strength and tensile strength of the nanocomposites increased by 87.8 and 20.9% respectively with an organoclay loading of 3 wt%. The thermal stability, heat distortion temperatures and dynamic mechanical properties of the nanocomposites were all improved compared with those of the pure epoxy resin. 7 refs.CHINA

Accession no.907820

Item 131MATERIALS AND PROCESSING - ENABLING FLIGHT: OUR LEGACY AND OUR FUTURE. Vol.35. Proceedings of the 35th International SAMPE Technical Conference held Dayton, Oh., 28th Sept.-2nd Oct.2003.Covina, Ca., SAMPE International Business Office, 2003, Paper 74, pp.11, CD-ROM, 012INCORPORATION OF SINGLE-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES IN EPOXY COMPOSITESJongdae Kim; Barrera E V; Armeniades C DRice University(SAMPE)

The inco rpora t ion o f s ing le -wa l l ed ca rbon nanotubes(SWNTs) into thermosetting polymer composites with glass fibre reinforcement was studied, together with

the effect of SWNTs on the mechanical properties of the resulting composites. Incipient wetting of SWNTs on the fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites was investigated. SWNTs were introduced onto the fibre reinforcements by spraying SWNTs/prepolymer and by use of chemically modified SWNT-sizing agents to enhance interphase/interface between the fibre reinforcement and the thermoset matrix. 30 refs.USA

Accession no.908038

Item 132London, Interscience Communications Ltd., 2004, 26 papers, pp.xii,269, ISBN 0954121627, 25cm, 012FLAME RETARDANTS 2004. PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE HELD LONDON, 27TH-28TH JAN.2004(BPF; Interscience Communications Ltd.; APME; European Flame Retardant Assn.)

Twenty-six papers are presented following the eleventh International Flame Retardants conference series. This series concentrates on the practical applications of flame retardants and polymers and brings together the manufacturers and users with legislators, fire test experts and fire scientists. Papers include emissions of flame retardants from selected consumer products and building materials, flame retardant plastics and the DfE challenge, European fire classes for cables and fire properties of exterior automotive materials.EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.909594

Item 133Journal of Materials Science39, No.6, 15th March 2004, p.1919-25SYNTHETIC ROUTES, PROPERTIES AND FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF POLYMER-LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITESAhmadi S J; Huang Y D; Li WHarbin,Institute of Technology

The structure and synthesis of nanocomposites based on smectite clays, usually rendered hydrophobic by ion exchange with an onium cation, and polymer matrices - thermoplastics, thermosets or elastomers - by exfoliation adsorption, in-situ intercalative polymerisation and melt intercalation, are reviewed. The effects of the fillers on polymer properties such as tensile properties, thermal stability, gas permeability and flame retardancy, are discussed, along with potential applications of the nanocomposites. 63 refs.CHINA

Accession no.911593





Item 134Polymer Degradation and Stability82, No.2, 2003, p.365-71INVESTIGATION INTO THE DECOMPOSITION AND BURNING BEHAVIOUR OF ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATE COPOLYMER NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIALSHull T R; Price D; Liu Y; Wills C L; Brady JSalford,University

EVA is a widely used material, particularly as a zero-halogen material in the cable industry. It is frequently formulated with large quantities of inorganic filler material, such as aluminium trihydroxide (ATH). Used alone, EVA is known to form a protective layer which can inhibit combustion under well ventilated conditions, though this effect is not observed when used in formulations with ATH. The incorporation of nanoscale clay fillers into EVA appears to reinforce the protective layer. The stages of decomposition under different conditions is described both for the 10 mg (TGA) and 200 mg small tube furnace scales. The latter allows the residues formed to be subjected to further analysis, to elucidate the mechanism of the reduction of decomposition and flammability. Enhancements in thermo-oxidative stability of the EVA clay material are evident from both tube furnace and TGA experiments. The polymer-organoclay materials, prepared on a two-roll mill, show poor dispersion when studied by SEM, suggesting that a significant portion is present as a microcomposite. However, when the char is analysed by SEM, layers of protective material are clearly evident on the char surface. From XRD spectra, there is no evidence of order within the polymer-organoclay, but ordering of the outer layer of char is demonstrated. This suggests that for EVA, which melts before burning, organoclay layers become nanodisperse at the surface of the burning polymer. These materials are also studied in the Purser furnace, designed to replicate the conditions found in fully developed fires. This allows effluent yields, such as O2, CO2 and CO to be determined as a function of fire condition, by controlling the rate of burning and the ventilation rate. The effect of both the nanofillers and the protective layers are reported and discussed, under different ventilation conditions. Specific emphasis is placed on the relationship between equivalence ratio and hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide yield. 14 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.912677

Item 135Polymer Degradation and Stability82, No.2, 2003, p.379-85FIRE RETARDANCY EFFECT OF MIGRATION IN POLYPROPYLENE NANOCOMPOSITES INDUCED BY MODIFIED INTERLAYERMarosi G; Marton A; Szep A; Csontos I; Keszei S; Zimonyi E; Toth A; Almeras X; Le Bras M

Budapest,University of Technology & Economics; Hungarian Academy of Sciences; ENSC

Montmorillonite nanoparticles are found to be inefficient in PP due to the lack of a heat insulating char layer and the decomposition of the compatibilising surfactant layer on their surface. Combination with a polyphosphate based intumescent system shows some synergism due to modified rheology. The effect of surface and interface modification is analysed using Raman microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Forming a heat resistant coating layer of low surface energy around the nanoparticles promotes their migration to the surface and formation of a flexible barrier layer and thus leads to better performance. 25 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; HUNGARY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.912679

Item 136Additives for PolymersMay 2004, p.10/2GLOBAL POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES MARKET TO EXCEED 211 MILLION US DOLLARS BY 2008

This concise article provides economic information on the world market for polymer nanocomposites. Figures are taken from a recently-published report by Business Communications Co. Inc. of the USA. The report states that the nanocomposites market is forecast to grow at an average annual rate of 18.4 percent over the coming five years.BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS CO.INC.; GENERAL MOTORSEUROPE-GENERAL; JAPAN; WORLD

Accession no.913283

Item 137Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe57, No.5, May 2004, p.309-14GermanNANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATION FOR POLYMERS - IMPROVED FLAME RETARDANCY FOR POLYMERS AND CABLES BY NANOCOMPOSITESBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

The preparation of flame-retardant nanocomposites by the melt blending of EVA with modified layered silicates, as nanofillers, is reported. The heat stability of the nanocomposites, char formation and release of heat therefrom are also reported along with the flammability of the nanocomposites containing combinations of nanofiller and flame retardants based on metal hydroxides. Data on coaxial cables, which fulfils the UL 1666 riser test are included. 17 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to the



Rapra produced International Polymer Science and Technology.BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.914344

Item 138Polymer45, No.12, 2004, p.4227-39THERMAL AND FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES OF POLYPROPYLENE/CARBON NANOTUBE COMPOSITESKashiwagi T; Grulke E; Hilding J; Groth K; Harris R; Butler K; Shields J; Kharchenko S; Douglas JUS,National Institute of Standards & Technology; Lexington,University of Kentucky

The thermal and flammability properties of nanocomposites of polypropylene (PP) with multi-walled carbon nanotubes, prepared by melt blending in various proportions and characterised by SEM, optical microscopy and FTIR, were investigated by TGA, thermal conductivity and cone calorimetry. The effects of nanocomposite morphology on the flammability of PP are discussed in terms of a mechanism of flame retardance. 37 refs.USA

Accession no.914537

Item 139Polymer45, No.13, 2004, p.4367-73PREPARATION AND COMBUSTION BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMER/LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITES BASED UPON PE AND EVAZanetti M; Costa LTorino,Universita Degli Studi

Polymer composites based on organically modified clay and polyethylene (PE) were prepared by melt processing and their combustion behaviour was examined. The formation of an intercalated nanocomposites was observed only in presence of poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate), added as a compatibiliser. The nanocomposite showed a reduced rate of combustion because of the accumulation of the silicate on the surface of the burning specimen which creates a protective barrier to heat and mass transfer. 24 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.915268

Item 140Macromolecular Materials and Engineering289, No.4, 19th April 2004, p.355-9PREPARATION AND COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF FLAME RETARDANT STYRENE-BUTYL ACRYLATE COPOLYMER/

GRAPHITE OXIDE NANOCOMPOSITESRui Zhang; Yuan HuJiayan Xu; Weicheng Fan; Zuyao Chen; Qinan WangChina,University of Science & Technology

Styrene-butyl acrylate copolymer(St-BA)/graphite oxide(GO) nanocomposites and St-BA/GO/melamine poly(metaphosphate)(MPP) composites were prepared by an intercalation process using the ball milling method and were characterised by X-ray diffraction, TEM and field emission SEM. Cone calorimetry experiments were carried out in order to evaluate the flammability of the composites. The cone calorimetry data indicated that the addition of GO could decrease the heat release rate of St-BA copolymers significantly. There was also a synergistic effect on the fire retardant properties by using the combination of GO and MPP. No significant effect of the GO content on the reduction of peak heat release rate in nanocomposites could, however, be found. 16 refs.CHINA

Accession no.916026

Item 141Polymer Composites25, No.2, April 2004, p.165-71MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF NEW GLASS FIBER REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITESRatna D; Chongdar T K; Chakraborty B CIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory

Epoxy resin was modified with various amount of a carboxyl-terminated polyethylene glycol adipate (CTPEGA) and the modified resin employed as a matrix in the fabrication of glass fibre-reinforced laminates. The flexural properties, impact properties and interlaminar shear strength of the composites were determined and fracture surfaces of the toughened epoxy samples analysed by scanning electron microscopy. The effect of the concentration of CTPEGA on the mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated and the mechanical properties of the modified composites compared with those of the unmodified epoxy-based composites. 35 refs.INDIA

Accession no.917177

Item 142Journal of Applied Polymer Science93, No.1, 5th July 2004, p.356-63SOLID FREEFORM FABRICATION OF EPOXIDIZED SOYBEAN OIL/EPOXY COMPOSITES WITH DI-, TRI-, AND POLYETHYLENE AMINE CURING AGENTSLiu Z S; Erhan S Z; Calvert P DUSDA; Arizona,University

Soybean oil/epoxy-based composites are prepared by solid freeform fabrication (SFF) methods. SFF methods





build materials by the repetitive addition of thin layers. The mixture of epoxidised soybean oil and epoxy resin is modified with di-, tri- or polyethylene amine gelling agent to solidify the materials until curing occurs. The high strength and stiffness composites are formed through fibre reinforcement. E-glass, carbon and mineral fibres are used in the formulations. The type of fibre affects the properties of the composites. It is found that a combination of two types of fibres can be used to achieve higher strength and stiffness parts than can be obtained from single fibre type. In addition, the effects of curing temperature, curing time and fibre concentration on mechanical properties of are studied and reported. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.917942

Item 143Polymer45, No.15, 2004, p.5163-70THERMOPHYSICAL AND IMPACT PROPERTIES OF EPOXY NANOCOMPOSITES REINFORCED BY SINGLE-WALL CARBON NANOTUBESMiyagawa H; Drzal L TMichigan,State University

Dynamic mechanical analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and Izod impact testing were used to examine thermophysical properties and impact strength of nanocomposites prepared using small volumetric amounts of fluorinated single wall carbon nanotubes (FSWCNT) in epoxy resins based on the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A. Dispersion of FSWCNT in epoxy resin was achieved using a sonication method, and large improvements in modulus were achieved with a reduction in glass transition temperature due to the fluorine affecting the curing chemistry. Stoichiometric amounts of curing agent required were determined using dynamic mechanical analysis. Large improvements in storage modulus were observed with only slight reductions in Izod impact strength up to filler levels of 0.3 percent. 35 refs.USA

Accession no.921579

Item 144Polymer44, No.24, Nov.2003, p.7449-57NANOCOMPOSITES BASED ON A COMBINATION OF EPOXY RESIN, HYPERBRANCHED EPOXY AND A LAYERED SILICATERatna D; Becker O; Krishnamurthy R; Simon G P; Varley R JMonash,University; CSIRO; India,Naval Materials Research Laboratory

Details are given of the preparation of epoxy resin/clay nanocomposites. The formation of the nanocomposites was confirmed by wide angle X-ray diffraction and

TEM analysis. The mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties were evaluated and compared with the corresponding matrix. Improvements in impact properties was explained in terms of fracture surface analysis by SEM. 37 refs.AUSTRALIA; INDIA

Accession no.902029

Item 145Journal of Applied Polymer Science90, No.8, 21st Nov.2003, p.2268-75INFLUENCE OF ELASTOMER DISTRIBUTION ON THE CRYOGENIC MICROCRACKING OF CARBON FIBRE/EPOXY COMPOSITESNobelen M; Hayes B S; Seferis J CWashington,University

Carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy composites were toughened with preformed rubber particles, core-shell rubber and solid carboxyl-functional rubber and the effect of these toughening agents on the microcracking response of the composites upon exposure to cryogenic cycling investigated. The effect of these toughening agents on the mode I and mode II fracture toughness and interlaminar shear strength of the composites was also studied and scanning electron microscopy was employed to analyse the fracture surfaces of the rubber-modified composites. The modifiers were found to significantly reduce microcrack density of the composites subjected to cryogenic cycling. 47 refs.USA

Accession no.899821

Item 146Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2003, pp.166, 29 cm, Rapra Review Rept. No. 163, vol.14, No.7, 2003POLYMER/LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITESOkamoto MToyota Technical InstituteEdited by: Humphreys S(Rapra Technology Ltd.)Rapra Review Report No. 163

Advantages of the use of polymer/layered silicate (PLS) composites are discussed. The main reasons for improved properties is the interfacial interaction between the polymer matrix and organically modified layered silicate, the latter having layer thicknesses in the order of 1 nm, and very high aspect ratios. This review highlights the major developments in this area during the last ten years, and focuses on the different techniques used to prepare PLS nanocomposites, their physicochemical characterisation, and the improved material properties that those materials can provide. Processing and typical applications of PLS composites are reported in detail. 484 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; JAPAN; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.898802



Item 147Polymer Degradation and Stability81, No.3, 2003, p.551-7SYNERGY BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL PHOSPHORUS FIRE RETARDANTS AND ORGANICALLY-MODIFIED CLAYS CAN LEAD TO FIRE RETARDANCY OF STYRENICSChigwada G; Wilkie C AMarquette,University

PS-clay nanocomposites combined with phosphorous-containing fire retardants are prepared and used to explore the thermal stability and mechanical properties of the polymer formed. The amounts of fire retardants and clay used are varied to study the effect of each on thermal stability and mechanical properties of the polymer. The samples are prepared by bulk polymerisation and analysed by X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, cone calorimetry, Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy and evaluation of mechanical properties. The thermal stability of the polymers is enhanced by the presence of the phosphorus-containing fire retardants. 11 refs.USA

Accession no.897011

Item 148Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing34A, No.9, 2003, p.863-73MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF HEAT/FIRE DAMAGED NOVEL FLAME RETARDANT GLASS-REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITESKandola B K; Horrocks A R; Myler P; Blair DBolton Institute; Hexcel Composites

Glass fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites containing a phosphate-based intumescent and inherently flame retardant (cellulosic and phenol-formaldehyde) fibres were fabricated. These components were added both as additives in pulverised form and as fibre interdispersed with intumescent as a fabric scrim for partial replacement of glass fibre. Fire testing was performed using a cone calorimeter at an incident heat flux of 50 kW/sq m and the results showed that introduction of the intumescent/flame retardant fibre to the matrix could significantly reduce the peak heat release values and smoke intensities evolved by composites. Inclusion of the intumescent/fibre system had no adverse effect on the tensile and flexural properties of the composites. Some of the samples retained up to 21% of the initial stiffness after being exposed to high heat flux in the cone calorimeter, whereas the control sample was rendered unusable after cone calorimeter exposure. 16 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.896416

Item 149High Performance PlasticsAug.2003, p.2NANOCLAY-BASED CONCENTRATES

Following an alliance between PolyOne Corp. and Nanocor Inc., both of the USA, PolyOne has introduced a range of polymer additives which are based on nanocomposites. The concentrates are known as “Nanoblend” and replace traditional mineral or glass reinforcements and also flame retardants in PP and PE. Brief details are offered in this small item.POLYONE CORP.; NANOCOR INC.USA

Accession no.896034

Item 150Polymer International52, No.8, Aug.2003, p.1396-400INTUMESCENT FLAME RETARDANT-MONTMORILLONITE SYNERGISM IN POLYPROPYLENE-LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITESTang Y; Hu Y; Wang S; Gui Z; Chen Z; Fan WChina,University of Science & Technology

Details are given of the preparation of PP/clay nanocomposites using montmorillonite, and hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide as compatibiliser. Molecular structures were examined using X-ray diffraction and high resolution electron microscopy. An intumescent flame retardant was added to the nanocomposites and their flammability behaviours were evaluated using cone calorimetry. 16 refs.CHINA

Accession no.895709

Item 151Chemistry of Materials15, No.16, 12th Aug.2003, p.3208-13STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF PE-G-MA/MGAL-LDH EXFOLIATED NANOCOMPOSITES SYNTHESIZED BY SOLUTION INTERCALATIONChen W; Qu BChina,University of Science & Technology

Exfoliated nanocomposites were synthesised by solution intercalation of ethylene-maleic anhydride graft copolymer into the galleries of organo-modified magnesium-aluminium layered double hydroxide under reflux in xylene. Characterisation was undertaken using X-ray diffraction, FTIR, TEM, electron diffraction, TGA and differential thermal analysis. Potential applications of this nanocomposite for flame-retardant materials is mentioned. 26 refs.CHINA

Accession no.895647





Item 152Polymer44, No.18, 2003, p.5323-9POLYCARBONATE NANOCOMPOSITES. PART 1. EFFECT OF ORGANOCLAY STRUCTURE ON MORPHOLOGY AND PROPERTIESYoon P J; Hunter D L; Paul D RTexas,University at Austin; Southern Clay Products Inc.

High molecular weight and medium molecular weight polycarbonate nanocomposites were prepared by melt processing from a series of organoclays based on sodium montmorillonite modified by ion exchange with various amine surfactants. High molecular weight polycarbonate gave better stiffness and ductility in nanocomposites than medium molecular weight polycarbonate. A surfactant with both polyoxyethylene and octadecyl tails showed the most significant improvement in modulus with some of the clay platelets fully exfoliated. However, the nanocomposites formed from other organoclays examined contained both intercalated tactoids and collapsed clay particles with few, if any, exfoliated platelets. 31 refs.USA

Accession no.895471

Item 153Composites Science and Technology63, No.12, 2003, p.1815-32FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF MODE I INTERLAMINAR DELAMINATION IN Z-FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE LAMINATESGrassi M; Zhang XCranfield,University

The development of a numerical approach for predicting the mode I interlaminar fracture of carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy composites with z-fibre reinforcement is described. Thick-layered shell elements are used to model the composites and non-linear interface elements to simulate through-thickness reinforcements. The effect of z-fibres on delamination growth and arrest and the energy balance associated with fracture are examined and the numerical predictions are compared with experimental data. 40 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.895169

Item 154Journal of Applied Polymer Science89, No.9, 29th Aug.2003, p.2339-45TOUGHENING OF TRIFUNCTIONAL EPOXY USING AN EPOXY-FUNCTIONALIZED HYPERBRANCHED POLYMERRatna D; Varley R; Simon G PMonash,University; CSIRO,Div.of Molecular Science

The chemorheology of curing and the phase separation behaviour of an epoxy-functionalised hyperbranched polymer(HBP)-modified triglycidyl p-aminophenol(TGAP)

epoxy mixtures were studied by several techniques. There was little change in gel time as a result of addition of HBP at levels up to 10%, even though the HBP reacted at a slower rate with amine curing agents compared with the TGAP alone. The thermal and dynamic viscoelastic behaviour of the modified matrices were examined and compared with those of the unmodified TGAP matrix. Impact properties were examined in terms of the morphological behaviour of a TGAP matrix modified with various amounts of HBP. 38 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.894515

Item 155Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition41, No.15, 1st Aug.2003, p.2354-67PREPARATION, THERMAL PROPERTIES, AND FLAME RETARDANCE OF EPOXY-SILICA HYBRID RESINSYing-Ling Liu; Chuan-Shao Wu; Yie-Shun Chiu; Wen-Hsuan HoChung Yuan,Christian University; Nan Ya,Institute of Technology; Chung San,Institute of Science & Technology

A flame-retardant system for epoxy resins was designed using a phosphorus-containing trimethoxysilane (DOPO-GPTMS) in a sol-gel reaction simultaneously performed with an epoxy curing reaction (bisphenol A type epoxy and 4,4’-diaminodiphenylmethane). The silane was prepared by the reaction of 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) with 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS). The formation of DOPO-GPTMS was confirmed using Fourier transform IR, H and 31P NMR, and elemental analysis. The products of the epoxy curing / sol-gel reactions were epoxy resin / silica networks, with integral flame retardant phosphorus silane compound. The cured epoxy resin hybrids showed a high glass-transition temperature (167 degC), good thermal stability over 320 degC. A high limited oxygen index of 28.5 was observed, as expected from the synergistic flame-retardant effects of silicon and phosphorus. A kinetic analysis of the thermal oxidative behaviour was performed. The morphology of the surface of the hybrid epoxy resins was studied using scanning electron microscopy and showed that the silicon network domains were homogeneously dispersed in the resins for all the samples. 37 refs.CHINA

Accession no.894252

Item 156Composites Science and Technology63, No.8, 2003, p.1141-8ELABORATION OF EVA-NANOCLAY SYSTEMS - CHARACTERIZATION, THERMAL



BEHAVIOUR AND FIRE PERFORMANCEDuquesne S; Jama C; Le Bras M; Delobel R; Recourt P; Gloaguen J MEcole Nationale Superieure de Chimie de Lille; Lille,Universite des Sciences et Technologies; CREPIM

The fire retardances of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) nanocomposites were investigated. Nanocomposites were formed by melt mixing of EVA with either sodium montomorillonite or different loadings of tallow ammonium montmorillonite. The materials were characterised by thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy and small angle X-ray scattering, as well as the fire tests. The ammonium montmorillonites exhibited superior fire retardance by the measures of time to ignition, heat release rate, peak heat release rate, total heat release and weight loss. The structural investigations showed that the ammonium nanocomposites were more dispersed than the sodium montmorillonite materials. 17 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.893726

Item 157International Polymer Science and Technology30, No.5, 2003, p. T/1-6CARBON NANOTUBES - A NEW CLASS OF FLAME RETARDANTS FOR POLYMERSBeyer G

Flame retardant nanocomposites were synthesised by melt blending EVA with multi-wall carbon nanotubes. Flame retardant properties measured using a cone calorimeter revealed that the incorporation of a multi-wall carbon nanotube into EVA significantly reduces the peak heat release rate compared to the unfilled EVA. The EVA/nanotube composites were found to have better peak heat release rates than those based on modified layered silicates. The formation of a thermally insulating crust which was poorly permeable to gaseous polymer decomposition products is reported to be the most important factor determining these improvements. In addition, a synergistic effect is reported from the combination of carbon nanotubes and modified layered silicates, which resulted in an overall more perfectly closed surface with improved heat release values. 14 refs. (Article translated from Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe, No.9, 2002, p.596).EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.890785

Item 158Macromolecular Materials and Engineering288, No.3, 20th March 2003, p.272-6PREPARATION AND COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF FLAME RETARDANT NYLON 6/MONTMORILLONITE NANOCOMPOSITEHu Y; Wang S; Ling Z; Zhuang Y; Chen Z; Fan W

Hefei,University of Science & Technology; Anhui,University

Flame retardant nylon 6 (PA6)/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites are prepared using direct melt intercalation technique by blending PA6, organophilic clay and conventional fire retardants, such as the melamine cyanurate (MCA) and the combination of decabromodiphenyl oxide (DB) and antimony oxide (AO). Their morphology and combustion properties are characterised by XRD, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UL-94 test and cone calorimetry experiments. The flame retardant nanocomposites with MCA or DB and AO show lower heat release rate (HRR) peak compared to that of conventional flame retardant PA6. Meanwhile, the synergetic effect is studied between clay and DB-AO. 23 refs.CHINA

Accession no.889403

Item 159Macromolecules36, No.5, 11th March 2003, p.1616-25LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITES BASED ON VARIOUS HIGH-FUNCTIONALITY EPOXY RESINS: THE INFLUENCE OF CURE TEMPERATURE ON MORPHOLOGY, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND FREE VOLUMEBecker O; Cheng Y-B; Varley R J; Simon G PMonash,University; CSIRO

An organically-modified montmorillonite clay and di-, tri-, and tetrafunctional epoxies were used to prepare layered silicate nanocomposites, the clay exfoliation kinetics being determined by wide-angle X-ray studies. A small degree of conversion was necessary to obtain significant intercalation. The nanocomposite morphology was also studied using transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy. The best exfoliation was achieved using bifunctional diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA). This was attributed to enhanced catalysis of the intra-gallery reaction by the resident organo-ions. Clay delamination, toughness and modulus increased with increasing curing temperature for the DGEBA- and tri-functional triglycidyl p-aminophenol-based resins. The free volume was not significantly influenced by resin composition nor curing temperature, and generally followed the rule of mixtures. However, it may have been increased by the presence of the clay. The clay additions decreased the glass transition temperatures, attributed to disruption, and to decreased crosslink density at the clay-epoxy interface. 37 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.888396

Item 160Journal of Applied Polymer Science88, No.10, 6th June 2003, p.2511-21





NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN FLAME RETARDANCY OF GLASS-REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITESKandola B K; Horrocks A R; Myler P; Blair DBolton Institute; Hexcel Composites

Glass fibre-reinforced composite materials containing an epoxy resin (B3B from Hexcel), a phosphate-based intumescent (Antiblaze NH from Rhodia) and inherently flame-retardant cellulosic (Visil, Sateri) and phenol-formaldehyde (Kynol) fibres were developed. The intumescent and flame retardant fibre components were added both as additives in pulverised form and fibre interdispersed with the intumescent as a fabric scrim for partial replacement of glass fibre. Thermal stability, char formation and flammability properties of these structures were studied by thermal analysis, limiting oxygen index tests and cone calorimetry. The results are discussed in terms of effect of individual additive components on thermal degradation/burning behaviour of neat resin. 18 refs.HEXCEL COMPOSITES LTD.; SATERI FIBERS; RHODIA SPECIALITIES LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.888162

Item 161Handbook of Polymer Blends and Composites. Volume 2.Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2002, p.165-99, 627NEW APPROACHES TO REDUCE PLASTIC COMBUSTIBILITYZaikov G E; Lomakin S M; Usachev S V; Koverzanova E V; Shilkina N G; Ruban L VRussian Academy of Sciences; Indian Petrochemical Corp.Ltd.; Petru Poni,Institute of Macromolecular ChemistryEdited by: Kulshreshtha A K; Vasile C

An outline is presented on the mechanisms of action of flame retardants followed by a discussion on the hazards encountered with the use of halogenated diphenyl ethers and dioxins. New trends in flame retardants are then considered, focusing on intumescent systems, polymer -organic char formers, polymer nanocomposites and intercalated flame retardants based on triphenylphosphine. Finally, the results of studies on the thermal degradation of triphenyl phosphine and intercalated triphenyl phosphine carried out using DSC and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and of combustion tests on PS nanocomposites with and without intercalated triphenyl phosphine are reported. 42 refs.RUSSIA

Accession no.886389

Item 162Chemical Market Reporter263, No.18, 5th May 2003, p.FR2-3

ADDING VALUE TO THE MIX IN PLASTICSMarkarian J

With the market for plastics additives still recovering from the downturn of 2001, producers are cautiously optimistic about the year ahead. In 2001, the global plastics additives market was about 17.6 billion pounds, valued at 14.6bn US dollars in 2001. In 2002, volume grew about 5% and value about 10%. In 2003, the market may see similar gains. Resin mix play a key role in determining additive growth. High growth additive areas, used in the fast growing PP resins, are light stabilisers, coupling agents and nucleating agents, all growing at about 6%. Environmental regulations continue to drive additive technology trends, particularly in Europe. With hopes of a recovery this year, several of the major plastics additives producers are proceeding with investments, either in the form of acquisitions or production capacity. A roundup of some of the key developments in plastic additives is presented.WORLD

Accession no.886106

Item 163Handbook of Plastic Films.Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2003, p.159-186, 25 cm. 625ECOLOGICAL ISSUES OF POLYMER FLAME RETARDANTSZaikov G E; Lomakin S MEdited by: Abdel-Bary E M(Rapra Technology Ltd.)

The choice of environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional flame retardants for plastics is examined. The mechanism of action of the four main families of flame retardant chemicals based on halogen, phosphorus, nitrogen, and inorganic compounds is described, and details are given of new systems which include the use of intumescent systems, polymer nanocomposites, preceramic additives, low-melting glasses, different types of char-formers and polymer morphology modification. 37 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.885601

Item 164European Polymer Journal39, No.4, April 2003, p.825-30THERMO-OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION OF NOVEL EPOXY CONTAINING SILICON AND PHOSPHOROUS NANOCOMPOSITESChiang C-L; Ma C-C M; Wang F-YTaiwan,National Tsing Hua University; Hung-Kuang Institute of Technology; Taiwan,Cheng-Shiu College of Technology

Modified epoxy nanocomposites containing silicon and phosphorous is prepared with pure epoxy. The study



of thermo-oxidative degradation of modified epoxy nanocomposites and pure epoxy is utilised by thermal analysis. The thermal stability of modified epoxy nanocomposites is not superior to that of the pure epoxy at low temperature, however the char yield of modified epoxy nanocomposites is higher that that of the pure epoxy at 800 deg.C in air atmosphere. The modified epoxy nanocomposites possess better thermal stability at high temperature range. The values of the limiting oxygen index of pure epoxy and modified epoxy nanocomposites are 24 and 32, respectively. This indicates that modified epoxy nanocomposites possess better flame retardance. By the Kissinger’s method, the activation energies of termo-oxidative degradation for epoxy nanocomposites are less than that of thermo-oxidative degradation for pure epoxy in first stage of thermo-oxidative degradation. However, the activation energies of thermo-oxidative degradation for epoxy nanocomposites are more than those of thermo-oxidative degradation for pure epoxy in the second stage of thermo-oxidative degradation. 29 refs.TAIWAN

Accession no.882703

Item 165Polymers for Advanced Technologies13, No.10-12, Oct.-Dec.2002, p.1103-11FLAME-RETARDED POLYOLEFIN SYSTEMS OF CONTROLLED INTERPHASENarosi G; Anna P; Marton A; Bertalan G; Bota A; Toth A; Mohai M; Racz IBudapest,University of Technology & Economics; Hungarian Academy of Sciences; Zoltan Bay Applied Research Foundation

The principle of multiplayer interphases has previously been proposed for modifying the mechanical properties and UV stability of various multi-component polymer systems. Emphasis is placed on the applicability of this principle for improving the performance of intumescent flame retardant systems using melamine-treated ammonium polyphosphate, silicone-modified polyol + ammonium polyphosphate, and silicone modified nanoparticles in PP. The structure-property relationship of the formed systems is studied. A melamine layer of 1.45 mm thickness is formed around ammonium polyphosphate in order in order to improve the hygrothermal stability, but this layer is not shear resistant enough. An interphase formed using a special silicone additive is more stable and acts with the intumescent flame retardant system synergistically. The advantageous interfacial structure is quite complex in this case: polyphosphate particles are surrounded with a macromolecular layer formed from polyol, silicone and reactive surfactant in order to ensure good stability, efficiency and compatibility. AFM, XPS and cone calorimetry are used for determining the structure and flame retardancy of these systems. Nanocomposites combined with silicone-containing intumescent system are developed in order to avoid dipping at ignition in the

vertical position. SAXS and mu-TA methods are used for determining the structure of this material. 29 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY

Accession no.882565

Item 166Polimery48, No.2, 2003, p.85-90PolishPOLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES. II. NANOCOMPOSITES BASED ON THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS AND LAYERED SILICATESKacperski MSzczecin,Polytechnic

A review is presented of the literature published in 2000 and 2001 of the methods of synthesis and properties of nanocomposites containing layered silicates and thermoplastic polymers such as polyamides, polyolefins (PP, PE), PS and styrene copolymers, PETP and PMMA. Preparation methods such as mixing of the components in the melt or swelling of montmorillonite(MMT) in the monomers (substrates in the case of PETP) are discussed, as well as methods of MMT modification. Particular attention is paid to the advantageous properties of nanocomposites such as flexural strength, stress at break, flexural modulus, impact strength and heat resistance. 47 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.882164

Item 167Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2003, pp. xii, 558, 25cm, 627HANDBOOK OF POLYMER BLENDS AND COMPOSITES, VOLUME 1Petru Poni,Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry; Indian Petrochemical Corp.Ltd.Edited by: Vasile C; Kulshreshtha A K

This handbook is the first part of a four volume publication ‘Handbook of Polymer Blends and Composites’ which gives an overview of the theory and application of polymer blends and composites. It comprises of a collection of monographs written by professionals from academia and industry. This volume is concerned with composite development, characteristics of particulate fillers, fibre reinforcements and interface, main procedures of composites manufacture and their applications. Chapters cover the following topics: the history of composites; particulate fillers and fibre reinforcements; composites in Asia; composites technology in Korea; advances in wood-based composites in China; an overview of the use of composites Worldwide; the interface in polymer composites; novel multifunctional epoxy resins; flame retardant polyesters; cure kinetics of vinyl ester resins; curing monitoring; curing and bonding of composites





using electron beam processing; composites at the turn of the century.EASTERN EUROPE; INDIA; RUMANIA

Accession no.881518

Item 168Journal of Materials Science38, No.1, 1st Jan.2003, p.147-54STUDIES ON BLENDS OF EPOXY-FUNCTIONALIZED HYPERBRANCHED POLYMER AND EPOXY RESINRatna D; Varley R; Raman R K S; Simon G PIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory; CSIRO,Div.of Molecular Science; Monash,UniversityAn epoxy-functionalised hyperbranched polymer(HBP) was used to toughen a conventional epoxy resin, DGEBA cured with diethyltoluene-2,6-diamine. There was little change in gel time as a result of addition of HBP, even though the HBP reacted at a slower rate with amine hardeners than DGEBA alone. Phase separation was investigated for various HBP contents and as a function of cure conditions. The thermal and dynamic viscoelastic behaviour of the modified matrices was examined and compared with the DGEBA epoxy matrix. It appeared that the HBP which phase separated did not react as fully as when it was reacted with the amine alone. A marked improvement in impact strength was observed, however, on incorporation of HBP and this was explained in terms of morphological behaviour for a DGEBA matrix modified with various amounts of HBP. 48 refs.AUSTRALIA; INDIA

Accession no.881093

Item 169Fire and Materials26, No.6, Nov.-Dec.2002, p.291-3SHORT COMMUNICATION: CARBON NANOTUBES AS FLAME RETARDANTS FOR POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AGFlame retardant nanocomposites are synthesised by melt-blending EVA multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Fire property measurements by cone calorimeter reveal that the incorporation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes into EVA significantly reduces peak heat release rates compared with the virgin EVA. Peak heat release rates of EVA with multi-walled carbon nanotubes are slightly improved compared with EVA nanocomposites based on modified layered silicates. Char formation is the main important factor for these improvements. There is also a synergistic effect by the combination of carbon nanotubes and organoclays ynergistic resulting in an overall more perfect closed surface with improved heat release values. 12 refs.BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.880581

Item 170Fire and Materials26, No.6, Nov.-Dec.2002, p.247-53FLAMMABILITY OF POLYSTYRENE LAYERED SILICATE (CLAY) NANOCOMPOSITES: CARBONACEOUS CHAR FORMATIONMorgan A B; Harris R H; Kashiwagi T; Chyall L J; Gilman J WUS,National Institute of Standards & Technology; Great Lakes Chemical Corp.

Polymer layered-silicate (clay) nanocomposites have not only the unique advantage of reduced flammability but also improved mechanical properties. This is a key advantage over many flame retardants, which reduce flammability but also reduce the mechanical properties of the polymer. In efforts to further understand the mechanism of flame retardancy with polymer-clay nanocomposites, the effects of clay, loading level and polymer melt viscosity on the flammability of PS-clay nanocomposites are investigated. The nanoscale dispersion of the clay in the polymer is analysed by wide-angle X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cone calorimetry and gasification studies are used to evaluate the flammability of these nanocomposites. There are major reductions in peak heat release rates (HRRs) and increased carbonaceous char formation, for these nanocomposites. It is determined that while viscosity of the PS nanocomposite plays a role in lowering the peak HRR, clay loading level has the largest effect on peak HRR. Finally, it is found that clay catalysed carbonaceous char formation and reinforcement of the char by the clay is responsible for the lowered flammability of these nanocomposites. 27 refs.USA

Accession no.880580

Item 171Polymer Degradation and Stability79, No.2, 2003, p.201-7STUDIES ON THE THERMAL STABILIZATION ENHANCEMENT OF ABS; SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF TRIPHENYL PHOSPHATE NANOCOMPOSITE, EPOXY RESIN, AND SILANE COUPLING AGENT MIXTURESJinhwan Kim; Kyongho Lee; Kunwoo Lww; Jinyoung Bae; Jaeho Yang; Sanghyun HongSung Kyun Kwan University; Cheil Industries

Triphenyl phosphate(TPP) nanocomposites(nano TPP) were synthesised by intercalating TPP into the galleries of organically modified mica-type silicate and the retarding effect of nanocomposites on the evaporation of TPP was investigated. It was found that nano TPP had a higher evaporation temp. than TPP and that the thermal stability of ABS was slightly enhanced by addition of nano TPP. Epoxy resin and silane coupling agent were then incorporated as flame co-retardants. A very large increase in limiting oxygen index(LOI) value was observed with epoxy addition and further enhancement in thermal



stability was obtained for the ABS compound containing a small amount of coupling agent. It was also found that the enhancement was closely related to the morphologies of the chars formed after combustion. A synergistic effect of using the flame retardant nanocomposites and addition of epoxy resin and coupling agent as flame co-retardants was also confirmed for the compounds based on tetra-2,6-dimethylphenyl resorcinol diphosphate. LOI values as high as 44.8 were found for a particular formulation. 41 refs.SOUTH KOREA

Accession no.879801

Item 172Fire and Materials26, No.4-5, July-Oct.2002, p.149-54POLYURETHANE/CLAY AND POLYURETHANE/POSS NANOCOMPOSITES AS FLAME RETARDED COATING FOR POLYESTER AND COTTON FABRICSDevaux E; Rochery M; Bourbigot SEcole Nationale Superieure des Arts & Ind.Text.

PU resins are widely used as coatings for textile fabrics in order to improve some of the properties of the fabrics. The use of two types of additives, montmorillonite clay and polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes(POSS), to prepare PU nanocomposites for providing flame retardancy to coated textile structures is discussed. Some results obtained for PU/clay and PU/POSS coated polyester or cotton fabrics, using cone calorimetry and TGA, are presented. The efficiency of these additives is clearly demonstrated and discussed, with particular reference to the potential of using POSS for fire retardant applications. 14 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.879792

Item 173International Polymer Science and Technology29, No.12, p.T/62-4NEW FLAME-RETARDANT MODIFIERS FOR EPOXY RESINSIdrisova S ShSumgait,State University

In order to produce flame retardant epoxy resins, new flame retardant modifiers were synthesised. The synthesis is described of imide (III) and carboxybenzimidazole (IV) of trans-4,5-dibromocyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylic acid. The epoxy composites were prepared with a ratio of components (parts by weight) of 80-95 parts epoxy resin, 5-15 parts flame retardant modifier III, IV or a blend thereof. Tests showed that flame retardant modifiers III, IV or blend thereof provided the composites with a self-extinguishing capacity, adhesion, high dielectric indices, and crack resistance. Best ratios are suggested. 2 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.2, 2002,

pp.21-2).RUSSIA

Accession no.877147

Item 174Journal of Applied Polymer Science86, No.10, 5th Dec.2002, p.2449-62ECOLOGICAL ISSUE OF POLYMER FLAME RETARDANCYZaikov G E; Lomakin S MRussian Academy of Sciences

The use of polymer flame retardants has an important role in saving lives. The main flame retardant systems for polymers currently in use are based on halogenated, phosphorous, nitrogen and inorganic compounds. All of the flame retardant systems basically inhibit or even suppress the combustion process by chemical or physical action in the gas or phase. Conventional flame retardants, such as halogenated, phosphorous or metallic additives, have a number of negative attributes. An ecological issue of the application of conventional flame retardants demands the search of new polymer flame retardant systems. Among the new trends of flame are intumescent systems, polymer nanocomposites, preceramic additives, low-melting glasses, different types of char formers and polymer morphology modification processing. Brief explanations on the three major types of flame retardant systems (intumescent, polymer nanocomposites and polymer organic char formers) are presented. 39 refs.RUSSIA

Accession no.875169

Item 175Plastics Additives and Compounding4, No.10, Oct.2002, p.22-8NANOCOMPOSITES - A NEW CLASS OF FLAME RETARDANTS FOR POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

In this long and detailed article, the author reviews the current state of development of nanocomposites as a new class of flame retardants for polymers. Section headings include: introduction, layered silicates as fillers, nanocomposite synthesis, nanocomposite structures, nanocomposite properties, thermal stability, flame retardancy, flame retardant combinations, and conclusions.US,NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS & TECHNOLOGYBELGIUM; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.872695





Item 176Advanced Materials and Composites News24, No.22, 18th Nov.2002, p.7NANOCOMPOSITES FOR FLAME RETARDANCY

It is briefly reported that Gitto Global and Nanocor are expanding their joint venture to develop flame-retardant nanocomposites. The programme is devoted to incorporating nanometre-sized flame-resistant clay particles into polyolefins. Nanocomposites use significantly lower quantities of traditional flame retardant additives.GITTO GLOBAL CORP.; NANOCOR INC.USA

Accession no.871722

Item 177Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites21, No.15, 2002, p.1347-62EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF WOVEN FABRIC COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF IMPACT PARAMETERSNaik N K; Borade S V; Arya H; Sailendra M; Prabhu S VIndian Institute of Technology

The effect of impact damage on the mechanical properties of plain weave E-glass/epoxy composites was investigated using different combinations of impactor mass and incident impact velocity at the same impact energy. The post-impact compression behaviour of the composites was also studied and deceleration/acceleration and contact force histories recorded in order to determine the impact resistance of the composites. The data obtained indicated that damage tolerance was higher for low mass and high velocity combinations than high mass and low velocity combinations. 39 refs.INDIA

Accession no.870347

Item 178ANTEC 2002. Proceedings of the 60th SPE Annual Technical Conference held San Francisco, Ca., 5th-9th May 2002.Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2002, Paper 184, Session M37-Composites. Advanced Composites, pp.5, CD-ROM, 012EFFECTS OF LIQUID RUBBER MODIFICATION ON THE FLEXIBILITY OF FIBER REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITESKaynak C; Arikan A; Tincer TMiddle East,Technical University(SPE)

Short glass fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites were modified by the addition of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene liquid rubber to increase flexibility, and a silane coupling agent to enhance interfacial adhesion

between the reinforcement and the matrix. Alternative procedures were evaluated for the silane treatment. Cast composite bars were subjected to three-point bend testing. Both the fibre surface treatment and the rubber additions increased the epoxy flexibility, with non-treated fibres exhibiting weak interfacial adhesion, resulting in more fibre pull-out. 9 refs.TURKEY

Accession no.868450

Item 179Plastics Technology48, No.7, July 2002, p.22HALOGEN-FREE POLYOLEFIN FOR FR CABLES

In the Netherlands, a flame-retardant polyolefin compound for thin-wall jacketing of low- and medium-voltage cables has been developed by Inhol BV. Brief details are given of “PTL NHFR 3244-JA” which is reported to be completely halogen-free.INHOL BVEUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; NORTH AMERICA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.864694

Item 180Journal of Macromolecular Science CC42, No.2, 2002, p.139-83FLAME RETARDING EPOXIES WITH PHOSPHORUSJain P; Choudhary V; Varma I KIndian Institute of Technology

A review is presented on the flame retardation of epoxy resins with phosphorus-containing flame retardants or incorporation of phosphorus in the epoxy monomer as hardeners. Types of hardeners covered include phosphorus-containing amines, novolacs, anhydrides, acids and amides. The effect of phosphorus on curing characteristics and the heat stability of the cured resins are discussed and a correlation is established between the limiting oxygen index and anaerobic char residue. Mechanisms of thermal decomposition of the cured epoxy resins and of flame retardation in the presence of phosphorus-containing derivatives are also considered. 118 refs.INDIA

Accession no.860560

Item 181Composites Science and Technology62, No.9, 2002, p.1249-58NANOCLAY REINFORCEMENT EFFECTS ON THE CRYOGENIC MICROCRACKING OF CARBON FIBER/EPOXY COMPOSITESTimmerman J F; Hayes B S; Seferis J CWashington,University



The matrices of carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy resins were modified with layered clays and alumina to determine the effects of particle reinforcement on the response of these materials to cryogenic cycling. The incorporation of nanoclay reinforcement resulted in laminates with microcrack densities lower than those seen in the unmodified or macro-reinforced materials as a response to cryogenic cycling. 45 refs.USA

Accession no.859474

Item 182Polymer News26, No.11, Nov.2001, p.370-8NANOCOMPOSITES - A NEW CONCEPT FOR FLAME RETARDANT POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

Nanocomposites in which layered silicates are dispersed at a nanometer level within a polymer matrix are discussed. The synthesis of nanocomposites by in-situ polymerisation, a solvent method and melt-intercalation is described and nanocomposite structure and characterisation are considered. The improved thermal stability and flame retardant properties of the nanocomposites are then examined in more detail. The flame retardancy mechanism of layered silicate nanocomposites is based on the char formation and its structure, the char insulating the polymer from heat and acting as a barrier, reducing the escape of volatile gases from the polymer combustion. The cone calorimeter is shown to be a useful tool to investigate the properties of flame retardancy. 26 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.858350

Item 183Dayville, CT, 2001, pp.2, 27 cms, 24/5/02SEP SS NANOCOMPOSITE NYLONSFoster Corp.

Property data are presented for SEP SS (super stiff) nanocomposite nylons from Foster Corp. SEP (selectively enhanced polymers) are claimed to represent the latest in materials technology, whereby selected properties are improved without detrimental trade-offs in other key properties. Foster’s SEP SS nylon 6 and 12 are claimed to offer a substantial increase in rigidity and stiffness, while maintaining substantial elongation. SEP SS nanocomposites incorporate less than 10% of nanometer sized clay particles in the base polymer. Such low levels of reinforcement allow for excellent dispersibility to provide more uniform material properties.USA

Accession no.856100

Item 184Materials in Telecommunications (incorporating PIT IX). Proceedings of a conference held London, 26th-27th September 2001.London, Institute of Materials, 2001, Paper 17, pp10, 012NANOCOMPOSITES - A NEW CONCEPT FOR FLAME RETARDANCY OF POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(Institute of Materials)

Ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers and modified layered silicates (montmorillonites modified by quaternary alkylammonium cations) form nanocomposites by melt-mixing on different compounding machines. Thermogravimetric analysis performed under air demonstrates a great increase in thermal stability of the layered silicate-based nanocomposites. The flame retardant properties are investigated by a cone calorimeter. The nanocomposites show a dramatic decrease of heat release and further improvements in other important fire parameters. The char formation is the most important reason for these improvements. Synergistic effects on flame resistance by combinations of nanofillers and traditional FR additives based on metal hydroxides are also reported. 11 refs.BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.855848

Item 185Plastiques et Elastomeres Magazine53, No.9, Dec.2001, p.8-10FrenchFLAME PROOFING ADDITIVES: MAKING PRODUCTS SAFERGouin F

Consideration is given to types of flame retardants for plastics, their mechanisms of action and polymers and products in which they are used. Developments by a number of companies are reviewed.WORLD

Accession no.854899

Item 186Materials for Lean Weight Vehicles IV. Proceedings of a conference held Gaydon, UK, 30th.-31st. Oct. 2001.London, Institute of Materials, 2001, Paper 6, pp.8, 012CARBON/EPOXY PROCESS, EXAMPLE OF AN INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION: THE UGN MERCEDES CABNedelec G; Leray CSotira SA(Institute of Materials)

The manufacture is described of structural automotive parts from carbon/glass/epoxy composites, with particular





reference to the example of the cab for the UGN Mercedes multi-purpose 4 wheel drive vehicle. The different stages of manufacture are described: RTM moulding under vacuum, trimming, attachment of inserts by bonding and riveting, and assembly of composite cab components by bonding. This is followed by a discussion of the different improvements that in the short and medium terms will bring gains in both productivity and reduction of material costs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.853961

Item 187Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition40, No.10, 15th May 2002, p.1498-503SILICON-METHOXIDE-MODIFIED CLAYS AND THEIR POLYSTYRENE NANOCOMPOSITESZhu J; Start P; Mauritz K A; Wilkie C AMarquette,University; Southern Mississippi,University

Clays, organically modified by reaction with ammonium salts containing a silicon methoxide linkage, were dispersed with AIBN in styrene and heated to 60 C to obtain polystyrene-clay nanocomposites. The nanocomposites were characterised by X-ray diffraction, and transmission electron and atomic force microscopies. Thermal stability and flame retardance were determined by thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimetry. It is proposed that the linkage which occurred between the silicon and the clay did not occur in the nanocomposite as the distance between the reactive sites was increased by the polystyrene. 18 refs.USA

Accession no.853231

Item 188Fire and Materials25, No.5, Sept./Oct.2001, p.193-7FLAME RETARDANT PROPERTIES OF EVA-NANOCOMPOSITES AND IMPROVEMENTS BY COMBINATION OF NANOFILLERS WITH ALUMINIUM TRIHYDRATEBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

Flame retardant nanocomposites are synthesised by melt-blending EVA with modified layered silicates (montmorillonites). Thermogravimetric analysis performed under different atmospheres (nitrogen and air) demonstrates a clear increase in the thermal stability of the layered silicate-based nanocomposites. Use of cone calorimetry to investigate the fire properties of the materials indicates that the nanocomposites cause a large decrease in heat release. Char formation is the main factor important for improvement and its function is outlined. Further improvements in flame retardancy by combinations of

nanofillers and traditional FR additives on the basis of metal hydroxides are also studied. 15 refs.BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.852891

Item 189Chemistry of Materials14, No.1, Jan.2002, p.189-93FIRE RETARDANT HALOGEN-ANTIMONY-CLAY SYNERGISM IN POLYPROPYLENE LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITESZanetti M; Camino G; Canavese D; Morgan A B; Lamelas F J; Wilkie C ATorino,Universita; US,National Institute of Standards & Technology; Marquette,University

The flammability of nanocomposites of PP-graft-maleic anhydride with organically modified clays was studied with and without the presence of both decabromodiphenyl oxide and antimony trioxide fire retardants. The combustion behaviour was evaluated using oxygen consumption cone calorimetry. Synergy was observed between the nanocomposite and the fire retardants, which did not occur when antimony oxide and the brominated fire retardant were added to the virgin polymer. 28 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.848147

Item 190Polymer Preprints. Volume 42. Number 2. Fall 2001. Proceedings of a conference held Chicago, Il., 26th-30th August 2002.Washington, D.C., ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2001, p.48-9POSS NANOSTRUCTURED CHEMICALS: TRUE MULTIFUNCTIONAL POLYMER ADDITIVESSchwab J J; Reinerth W A; Lichtenhan J D; An Y-Z; Phillips S H; Lee AHybrid Plastics; US,Edwards Air Force Base; Michigan,State University(ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry)

Continuing demand for advancements in the performance of polymeric materials has driven the search for new additive technologies to upgrade the properties of existing plastics. One of the primary goals has been to reinforce polymeric chains and segments at the molecular level in much the same way that traditional fillers reinforce plastics on the macroscopic level. This would prevent polymers and their corresponding composites from being subject to thermal limitations imposed by coil-coil and segment-segment interactions. Significant opportunity exists for new additive technologies that are compatible with existing polymer/filler systems yet provide unique value that is not attained from conventional technological approaches. Nanostructured Chemicals represent a merger



between chemical and filler technologies acting as true multifunctional polymer additives. The chemical diversity of POSS Nanostructured Chemicals is vast and parallels that of traditional organic systems, yet incorporates it onto a robust and precisely defined inorganic (silicon-oxygen) nanostructure. POSS Molecular Silicas can be utilised in the same manner as traditional polymer additives in both melt and solution compounding. Molecular Silicas are capable of alloying polymer chains at the molecular level to improve the physical properties of virtually all plastics. Loading levels for Molecular Silicas can be varied in accordance to the degree and level of enhancement desired. POSS Nanostructured Chemicals have the unique ability to act as multifunctional polymer additives by simultaneously acting as molecular level reinforcements, processing aids and flame retardants. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.847964

Item 191European Plastics News29, No.3, March 2002, p.14SMALLER IS BETTERSall K

The automotive industry is driving the commercialisation of nanocomposite grades. Last year, General Motors announced that it had worked with Basell and Southern Clay to successfully commercialise an advanced thermoplastic olefin nanocomposite which is now used to make the step assist for two of its vans. Ford’s target applications for nanocomposites include instrument panels and body panels. Ford is developing two novel technologies to make PP-based nanocomposites more cost competitive. Ube has developed a nanocomposite fuel tank which is yet to be commercialised. For packaging, Honeywell has commercialised polyamide 6 nanocomposites under the Aegis banner and its latest version, Aegis OX, incorporates an oxygen scavenger. Kabelwerk Eupen is producing flame retardant cables based on EVA incorporating a nanoclay supplied by Sud-Chemie.WORLD

Accession no.847736

Item 192Flame Retardants 2002. Proceedings of a conference held London, 5th-6th Feb. 2002.London, Interscience Communications Ltd., 2002, Paper 22, p.209-16, 24 cm, 012NANOCOMPOSITES - A NEW FLAME RETARDANT SYSTEM FOR POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG(BPF; Interscience Communications Ltd.)

The results are reported of a study of the morphology, heat stability and flammability of EVA nanocomposites containing various amounts of a nanofiller (a layered

silicate based on montmorillonite modified with dimethyl-distearylammonium cations). The effect of incorporating a flame retardant (aluminium trihydrate) on the flammability of cable sheaths made from EVA nanocomposites is also demonstrated. Investigative techniques employed included TEM, X-ray diffraction, TGA and flammability testing in a cone calorimeter. 15 refs.BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.845175

Item 193Polymer Degradation and Stability75, No.2, 2002, p.397-402FLAMMABILITY OF POLYAMIDE-6/CLAY HYBRID NANOCOMPOSITE TEXTILESBourbigot S; Devaux E; Flambard XGemtex; Ecole Nationale Superieure des Arts & Ind.Text.

Flammability of polyamide-6/clay nanocomposites as textile fabrics was studied. The samples were prepared by melt blending and shown to have an exfoliated structure. These were processed into multifilament yarns by melt spinning. The textiles were evaluated as knitted fabrics and showed promise as relatively low cost flame retarding materials with long term laundry resistance. Cone calorimetry showed a heat release with the textile of 40 percent less than that for pure PA-6. 10 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842738

Item 194Plastics and Rubber Weekly1st Feb.2002, p.2KABELWERK EUPEN LAUNCHES NANOCOMPOSITE APPLICATIONBeevers A

Belgian cable and pipe producer Kabelwerk Eupen has unveiled a commercial application for polymer-clay nanocomposites. It is using the materials to produce flame-retardant cables. The firm manufactures EVA-based nanocomposites using its “one-pot synthesis” extrusion technology. The addition of 5% nanoclay improves the fire performance of EVA by promoting char formation and delaying degradation. Importantly, it prevents dripping of burning polymer. Kabelwerk Eupen has also investigated the combination of nanocomposites with other flame retardants. These include incorporating alumina trihydrate into EVA to improve the resistance of cables to fire.KABELWERK EUPEN AGBELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842398





Item 195London, Interscience Communications Ltd., 2002, pp.xii,273, 24cm, 012FLAME RETARDANTS 2002. PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE HELD LONDON, 5TH-6TH FEB. 2002APME; European Flame Retardant Assn.; Fire Retardant Chemicals Assn.(BPF; Interscience Communications Ltd.)

Twenty-seven papers are presented following the tenth conference in the ‘Flame Retardant’ series. The conference concentrates on the practical appliactions of flame retardants and polymers, exchanging ideas on what is needed and what is possible and practicable in the control of fire in polymeric materials.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.841688

Item 196Speciality Chemicals21, No.9, Nov.2001, p.24-5TECHNOLOGIES GROW FLAME RETARDANTS MARKETRosen M RInteractive Consulting Inc.

A significant reduction in the risk of fire-related deaths and injuries is expected from the development of new performance standards for upholstered furniture. The US Consumer Product Safety Commission has been conducting extractability and migration studies in order to evaluate potential health risks from flame retardant fabric treatments. For synthetic fabrics, two brominated flame retardant treatments are most likely: decabromodiphenyl oxide and hexabromocyclododecane. Albemarle is collaborating with US Borax in a joint development agreement focused on new borate-related flame retardant technologies. Nanocomposites also represent an encouraging class of emerging flame retardants.USA

Accession no.837824

Item 197International Polymer Science and Technology28, No.10, 2001, p.T/30-2ATHERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF EPOXY COMPOSITESBobryshev A N; Kozomazov V N; Avdeev R I; Solomatov V I

A method of investigating athermal failure of epoxy composites is described which is offered as a partial analysis of a complex mechanism, and which aims to outline a range of questions which must be addressed in the study of athermal failure. This paper gives the results of tests into the cyclic strength of epoxy resins finely filled with crushed quartz sand which are subjected to

cyclic impact strength tests. Results indicated that in the region of average values of stresses of the cycle of 10-90 Mpa, a thermal fluctuation mechanism of failure of the composite is realised. With an increase in the stresses, there is a transition in the mechanism of failure from thermal fluctuation to athermal. 4 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.1, 2001, pp.15-16).RUSSIA

Accession no.836561

Item 198International Polymer Science and Technology28, No.10, 2001, p.T/1-5NANOCOMPOSITES. 2. A NEW FLAME PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR POLYMERSBeyer GKabelwerk Eupen AG

Disadvantages are discussed of traditional methods of achieving flame retardancy in polymers, and advantages provided by the use of nanocomposites are examined. Details are given of the thermal improvements and flame retardant properties of nanocomposites, and their ability to provide improved thermal stability and flame protection with relatively small amounts of nanofillers. These improvements are attributed to the formation of a thermally insulating char which is poorly permeable to decomposition products on exposure to high temperatures or flames. Cone calorimetry is used to measure these effects. 14 refs. (Article translated from Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe, No.5, 2001, p.321)EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.836555

Item 199Gummi Fasern KunststoffeNo.5, 2001, p.321-5GermanNANOCOMPOSITES. II. A NEW FLAME PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR POLYMERSBeyer G

The mechanism of flame retardance of silicate nanocomposites is described. This is related to the improved char formation during combustion, which protects the polymer and inhibits the formation and release of volatiles. The system was subjected to cone calorimetry and proved superior in their properties to aluminium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide. 14 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and Technology.Accession no.833606



Item 200International Polymer Science and Technology28, No.9, 2001, p.T/47FIRE RETARDANTS FOR THE POLYMER INDUSTRYZaikov G E; Artsis M IRussian Academy of Sciences

A brief review is presented of papers read at the one day symposium on ‘Fire Retardants in the Polymer Industry’, organised by the Polymer Group of Belgium and the Department of Polymers of the Royal Chemical Society of Belgium. Papers covered ecologically clean fire retardants, problems of coke formation; the use of blends and composite materials to provide inherently flame retardant materials; the use of cone calorimeters for testing; and the synthesis, properties and application of bromine-containing fireproofing agents.RUSSIA

Accession no.831542

Item 201Plastiques FlashNo.316, Feb./March 2001, p.49FrenchWHAT ARE NANOCOMPOSITES?

An examination is made of the properties, processing and applications of nanocomposites in which submicron silicate particles are dispersed in a polymer matrix. Developments by a number of companies in polyamide, polyolefin and polyacetal matrix nanocomposites are reviewed, and reference is made to the imminent appearance of the first nanocomposites based on PETP. Trends in the world market for such materials are also briefly considered.TOYOTA; UBE; ALLIEDSIGNAL; GENERAL ELECTRIC; HONEYWELL INC.; BAYER AG; BASELL; MONTELL; GENERAL MOTORS CORP.; SHOWA DENKOEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; JAPAN; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD

Accession no.828693

Item 202Composites Science and Technology61, No.5, 2001, p.787-95REVIEW OF DENDRITIC HYPERBRANCHED POLYMER AS MODIFIERS IN EPOXY COMPOSITESMezzenga R; Boogh L; Manson J A ELausanne,Ecole Polytechnique Federale

Dendritic hyperbranched polymers have been shown to be able to double the interlaminar fracture resistance of epoxy-based composites and reduce the internal stress level by as much as 80%, with only 10 phr of modifier. These property improvements were obtained affecting the viscosity, and thus the processability, nor the glass transition temperature of the epoxy resin. Both fully soluble

and phase-separating epoxy-functionalised hyperbranched polymers are used, the latter showing more toughening properties. In these blend formulations, however, a close control of the phase separation mechanism is required, in order to avoid filtering effects before or during fibre impregnation. In composite plaques, the phase separation is investigated as a function of fibre surface treatment. In a few cases, a heterogeneous nucleation of modifier particles occurs at the fibre surface as a consequence of favoured fibre/particle interactions. This reduces the fibre/matrix bonding strength and leads to adhesive failures at the fibre/matrix interface. In using dendritic hyperbranched polymer modifiers, maximum toughness enhancement and internal stress reduction are thus obtained when the modifier nucleates within the matrix phase and adhesive failure at the fibre matrix interface is avoided by selecting suitable fibre surface treatments. 28 refs.SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.822791

Item 203Polymer42, No.18, 2001, p.7739-47MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND MORPHOLOGY OF CARBOXYL RANDOMIZED POLY(2-ETHYL HEXYL ACRYLATE) LIQUID RUBBER TOUGHENED EPOXY RESINSRatna D; Simon G PIndia,Naval Materials Research Laboratory; Monash,University

Carboxyl randomised poly(2-ethylhexyl acrylate) liquid rubbers (2-ethylhexyl acrylate-acrylic acid copolymers) with different carboxyl functionality were synthesised by solution polymerisation. These were used as toughening agents for an epoxy resin. The effects of the functionality of the liquid rubbers and the ductility of the epoxy matrix on the mechanical properties of the modified networks was studied. The results were discussed with reference to the morphology of the modified network. There was an optimum functionality which gave the best impact performance. 50 refs.AUSTRALIA; INDIA

Accession no.822054

Item 204Materials Today3, No.3, 2000, p.8TOUGHENING AT NANOSCALE MAKES PLASTICS SUITABLE FOR AIRCRAFT USE

We are told in this short article that researchers at Ohio State University have patented a method of mixing plastic with tiny silica particles, to create a material which is three to four times tougher than the plastic alone. Brief details are provided of the properties of the new nanocomposite material, which is suitable for use in aircraft.OHIO,STATE UNIVERSITY





USA

Accession no.813375

Item 205Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing32A, Nos.3-4, 2001, p.457-71MICROMECHANICS OF REINFORCEMENT AND DAMAGE INITIATION IN CARBON FIBRE/EPOXY COMPOSITES UNDER FATIGUE LOADINGKoimtzoglou C; Kostopoulos V; Galiotis CICE/HT-FORTH; Patras,University

A model single carbon fibre/epoxy resin composite geometry was subjected to cyclic loading at a maximum strain below the critical fatigue limit of the matrix material. The carbon fibres were pre-strained prior to incorporation in the resin to ensure that they were free of thermally-induced compression stresses in the axial direction. A strain-controlled cyclic experiment from 0 to 0.5% applied strain was performed up to a maximum life of 1,000,000 cycles. At discrete fatigue levels of 1, 1000, 10,000, 100,000, 500,000 and 1,000,000 cycles, the fibre normal stress distributions of a specific window of observation were obtained by means of remote laser Raman microscopy. The fibre normal stress distributions at each fatigue level were converted to interfacial shear stress(ISS) distributions from which important parameters, such as the maximum ISS the system could accommodate, the transfer length for efficient stress built up and the length required for the attainment of maximum ISS, were obtained. The results showed that up to the level of full fibre fragmentation, the main fatigue damage parameter that affected the stress transfer efficiency at the interface was the fibre fracture process itself. 17 refs. (6th International Conference on Interfacial Phenomena in Composite Materials, Berlin, Sept.1999)EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.810857

Item 206Patent Number: US 6156865 A1 20001205

FLAME RETARDANT THERMOSETTING RESIN COMPOSITIONIji MNEC Corp.

A thermosetting composition having a low environmental load and a high flame retardancy includes a compound of given formula and a novolac compound of given formula, as essential components.USA

Accession no.809312

Item 207International Polymer Science and Technology28, No.1, 2001, p.T/1-5NANOCOMPOSITES. 1Lehoczki L

An overview is presented of developments in nanocomposites, with reference to research work by major companies, and product developments. Features of nanocomposites are described, and types of nanofillers used are discussed. In particular, polyamide-based nanocomposites are examined, and the properties of nylon 6 nanocomposites and other filled polyamides are compared. 4 refs. (Translated from Muanyag es Gumi, No.8, 2000, p.257)EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY

Accession no.808329

Item 208Composites Science and Technology61, No.1, 2001, p.41-56TOUGHENED CARBON/EPOXY COMPOSITES MADE BY USING CORE/SHELL PARTICLESDay R J; Lovell P A; Wazzan A AManchester,Materials Science Centre

Toughened epoxy resin composites are prepared by resin transfer moulding by using a range of toughening agents. Two types of epoxy-functional preformed toughening particles are investigated and have a three-layer morphology in which the inner core is crosslinked PMMA, the intermediate layer is crosslinked polybutyl acrylate rubber and the outer layer is a PMMA-co-ethyl acrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate. The presence of glycidyl groups in the outer layer facilitates chemical reaction with the matrix epoxy resin during curing. Comparisons are made with acrylic toughening particles that have a similar structure, but which do not have the epoxy functionality in the outer shell, and with a conventional carboxy-terminated butadiene acrylonitrile (CTBN) liquid rubber toughening agent. The composites are characterised by using tensile, compression and impact testing. The fracture surfaces and sections through the moulded composites are examined by means of optical and scanning electron microscopy. Short-beam shear tests and fragmentation tests are used to investigate the interfacial properties of the composites. In general, use of the epoxy-functionalised toughening particles gives rise to superior properties compared with both the acrylic toughening particles and CTBN. 40 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.806267

Item 209Antec 2000.Conference proceedings.Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 706MESOSCOPIC SIMULATION OF BALLISTIC



IMPACT RESISTANCE OF NANOCOMPOSITESSharma K RFairfax,George Mason University(SPE)

Ballistic armour capable of withstanding small arms fire (7.62 mm bullets), comprising nano-sized particles of polymer dispersed in a polymer matrix, are proposed. A system comprising a polycarbonate matrix with polybutadiene as the dispersed phase is described, prepared by dissolving the polymers in a common solvent followed by evaporation. Exposure to a laser beam above the particle abolition threshold would create nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution.USA

Accession no.805714

Item 210Additives for PolymersJan.2001, p.10-1USE OF POLYURETHANES AS CHAR-FORMING AGENTS IN PP INTUMESCENT FORMULATIONS

Polyols were first used as carbonising agents in polymeric intumescent systems, but have now been substituted with polymers which show a natural charring when heated. This article discusses in detail the use of polyurethanes as char-forming agents in PP intumescent formulations, reporting on recent research carried out in France.ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE DE CHEMIE DE LILLEEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.804409

Item 211ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2000. Volume 83.Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.55RECENT STUDIES ON THERMAL STABILITY AND FLAME RETARDANCY OF POLYSTYRENE-MONTMORILLONITE NANOCOMPOSITES (PMN)Zhu J; Lamelas F; Wilkie C AMarquette,University(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Nanocomposites based on layered inorganics exhibit new and improved properties due to their nanometer dimension. They show increased stiffness and strength and enhanced thermal stability without sacrificing impact resistance. A recent report shows that nanocomposites also exhibit better flame retardancy than the pure polymers. Two approaches have been used for the formation of nanocomposites: blending and in-situ polymerisation. Melt-blending is based on melt intercalation of the polymer and involves annealing a mixture of polymer and clay above the Tg of the polymer. In-situ polymerisation is

based on polymerisation of monomers in the presence of clay. Since small molecules can easily insert the galleries of the clay, in-situ polymerisation can produce well-dispersed materials. Recent studies on the thermal properties and flammability of PS-clay nanocomposites are reviewed. These nanocomposites are prepared by in-situ polymerisation. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.802817

Item 212ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2000. Volume 83.Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.53-4FLAMMABILITY OF POLYSTYRENE-CLAY NANOCOMPOSITESMorgan A B; Gilman J W; Harris R H; Jackson C L; Wilkie C A; Zhu JUS,National Institute of Standards & Technology; Marquette,University(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Research in the area of condensed phase flame retardants for polymers usually builds upon technologies, such as metal hydroxides or phosphorus based materials. However, these materials tend to weaken mechanical properties while improving flammability resistance. No major new flame retardant technology has emerged in this area for quite some time. Polymer-clay nanocomposites have generated a great deal of interest lately due to improved mechanical and thermal properties. Also, they have improved flammability resistance while maintaining good mechanical properties, a key advantage over existing condensed phase flame retardants. It has been shown that polymer-clay nanocomposites have greatly reduced heat release rates. Further, polymers are observed which normally do not char, or leave any carbonaceous residue upon burning, produce char in the presence of clay. The flammability properties of styrene copolymers with phosphates and the ability to crosslink via Friedel-Crafts chemistry have been investigated. Friedel-Crafts technology is combined with clay to obtain an improved flame resistant PS. 4 refs.USA

Accession no.802816

Item 213Patent Number: US 6114007 A1 20000905FLAME RESISTANT REINFORCED COMPOSITESBrandon R E; Gauchel J VOwens Corning Fiberglas Technology Inc.

A fire resistant thermosetting resin composite formulation comprises an effective amount of a flame suppressant additive. The thermosetting resin used in the formulation can be a polyester resin. The flame suppressant additive is a polyvinyl chloride powder, which may be the reaction





product of emulsion polymerisation or obtained from recycled products containing significant amounts of polyvinyl chloride. The additive can be used in an amount of from 1 to 75% by weight, based on the amount of inorganic filler present in the formulation.USA

Accession no.801264

Item 214Plastics Additives and Compounding2, No.5, May 2000, p.30-2NANOCOMPOSITES - IT’S A QUESTION OF PICKING THE WINNERSMurphy J

Trends in the development of nanocomposites are reviewed and discussed. Claims of improved mechanical properties, stiffness, high barrier properties and inherent flame retardancy are examined. Out of all the potential prospects for nanocomposites, it is argued that only around five are practicable and perhaps only two will be fully commercialised. Recent developments have seen the commercialisation of a nylon film with high barrier properties from nanoparticles, and a nylon moulding compound with optimised mechanical properties. GM is reported to have been working with Montell on a thermoplastic olefin elastomer with 5% smectite clay which gives stiffness equivalent to a 23-35% talc reinforcement. Research is reported into methods for the incorporation of ultra-fine fillers, the production of nano-sized carbon and fullerene tubes, and the use of conductive reinforcements in automotive bodywork panels which can be electrostatically painted.Accession no.798275

Item 215Fire Retardancy of Polymers.Cambridge, UK, Royal Society of Chemistry, 1998, 54F, p.175-202POLYMER COMBUSTION AND NEW FLAME RETARDANTSKashiwagi T; Gilman J W; Nyden M R; Lomakin S MUS,National Institute of Standards & Technology; Russian Academy of SciencesEdited by: Le Bras M; Camino G; Bourbigot S; Delobel R(Ecole Nationale Superieure de Chimie de Lille; Torino,Universita; CREPIM)

The majority of polymer-containing end products (e.g. cables, carpets, furniture) must pass some type of regulatory fire test to help assure public safety. Thus, it is important to understand how polymers burn and how to best modify materials to make them less flammable in order to pass such tests without compromising their uniquely valuable physical properties and also significantly increasing the cost of end products. Chemical and physical processes occurring in the gas and condensed phases

during the combustion of polymers and methods to reduce their flammability are briefly described. Combustion of polymer materials is characterised by a complex coupling between condensed phase and gas phase phenomena. Characteristics of the critical role in each phase are outlined. 46 refs.RUSSIA; USA

Accession no.795748

Item 216Cambridge, UK, Royal Society of Chemistry, 1998, pp.xvii,466. 69.50. 8/2/99. 54FFIRE RETARDANCY OF POLYMERS: THE USE OF INTUMESCENCEEcole Nationale Superieure de Chimie de Lille; Torino,Universita; CREPIMEdited by: Le Bras M; Camino G; Bourbigot S; Delobel R

This book, based upon papers presented at the sixth European meeting on fire retardancy of polymeric materials, provides a comprehensive overview of the subject. Main headings include strategies, intumescence - mechanism studies, new intumescent polymeric materials, flame retardant intumescent textiles and finally, an examination of whether intumescence is an environmentally friendly process.Accession no.793775

Item 217Fire and Materials24, No.4, July/Aug.2000, p.201-8PA-6 CLAY NANOCOMPOSITE HYBRID AS CHAR FORMING AGENT INTUMESCENT FORMULATIONSBourbigot S; Le Bras M; Dabrowski F; Gilman J W; Kashiwagi TENSAIT; Ecole Nationale Superieure de Chimie de Lille; US,National Institute of Standards & Technology

New flame retardant (FR) intumescent formulations for EVA using charring polymers polyamide 6 (PA-6) and polyamide-6 clay nanocomposite hybrid (PA-6 nano) as carbonisation agents are reported. Use of PA-6 nano improves both mechanical and fire properties of FR EVA-based materials. The part played by the clay in the improvement of the FR performance is studied using FTIR and solid state NMR. It is shown that the clay allows the thermal stabilisation of a phosphorocarbonaceous structure in the intumescent char which increases the efficiency of the shield and, in addition, the formation of a ‘ceramic’ which can act as a protective barrier. 44 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.790159



Item 218ICAC 99. Conference proceedings.Bristol, UK, 23rd-24th Sept.1999, p.195-201INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF THROUGH-THE-THICKNESS YARNS IN CARBON FIBRE EPOXY COMPOSITESMatthews S T; McIlhagger A TUlster,University(IOM Communications Ltd.; Ulster,University; IMechE)

Prepreg material is the standard production method within the aerospace sector for manufacturing high fibre volume fraction error free composite material with good mechanical properties. Composites produced by hand lay-up of dry fabric stock have similar properties to the benchmark quality of prepreg. Similar laminated composites produced by vacuum impregnation resin transfer moulding (RTM) offer cost savings and health and safety benefits over wet lay-up with the main shortfall being lower fibre volume fraction due to the low-pressure nature of the process. A specially developed software design package and a conventional loom have been used to produce 3D woven fabric preforms with the aim of providing ‘through-the-thickness’ reinforcement and limiting crack propagation. These one-piece preforms also have handling advantages over laminates. Using the wet lay-up with autoclave consolidation route and normalising with respect to fibre volume fraction, the 3D woven samples are found to have higher flexural strength and modulus than a laminated sample. These advantages are not seen when RTM is employed. This is thought to be due to the 3D weave involved having high crimp and low compressibility; hence, a higher consolidation pressure is required than that provided by the vacuum impregnation RTM process. 8 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.790065

Item 219Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1852, 1st Sept.2000, p.6MORE MEAT ON YOUR PLATELETLee M

The technology of adding specially treated nano-scale clay particles to a variety of plastics, creating nanocomposites, has the potential to dramatically improve the heat resistance, barrier properties, strength, stiffness and flame retardancy of the plastics. Target applications range from food packaging to automotive body panels. In April last year, RTP launched a clay/polyamide nanocomposite with a 3-5% loading of organically treated clay. This composite is made by melt processing. RTP’s most recent introduction is a polyamide 6 nanocomposite for extruded film and sheet applications. Bayer’s Durethan LPDU 601 grades are transparent with gas barrier properties. Durethan products are made at the polymerisation stage. The TNO

group has successfully made nanocomposites of PA, PE, PP, PS, PMMA and PU using Planomer technology, which is based on the concept of modifying the clay with a block copolymer that incorporates clay-compatible and resin matrix-compatible parts.WORLD

Accession no.787986

Item 220Journal of Applied Polymer Science78, No.4, 24th October 2000, p.716-23TOUGHENING OF EPOXY RESIN USING ACRYLATE-BASED LIQUID RUBBERSRatna D; Banthia A K; Deb P CIndian Institute of Technology,Materials Research Centre

Using bulk and solution polymerisation processed carboxyl-terminated poly(2-ethylhexyl acrylate) (CTPEHA) liquid rubbers of different molecular weights and functionalities were made. Nonaqueous titration, vapour pressure osmometry and gel permeation chromatography were used to characterise the rubbers. Modified epoxy networks were made by prereacting CTPEHA oligomers with epoxy resin and then curing using a curing agent. The effects of molecular weight, functionality of liquid rubber and ductility of the matrix on the impact strength of the networks was measured.38 refs.INDIA

Accession no.786475

Item 221Journal of Applied Polymer Science77, No.14, 29th Sept.2000, p.3142-53STUDY OF EPOXY AND EPOXY-CYANATE NETWORKS THERMAL DEGRADATION TO PREDICT MATERIALS LIFETIME IN USE CONDITIONSMortaigne B; Regnier NArcueil,Centre Technique

The thermal stability of prepregs with carbon fibre reinforcement and thermostable epoxy or epoxy-cyanate resin matrices with autoadhesive and auto-extinguishing properties was studied. During thermal ageing, cracking appeared in the epoxy-cyanate composites after a longer time than in the epoxy composites. The isothermal stability of the epoxy-cyanate composites was particularly good if it was post cured after processing. The results of accelerated ageing tests enabled the authors to determine models for predicting the long-term behaviour of the composites. 18 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.784892





Item 222Patent Number: US 6045898 A1 20000404RESIN COMPOSITIONS FOR FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR PRODUCING THE SAME, PREPREGS, FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND HONEYCOMB STRUCTURESKishi H; Hayashi M; Higashi T; Odagiri NToray Industries Inc.

The prepreg has excellent self-adhesiveness to a honeycomb core, low porosity when used as skin panels, excellent surface smoothness due to low surface porosity and good tackiness and drapability. The honeycomb sandwich panel has a skin panel peel strength, excellent impact resistance and excellent hot water resistance. Fibre reinforced composite materials made from the prepreg can be used for airplanes, automobiles and other industrial applications, particularly as structural materials of airplanes, because of their excellent mechanical properties.JAPAN; USA

Accession no.784586

Item 223Colloid and Polymer Science278, No.7, July 2000, p.665-70TOUGHENING OF POLYAMIDES BY THE IN SITU GENERATION OF ELASTOMERIC PHASESPark Y W; Mark J ECincinnati,University

Samples of a commercial Trogamid polyamide (aromatic nylon) are modified with two silane coupling agents. In the case of the epoxysilyl agent, the silane is incorporated as a side chain by reacting it with the sample at 50-60 deg.C for three days, with triethylenediamine as catalyst. In contrast, an isocyanatosilyl compound is added only to the polyamide end groups (carboxylic acid and amine groups). The polyamide-epoxy composites are linked with a difunctional silane and then dried into films. They exhibit some improved ultimate properties, including toughness, at the lower epoxysilane contents. In particular, the tensile strengths of the samples that are annealed at 120 deg.C are greatly improved. Also, the maximum extensibility is increased by increasing the amount of difunctional silane, but at the cost of decreased tensile strengths. The Trogamid isocyanatosilyl materials, on the other hand, show properties similar to those of polyamides reinforced with silica generated in situ by the hydrolysis of tetraethoxysilane. Specifically, the tensile strengths of these composites increase slightly, but at the cost of decreased toughness. Although it is not possible to improve all the mechanical properties of either type of composite simultaneously, it is possible to identify the conditions for maximising at least one or two of them at a time. Thus, the results provide guidance on how to optimise the properties of an important class of polyamides for any particular application. 23 refs.

USA

Accession no.784028

Item 224ACS Polymeric Materials: Science & Engineering.Spring Meeting 2000.Volume 82.Conference proceedings.San Francisco, Ca., 26th-30th March 2000, p.286-7SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOCOMPOSITES BASED ON LAYERED SILICATES AND POLYAMIDE-12Hoffmann B; Kressler J; Stoppelmann GFreiburg,Albert-Ludwigs University; Halle,Martin-Luther-Universitat; EMS-Chemie AG(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

Nanocomposites were prepared by the polycondensation of omega-aminododecanoic acid (ADA) containing a variety of exfoliated or intercalated layered silicates, to investigate the influence of swelling conditions on the rheological and mechanical properties. The silicate materials were prepared by swelling synthetic silicates (using protonated ADA) or bentonite clay (using protonated ADA or water). The mechanical properties of the polyamide-12 (PA-12) nanocomposites were improved, whilst maintaining the same notched impact toughness, compared with PA-12. Enhanced dimensional stability, barrier resistance, thermal stability and flame resistance were also observed. The nanocomposites exhibited complex rheological behaviour. The slopes of the master curves of the shear storage modulus and the loss modulus in the terminal region were considerably lower than those of the matrix polymer, attributed to the formation of a superstructure in the molten state. 7 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.783159

Item 225Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites19, No.5, 2000, p.396-402STUDIES ON MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF KNITTED GLASS-EPOXY COMPOSITESNaveen V P; Vani A; Prakasha V; Divakar C J; Ananthkrishnan T; Rao R M V G KSKSJT Institute; India,National Aerospace Laboratories

The results are reported of a study of the effects of added reinforcement on the mechanical properties of epoxy resin transfer moulded laminates made from weft rib knit glass preforms containing various amounts of reinforcement. Added reinforcement in the course direction is shown to increase the tensile and flexural strengths of the composites, as compared with composites without added reinforcement. 4 refs.INDIA

Accession no.772445



Item 226Polymer Composites21, No.2, April 2000, p.155-64MODE I FRACTURE RESISTANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPHITE/EPOXY LAMINATED COMPOSITESRhee K Y; Koh S K; Lee J HKyung Hee,University; Kunsan,National University; Cheonbuk,National University

Double cantilever beam specimens were used to determine mode I crack resistance behaviour of graphite fibre-reinforced epoxy composites, with different reinforcement stacking sequences. R-curves were produced for three different initial crack lengths, to investigate the effect of initial crack length on resistance behaviour. The resistance force (Gr) for a crack increment was determined using a compliance calibration method. For a stacking sequence of ((0/90)3s//(19/0)3s), the initial crack deviated from the mid-plane and propagated in a zigzag fashion, whilst in the case of (012//012), the crack propagated along the mid-plane. Prior to resistance force stabilisation, the resistance behaviour was significantly affected by the initial crack length. However, once Gr was in the steady-state stage, the effect of initial crack length on resistance behaviour was negligible. 14 refs.KOREA

Accession no.770537

Item 227Fire and Materials24, No.1, Jan./Feb.2000, p.45-52NANOCOMPOSITE FIRE RETARDANTS - A REVIEWPorter D; Metcalfe E; Thomas M J KGreenwich,University

Most fire retardant nanocomposites are made from layered silicates and organic polymers, a variety of methods are used in their synthesis. The mechanism for the fire retardancy of these composites is generally considered to be due to the structure of the char formed during combustion, which enables the char to thermally insulate the polymer and inhibit the formation and escape of volatiles during combustion. Fire retardant nanocomposites require relatively low concentrations of silicates for activity, resulting in low additional costs and weight. Improvements in the bulk physical properties of the polymer can be additional advantages over traditional fire retardants. 39 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.770447

Item 228Polymer41, No.10, 2000, p.3841-9HYBRID COMPOSITES BASED ON

POLYPROPYLENE AND CARBON FIBER AND EPOXY MATRIXDutra R C L; Soares B G; Campos E A; Silva J L GBrazil,Instituto de Aeronautica e Espaco; Rio de Janeiro,Universidade Federal

Polypropylene fibre, and mercapto-modified polypropylene blend fibre (PPEVASH), were added to carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy composites to improve the impact resistance of this composite system. The hybrid composites, containing carbon and PPEVASH blend fibres, had higher impact strength than those containing just carbon fibre, but lower than those containing just PPEVASH fibres. The observed changes in the glass transition temperature and dynamic mechanical properties of the hybrid composite were attributed to enhanced PPEVASH fibre-matrix and PPEVASH-carbon fibre layer interfacial adhesion, and to increased matrix crosslinking caused by the mercapto groups at the modified fibre interface. The mercapto groups also improved the matrix thermal stability. 25 refs.BRAZIL

Accession no.767826

Item 229Journal of Applied Polymer Science75, No.3, 18th Jan.2000, p.396-405TRANSLUCENT ACRYLIC NANOCOMPOSITES CONTAINING ANISOTROPIC LAMINATED NANOPARTICLES DERIVED FROM INTERCALATED LAYERED SILICATESDietsche F; Thomann Y; Thomann R; Mulhaupt RFreiburg,Albert-Ludwigs University

New acrylic nanocomposites consisting of methyl methacrylate-n-dodecyl methacrylate copolymers and intercalated layered silicates were prepared. The silicates were based upon bentonite which was rendered organophilic by ion exchange with N,N,N,N-dioctadecyl dimethyl ammonium ions. Morphological, thermal, mechanical and optical properties were examined as a function of both organophilic bentonite and n-dodecyl methacrylate content. Addition of n-dodecyl methacrylate improved the compatibility between the layered silicate and the acrylic matrix, thus promoting bentonite intercalation and formation of anisotropic laminated silicate nanoparticles of an average diameter of 18 nm, average length of 450 nm, and interlayer distance of 4.8 nm, as determined by wide angle X-ray scattering, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Addition of 2-10 wt% of intercalated layered silicate accounted for improved stiffness/toughness balance, higher Tg and enhanced thermal stability in comparison with the corresponding methyl methacrylate-n-dodecyl methacrylate copolymer. Data include Izod impact strength, Tg, Young’s modulus, light transmittance coefficient, EB, interlayer distance and TGA 10% weight loss temperature. 23 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.763984





Item 230Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology14, No.1, 2000, p.15-25EPOXIDIZED SOYBEAN OIL TOUGHENED EPOXY ADHESIVERatna D; Banthia A KIndian Institute of Technology

Epoxidised soybean oil(ESO) was used to toughen epoxy resin cured with the ambient temp. curing agent tris-2,4,6-(N,N-dimethylaminomethyl)phenol. The ESO was prepolymerised with the amine curing agent to give liquid epoxidised soybean rubber(EpSR). The EpSR-modified epoxy networks were evaluated for their thermal, impact and adhesion properties. The epoxy/EpSR compositions were systematically varied to study the effect of modifier concentration on the adhesion and impact strength. The optimum properties were obtained at a concentration of 20 wt% EpSR. The DSC and DMTA analyses indicated phase separation between the epoxy-rich phase and ESO-rich phase. 24 refs.INDIA

Accession no.761345

Item 231Polimeros: Ciencia e Tecnologia9, No.3, 1999, p.28-37PortuguesePREPARATION OF MERCAPTO-MODIFIED POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES AND ITS USE IN EPOXY-BASED COMPOSITESDutra R C L; Soares B G; Lourenco V L; Dinis M FBrazil,Instituto de Aeronautica e Espaco; Rio de Janeiro,University

Mercapto-modified PP fibres are prepared by a process involving extrusion followed by spinning of mixtures of PP and EVA modified with mercapto groups (EVASH). The analysis of the surface of these fibres by X-ray photoelectronic spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, surface tension and scanning electronic microscopy indicate that the polar component (EVASH) is located close to the fibre surface. The epoxy composites containing these modified fibres display a considerable increase in impact resistance. This result can be attributed to the good interfacial adhesion between matrix and PP fibre and the ductile characteristic of the fibre. The dynamic mechanical behaviour also suggests the interfacial adhesion. 28 refs.BRAZIL

Accession no.760186

Item 232International Composites Expo ‘99. Conference proceedings.Cincinnati, Oh., 10th-12th May 1999, session 4-ESEISMIC REPAIR AND UPGRADE OF STRUCTURAL CAPACITY OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE CONNECTIONS: ANOTHER OPPORTUNITY FOR POLYMER COMPOSITESMosallam A SCalifornia,State University(SPI,Composites Institute)

Half-scale reinforced concrete connection specimens were fabricated and instrumented to study the low cyclic fatigue behaviour of interior beam-column reinforced concrete joints. Samples tested to failure were repaired by epoxy injection and by the use of carbon fibre/epoxy and glass fibre/epoxy composites, and re-tested. Tests were also conducted on undamaged samples, reinforced using glass fibre/epoxy composites. A significant increase in both stiffness and strength of the reinforced connections was observed, and the ductility of the repaired samples increased by up to 42% compared with control samples. 5 refs.USA

Accession no.759482

Item 233International Composites Expo ‘99. Conference proceedings.Cincinnati, Oh., 10th-12th May 1999, session 2-EAIRCRAFT COMPOSITE STRUCTURES: BACKGROUND, BENEFITS, AND USAGE IN THE NEW BUSINESS JETS FROM RAYTHEON AIRCRAFTAbbott RRaytheon Co.(SPI,Composites Institute)

The development and current applications for fibre-reinforced epoxy composites in aircraft manufacture is reviewed. The fibre reinforcement is generally carbon, and the resulting composite offers the advantages of high strength and stiffness combined with low density. Applications vary from individual components including doors and control surfaces up to complete fuselages and wing assemblies. Glass fibre reinforced epoxy is also popular for helicopter rotor blades, offering better fatigue resistance than aluminium equivalents. Automatic machinery may be used to position the carbon fibre prepregs, and advanced techniques are used to inspect all parts. No major structure failure has been reported in service.USA

Accession no.759475

Item 234Patent Number: US 5728763 A 19980317THERMOSETTING RESIN COMPOSITION FOR SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICESYamaguchi M; Shirai M; Morikawa Y; Mitsuoka Y; Komoto MNitto Denko Corp.

A semiconductor device obtained by encapsulating a semiconductor element with a thermosetting resin



composition comprising a thermosetting resin (I) and a hardener (II) having the following components III and IV incorporated therein. The semiconductor device is thus provided with a high heat resistance at infrared reflow step and a high flame retardance, showing a drastically enhanced reliability. (III) a metal hydroxide of formula (1): n(MaOb).cH2O (1), where M is a metallic element; a, b and c each = a positive number; and n is a positive number of 1 or more, with the proviso that when MaOb is repeated, the plurality of M’s may be the same or different and that a and b may be the same or different; and (IV) a metal oxide of formula (2): n’(QdQe) (2), where Q is a metallic element belonging to the group selected from Groups IVa, Va, VIa, VIIa, VIII, Ib and IIb in the Periodic Table; d and e each represents a positive number; and n’ = a positive number of 1 or more, with the proviso that when QdQe is repeated, the plurality of Q’s may be the same or different and that d and e may be the same or different.JAPAN

Accession no.695736

Item 235Composites Plastiques Renforces Fibres de Verre TextileNo.21, May/June 1997, p.82-4RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING OF FIRE-RETARDED COMPOSITES FOR RAILWAY APPLICATIONSWoodward M G; Brown NAshland Composite Polymers Ltd.; Martinswerk GmbH

Formulations for the resin transfer moulding of glass fibre-reinforced composite components for railway rolling stock are described. These consist of Modar 835 S modified acrylic resin (Ashland), Martinal ON-904 aluminium hydroxide flame retardant (Martinswerk), BYK-W 996 wetting and dispersing agent (BYK-Chemie), and random glass mat. The flammability characteristics and mechanical properties of these composites are examined.BYK-CHEMIE GMBHEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.695314

Item 236SAMPE Journal33, No.4, July/Aug. 1997, p.40-6NANOCOMPOSITES: A REVOLUTIONARY NEW FLAME RETARDANT APPROACHGilman J W; Lichtenhan J DUS,National Institute of Standards & Technology; US,Air Force

The feasibility of controlling polymer flammability via a nanocomposite approach is evaluated. The flammability properties of nylon-6 clay-nanocomposites with clay mass fractions of 2% and 5% are compared with those of pure nylon-6 and other flame retarded nylons. Cone calorimetry

data shows that the peak heat release rate is reduced by 63% in a nylon-6 clay-nanocomposite containing a clay mass fraction of only 5%. In addition, physical properties are not degraded by the clay additive, but moreover, greatly improved. Furthermore, the nanocomposite structure is claimed to appear to enhance the performance of the char through reinforcement of the char layer. 18 refs.USA

Accession no.693137

Item 237Antec ‘98. Volume II. Conference proceedings.Atlanta, Ga., 26th-30th April 1998, p.2316-20. 012ASPECTS OF THE TENSILE RESPONSE OF RANDOM CONTINUOUS GLASS/EPOXY COMPOSITESOkoli O I; Smith G FWarwick,University(SPE)

The impact properties of a material represent its capacity to absorb and dissipate energies under impact shock loading. If a material is strain rate sensitive, its static mechanical properties cannot be used in designing against impact failure. In addition, the failure modes in dynamic conditions can be quite different from those observed in static tests. The effect of strain rate on failure mechanisms is investigated by viewing fractured surfaces of tensile specimens using scanning electron microscopy. The relationship between the energy dissipated and fibre content is also evaluated. Tensile tests are conducted on a random continuous glass/epoxy laminate at increasing rates of strain. A second laminate (with random continuous glass reinforcement) is tested in tension at varying fibre volume fractions in order to ascertain the relationship between fibre content and energy dissipated. 8 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.687437

Item 238Patent Number: US 5691444 A 19971125FUNCTIONALISED CRYSTALLINE POLYLACTONES AS TOUGHENERS FOR THERMOSETTING RESINSShalaby S W; Monroe L A(Clemson,University)

A crystalline polylactone is produced having reactive acrylate end groups. When incorporated into a thermosetting resin which includes reactive C=CH2 sites, the present functionalised polylactone acts as a toughener, greatly increasing the impact resistance of the final cured product. Also disclosed are carboxyl-bearing polylactones as tougheners for epoxy resin systems.USA

Accession no.687088





Item 239Composites Science and Technology58, No.2, 1998, p.211-20PROCESSING OF CARBON FIBRE-EPOXY COMPOSITES WITH COST-EFFECTIVE INTERLAMINAR REINFORCEMENTSohn M-S; Hu X-ZWestern Australia,University

A simple and low-cost interlaminar reinforcement method for improving delamination resistance of carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy resins is presented. Twelve-ply composite laminates with one, three, and five layers of Kevlar fibres were processed and their compressive strengths measured and compared with those of plain 12-ply laminates. SEM was used to study fracture surfaces. 49 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.686164

Item 240Patent Number: EP 845474 A1 19980603ALKYLENE-BRIDGED ALKYL PHOSPHONATESHarris C J; Woodward G; Taylor A J; Manku J SAlbright & Wilson UK Ltd.

These halogen-free, oligomeric or polymeric phosphonates of given formula are used as, or in combination with, a flame retardant for PU foams, resins and composites, epoxy resins, phenolic resins, paints, varnishes or textiles.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.682157

Item 241Patent Number: US 5686514 A 19971111PRODUCTION AND USE OF FIRE RETARDANT DISPERSIONS AS ADDITIVES FOR BUILDING PANELSBayha C E; Conley A HSequentia Inc.

A fire retardant system, which is useful in a thermosetting resin, such as a saturated resin, unsaturated polyester, polyepoxide or PU, in an amount of between 3 and 15 wt.%, comprises a dispersion of particles of a halogen-containing organic material and an inorganic synergist in a liquid phosphorus carrier. The particles in the blend are reduced to 20 microns or less by, e.g. processing through a 3-roll mill. The dispersion remains in suspension during curing of the resin. The resin, when formed into a ceiling panel, has a flame spread index less than 25 and a smoke rating of 450 or less when tested according to ASTM Test E-84.USA

Accession no.677872

Item 242Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites

17, No.2, 1998, p.147-64BALLISTIC IMPACT RESISTANCE OF SMA AND SPECTRA HYBRID GRAPHITE COMPOSITESEllis R L; Lalande F; Jia H; Rogers C AUS,Naval Surface Warfare Center; Boeing Co.; Virginia,Polytechnic Institute & State University; South Carolina,University

The effect of adding small amounts of high strain hybrid components on the impact resistance of graphite epoxy composites subjected to projectiles travelling at ballistic velocities (greater than 900 ft/sec) is studied. The hybrid components tested include superelastic shape memory alloy (SMA) and a high performance extended chain PE (ECPE) known as Spectra. In all cases, the embedded SMA fibres are pulled through the graphite without straining to their full potential. It is believed that this is due to high strain rate effects coupled with a strain mismatch between the tough SMA and the brittle epoxy resin. However, a significant increase in energy absorption is found by adding KPE and ECPE/SMA layers to the backface of the composite. 20 refs.USA

Accession no.675094

Item 243Advanced Performance Materials4, No.3, July 1997, p.285-95ROLE OF RESIN MATRIX/HARDENER RATIO ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LOW VOLUME FRACTION EPOXY COMPOSITESD’Almeida J R M; Monteiro S NRio de Janeiro,Catholic University; Norte Fluminense,Universidade Estadual

The mechanical performance of composite materials is usually associated with the properties of their reinforcement. However the matrix materials also play an important role as is the case for thermoset resin matrix composites which can be designed for specific applications by properly changing the polymer used as matrix. The mechanical, physical and chemical properties of the polymer matrix can be tailored by changing the processing conditions and the type and amount of the chemical substance used as hardener. An investigation is carried out on the variation of the mechanical properties of two composites of large commercial applications as a function of the resin matrix formulation. The mechanical properties of the matrix are modified by varying the amount of hardener. Experimental results show that it is possible to considerably vary the performance of low volume fraction composites by the proper processing of the matrix. In particular, it is observed that a significant change on the deformability of the composites can be obtained. Micromechanics equations are used to explain the experimental trends observed. 30 refs.BRAZIL

Accession no.670190



Item 244Plastics Technology44, No.1, Jan.1998, p.21-3CLAY-FILLED ‘NANOCOMPOSITES’ OFFER EXTRAORDINARY PROPERTIESSherman L M

Research and technical developments relating to nanocomposites are described. The new clay-reinforced materials are said to exhibit dramatic improvements in mechanical, thermal, barrier, and flame retardant properties without significant loss of toughness or clarity. They contain very tiny platelets of a special type of surface-modified clay called montmorillonite, which is dispersed in a thermoplastic or a reactive liquid resin. Their properties and applications in nylon are discussed, and potential applications in PP, polystyrene and PETP are examined.NANOCOR INC.; TOYOTA CENTRAL R & D LABORATORIES INC.JAPAN; USA

Accession no.666528

Item 245Patent Number: US 5624989 A 19970429SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICEYamaguchi M; Shirai M; Morikawa Y; Mitsuoka Y; Komoto MNitto Denko Corp.

This is obtained by encapsulating a semiconductor element with a thermosetting resin composition comprising a thermosetting resin and a hardener comprising a metal hydroxide of given general formula and a metal oxide of given general formula. It has a high heat resistance at infrared reflow step and a high flame retardance and exhibits drastically enhanced reliability.JAPAN

Accession no.659045

Item 246Plastics World55, No.10, Oct.1997, p.36-8TINY CLAY PARTICLES PACK POTENT PROPERTIES PUNCHMiller B

Nanocomposites is the name given to a new class of mineral-filled plastics that not only possess above-average mechanical strength and heat resistance, but also offer unusual gas-barrier properties and flame retardancy. Nanocomposites technology originated at Toyota and focused mainly on nylon compositions. Recently a US company was established to further develop the technology and extend it to other polymer systems. Nanocomposites are compounds in which infinitesimally small platelets of montmorillonite clay are dispersed into a thermoplastic or a reactive liquid resin.NANOCOR INC.

USA

Accession no.654683

Item 247Chemical and Engineering News75, No.40, 6th Oct. 1997, p.35-6MAKING POLYMERS TAKE THE HEATJacoby M

Two papers are discussed which were presented at the Macromolecular Secretariat, and which address recent advances based on the way flame retardant additives interact with the materials they seek to protect. In one, additives improve materials by modifying the structure of their bulk, and in the other, the changes are made almost exclusively at the surface.CORNELL UNIVERSITY; NANOCORUSAAccession no.652376

Item 248Polymers for Advanced Technologies8, No.6, June 1997, p.371-7INTERLAMINAR FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF CARBON FIBER/EPOXY COMPOSITES USING SHORT KEVLAR FIBER AND/OR NYLON-6 POWDER REINFORCEMENTPark B Y; Kim S C; Jung BKorea,Agency for Defence Development; Korea,Advanced Institute of Science & Technology

Mode I (G(IC)) and Mode II (G(IIC)) interlaminar fracture toughness in carbon fibre/epoxy resin composites was investigated as a function of the amount of short kevlar-29 fibre(SKF) and/or nylon-6 powder(N6P) between continuous fibre layers. G(IIC) was found to increase with increasing crack length as a result of the presence of SKFs forming bridges behind the progressing crack. G(IIC) of SKF alone could reach the maximum at an intermediate amount of SKF. G(IIC) of SKF and N6P was lower than that of SKF alone because N6P prevented the orientation of SKF to out-of-plane. The extent of SKF’s bridging phenomenon could be influenced by the amount and orientation of SKF. G(IC) showed no significant effect with SKF and was uniform regardless of crack length. SEM after G(IIC) test showed that new surfaces were created by extensive fibre bridging, pull-out and fracture of SKF in random direction without any fixed pattern. 15 refs.KOREA

Accession no.645633

Item 249Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites16, No.10, 1997, p.946-66TENSILE PROPERTIES OF PLAIN WEFT KNITTED GLASS FIBER FABRIC REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITES





Ramakrishna S; Cuong N K; Hamada HSingapore,National University; Kyoto,Institute of Technology

The tensile properties and failure mechanisms of plain weft knitted glass fibre fabric reinforced epoxy composites were investigated. The composite was made by reinforcing epoxy resin with a single ply of plain weft knitted glass fibre fabric. Tensile properties were investigated in the wale and course directions of the knitted fabric. Tensile failure mechanisms were identified experimentally by in-situ recording of damage processes using a video camera and by studying fracture surfaces using SEM. Elastic modulus was predicted using a modified rule of mixtures law incorporating reinforcement efficiency of curved fibre bundles. TS was predicted by estimating the failure strength of the fibre bundles bridging the fracture plane. Attempts were also made to predict tensile failure mechanisms and tensile properties using a three-dimensional finite element model. The results of analytical studies and finite element models were compared with the experimental results. 25 refs.JAPAN; SINGAPORE

Accession no.644131

Item 250Fire and Materials21, No.1, Jan.-Feb.1997, p.41-9FLAMMABILITY TESTING OF FLAME RETARDED EPOXY COMPOSITES AND PHENOLIC COMPOSITESHshieh F-Y; Beeson H DAlliedSignal Technical Services Corp.; US,NASA,Johnson Space Center

Flame-retarded epoxy composites and phenolic composites containing glass fibre, aramid (Kevlar 49), and graphite fibre reinforcements were tested using the NASA upward flame propagation test, the controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter test, and the liquid oxygen (LOX) mechanical impact test. The upward flame propagation test showed that phenolic/graphite had the highest flame resistance and epoxy/graphite had the lowest flame resistance. The controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter was used to investigate the effect of oxygen concentration and fibre reinforcement on the burning behaviour of composites. The LOX mechanical impact test showed that epoxy/glass fibre had the lowest ignition resistance and phenolic/aramid bad the highest ignition resistance in LOX. The composites containing epoxy resin and/or aramid fibre reinforcement reacted very violently in LOX upon mechanical impact. 15 refs.USA

Accession no.634363

Item 251Composites Science and Technology57, No.1, 1997, p.1-22

CHARACTERISATION AND MODELLING OF THE TENSILE PROPERTIES OF PLAIN WEFT-KNIT FABRIC-REINFORCED COMPOSITESRamakrishna SKyoto,Institute of Technology

Analytical models for predicting tensile properties of knitted fabric-reinforced composites are described. Initially, tensile properties of knitted fabric-reinforced epoxy composites were determined experimentally in the wale and course directions. Elastic properties were predicted using a ‘cross-over model’ and laminated plate theory. The analytical model expresses the crossing over of looped yarns of knitted fabric, and fibre- and resin-rich regions of composite. Elastic properties of the composites were determined by combining the effective elastic properties of looped yarns and resin-rich regions. Tensile properties of knitted fabric composites with different volume fractions of fibres were predicted. Analytical procedures were validated by comparing predictions with the experimental results. The applicability and limitations of these models are discussed. 30 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.629023

Item 252SPI Composite Institute 51st Annual Conference. Conference proceedings.Cincinnati, Oh., 5th-7th Feb.1996. Paper 24-B. 627EFFECTS OF HEAT AND MOISTURE ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PULTRUDED GRAPHITE/EPOXY AND GLASS EPOXY COMPOSITESTheobald D; McClurg J A; Vaughan J GMississippi,University(SPI,Composites Institute)

The effects of heat and moisture on the mechanical properties of pultruded composites are tested by the three-point flex method (ASTM D790). To reduce the tendency to associate variations in flexural strength with the resin system or the reinforcement, two epoxy resin systems and two types of reinforcement (glass and graphite) are used to produce three pultruded products. Moduli, as determined by the three-point flexural method, are also analysed to determine the effects of heat and moisture. The products are tested in seven environmental conditions, including as-pultruded, and variations of wet, hot and hot-wet. Comparison of flexural strengths and moduli of the products allow the determination of the effects of heat and moisture on strength degradation of the hot-wet product. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.621975

Item 253Polymer Engineering and Science36, No.18, Sept.1996, p.2352-65



FATIGUE OF HYBRID EPOXY COMPOSITES: EPOXIES CONTAINING RUBBER AND HOLLOW GLASS SPHERESAzimi H R; Pearson R A; Hertzberg R WLehigh,University

A diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A epoxy resin was modified by incorporation of varying concentrations of hollow glass spheres (HGS) and/or reactive liquid rubber. The fatigue crack propagation (FCP) behaviour and mechanisms of such materials were studied in detail. A synergistic phenomenon reported for static fracture toughness was also observed in the FCP resistance of such composites. Optical microscopy studies revealed that the interactions between the stress fields of the crack-tip process zone and HGS cause plastic-zone branching, which in turn gave rise to synergistic toughening. It is also shown that process zone second phase particle interactions cause a transition in FCP behaviour of rubber-modified epoxy polymers, similar to that observed in metal alloys. Consequently, the process zone toughening mechanisms are active only above a certain stress intensity range. Conversely, FCP resistance of both modified and unmodified epoxies were the same below the transition. 48 refs.USA

Accession no.615671

Item 254Patent Number: EP 742266 A2 19961113EPOXY RESIN COMPOSITIONS FOR FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS, PREPREGS AND FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALSOosedo H; Noda SToray Industries Inc.

These compositions comprise at least the constituents (A) an epoxy resin comprising 70 pbw or more, per 100 pbw of the epoxy resin, of a bifunctional epoxy resin, (B) fine particles comprising a rubber phase and substantially insoluble in epoxy resins and (C) a curing agent. Composites made therefrom have high impact resistance and heat resistance.JAPAN

Accession no.610227

Item 255Composites and Adhesives Newsletter13, No.1, Oct-Dec.1996, p.5RFQ/RFP ISSUED FOR CALTRANS COMPOSITE BRIDGE DECK PROGRAM; MODIFICATIONS DELAY PROPOSALS - NOW DUE OCT.10

Details are given of the Caltrans composite deck programme in which a failing steel open-grated deck on the Schuyler-Heim Bridge will be replaced with composite materials. This programme is important for the composites industry, since Caltrans intends to use the project as a

model for future deck replacement projects. The contract is to develop and install six experimental fibre-reinforced composite deck panels in the lift span of the bridge, which will then be subjected to rigorous testing to ensure it will perform as predicted with a 25 year service life.CALTRANSUSA

Accession no.607094

Item 256Reactive and Functional Polymers30, Nos.1-3, June 1996, p.85-91PREPARATION OF POLYIMIDE-EPOXY COMPOSITESGaw K; Kikei M; Kakimoto M; Imai YTokyo,Institute of Technology

Epoxy resin was cured with polyamic acid (from pyromellitic dianhydride and 4,4’-oxydianiline) instead of traditional amino-group-containing hardening agents. The cure behaviour and potential reaction mechanisms of Epon 828/polyamic acid mixtures were evaluated by DSC and TGA. Thermal analysis showed a complex reaction sequence taking place in the mixture and also determined the extent of reaction of the polyamic acid with itself and the competitive reaction of the polyamic acid with the epoxy. The compositions of the mixtures were varied to see all the dependence of the cure behaviour on component concentrations. Solutions of the two components did not phase separate and also phase separation was not apparent either optically or microscopically in the cured samples. This phase behaviour was attributed to a unique in situ reaction. A novel solvent system for the polyamic acid precursor was also used. The thermal stability of the epoxy cured with polyamic acid was superior to that of epoxy cured with standard diamines, but inferior to that of the polyimide. 3 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.599707

Item 257Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing27A, No.6, 1996, p.447-58TENSILE FAILURE OF 3D WOVEN COMPOSITESCox B N; Dadkhah M S; Morris W LRockwell Science Center

Tensile tests are reported for some graphite-epoxy composites with three-dimensional woven interlock reinforcement. Rough estimates are made of various contributions to the work of fracture. 27 refs.USA

Accession no.590659





Item 258ICCM/9. Volume 5: Composites Behaviour. Conference Proceedings.Madrid, 12th-16th July 1993, p.321-33. 627ENERGY ABSORPTION IN BALLISTIC PERFORATION OF GRAPHITE EPOXY COMPOSITESHui DNew Orleans,UniversityEdited by: Miravete A(Zaragoza,University)

The energy absorption of graphite/epoxy laminated plates during ballistic impact tests was studied. Scanning electron microscopy of a few fragments from the impact showed that the fracture surfaces of the matrix had some characteristic hacklemarks. The consideration of these hacklemarks as an energy absorption mechanism was discussed. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.543694

Item 259ICCM/9. Volume 5: Composites Behaviour. Conference Proceedings.Madrid, 12th-16th July 1993, p.307-10. 627IMPACT DAMAGE RESISTANCE OF LAMINATED COMPOSITES WITH TOUGHENED INTERFACESSeng Guan Lee; Fu-Kuo ChangStanford,UniversityEdited by: Miravete A(Zaragoza,University)

Low velocity impact tests were carried out on T300/976 graphite/epoxy composites with and without FM300 thermoset interleaves, on T800/3900-2 graphite/epoxy composite with thermoplastic interface coatings, and on graphite/PEEK thermoplastic matrix composites. Numerical calculations were also done. The results showed that interface toughening can improve significantly the impact resistance of laminated composites to low velocity impact. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.543693

Item 260Journal of Composites Technology and Research17, No.1, Jan.1995, p.11-6EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE ON THE IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF GRAPHITE/EPOXY COMPOSITES. II. IMPACT DAMAGEKarasek M L; Strait L H; Amateau M F; Runt J PPennsylvania,State University

Following the study in part I (ibid, p.3-10) in which dropped weight impact testing was used to evaluate the effect of temp. and moisture (sea water) on the impact resistance

of various graphite/epoxy composites, subpenetration impact testing and subsequent damage characterisation using ultrasonic c-scan and microscopic techniques were used to provide additional insight into the nature of the impact damage and to identify critical parameters affecting impact performance. 17 refs.USA

Accession no.541552

Item 261Journal of Composites Technology and Research17, No.1, Jan.1995, p.3-10EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE ON THE IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF GRAPHITE/EPOXY COMPOSITES. I. IMPACT ENERGY ABSORPTIONKarasek M L; Strait L H; Amateau M F; Runt J PPennsylvania,State University

Dropped weight impact testing was used to evaluate the influence of temp. and moisture (sea water) on the impact resistance of unmodified and modified epoxy/graphite fibre composites. At ambient and low temps., moisture was found to have little effect on damage initiation energy or subsequent energy absorption. At elevated temp., the presence of moisture had a significant effect on damage initiation energy, with the change depending on the particular energy absorption characteristics of the matrix and the ‘wet’ epoxy phase Tg. The energy required to initiate damage was found to decrease with temp. and this was consistent with a reduction in matrix properties at elevated temps. 32 refs.USA

Accession no.541551

Item 262Composites26, No.2, 1995, p.115-24CHARACTERISATION OF INTERLAMINAR FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR OF WOVEN FABRIC REINFORCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITESYoujiang Wang; Dongming ZhaoGeorgia,Institute of Technology

An experimental study was conducted to characterise the interlaminar fracture behaviour of two-dimensional woven fabric reinforced epoxy composites under mode I loading using double cantilever beam tests. A large displacement, small strain non-linear beam model was used to calculate the interlaminar fracture toughness. The fabrics used included glass fibre and Kevlar woven structures with different weave patterns. An attempt was made to enhance the composite interlaminar toughness by adding different types of microfibres into the matrix. Toughening mechanisms of the composites were analysed using SEM. It was found that the weave patterns of fabrics exhibited a strong influence on the interlaminar fracture behaviour, and that the addition of the microfibres to the



epoxy matrix could improve the interlaminar fracture toughness significantly. 11 refs.USA

Accession no.539409

Item 263Composites Science and Technology52, No.3, 1994, p.439-48MODE II DELAMINATION TOUGHNESS OF CARBON FIBRE/EPOXY COMPOSITES WITH CHOPPED KEVLAR FIBRE REINFORCEMENTSohn M-S; Hu X-ZWestern Australia,University

Chopped Kevlar fibres were spread between continuous fibre layers of a carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy resin to determine how the mode II delamination toughness is affected by the Kevlar fibres lying within the fracture plane. 28 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.537543

Item 264Polymer35, No.22, 1994, p.4743-9TOUGHENING BEHAVIOUR OF RUBBER-MODIFIED THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS INVOLVING VERY SMALL RUBBER PARTICLES. I. A CRITERION FOR INTERNAL RUBBER CAVITATIONDompas D; Groeninckx GLeuven,Catholic University

The criteria for internal cavitation of rubber particles were evaluated. It was shown that internal rubber cavitation could be considered as an energy balance between the strain energy relieved by cavitation and the surface energy associated with the generation of a new surface. The model predicted that there existed a critical particle size for cavitation. Very small particles (100-200 nm) were not able to cavitate. This critical particle size concept explained the decrease in toughening efficiency in different rubber-modified systems involving very small particles. 35 refs.BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.533326

Item 265Polymer Bulletin33, No.1, June 1994, p.67-74TOUGHENING OF EPOXY NETWORKS USING PRE-FORMED CORE-SHELL PARTICLES OR REACTIVE RUBBERSMaazouz A; Sautereau H; Gerard J FCNRS

The influence of liquid reactive rubbers or core-shell particles were studied on the thermal and mechanical

properties of an epoxy resin. Morphological properties were also determined. 14 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.519872

Item 266Journal of Applied Polymer Science52, No.12, 20th June 1994, p.1775-83RUBBER- AND THERMOPLASTIC-TOUGHENED EPOXY ADHESIVE FILMRomano A M; Garbassi F; Braglia RIstituto Guido Donegani SpA; EniChem

Epoxy resins were toughened using two components, a liquid rubber (Hycar CTBN 1300x13, a butadiene-acrylonitrile carboxyl-terminated rubber) and a thermoplastic polymer (Phenoxy PKHH, a polyhydroxyether). Unsupported adhesive films were obtained from the blends. The effect of different curing cycles on morphology, fracture behaviour and adhesive strength was studied and phase separation was monitored by dynamic mechanical analysis. The combination of the two moieties was shown to be a very efficient toughening agent when a slow curing cycle was adopted. 23 refs.UNION CARBIDE CORP.; GOODRICH B.F.,CO.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; ITALY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.515906

Item 267Composites25, No.4, April 1994, p.251-62INFLUENCE OF WEAVE STRUCTURE ON PIN-LOADED STRENGTH OF ORTHOGONAL 3D COMPOSITESChen J C; Lu C K; Chiu C H; Chin HFeng Chia,University; Chung-Shan,Institute of Science & Technology

Orthogonal three-dimensional(3D) carbon fibre fabrics with different weave structures were obtained by varying the yarn spacing and number of carbon filaments per tow in the x-, y- and z-directions during weaving. These weave structures were impregnated with epoxy resin to produce orthogonal 3D carbon/epoxy composites. In addition, one-dimensional (0 and 90 degree unidirectional) and two-dimensional (cross-ply and plain fabric) laminates were prepared from the same carbon fibres and epoxy resin. Single-hole pin-loaded specimens of each material were tested in tension and the effects of reinforcement type, weave structure, specimen width-to-hole diameter ratio and edge distance-to-hole diameter ratio evaluated. Various modes of failure were observed in the specimens. The effect of in-plane and out-of-plane fibres on the pin-loaded strength of orthogonal 3D composites is discussed. 26 refs.TAIWAN

Accession no.508830





Item 268Advanced Composites Letters2, No.4, 1993, p.143-6COMPRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR OF UNIDIRECTIONAL CARBON/EPOXY COMPOSITESEffendi R RAerospatiale SA

An experimental study of the fracture of unidirectional carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites under compression showed that fibre kinking was the principal compressive failure mode. The materials tested had a non-linear elastic behaviour during loading, which could be attributed to the intrinsic non-linear elastic behaviour of the fibres. 4 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.501092

Item 269Polyurethanes ‘92. Conference Proceedings.New Orleans, La., 21st-24th Oct.1992, p.565-67. 43C6RECYCLING OF POLYURETHANE RESIDUESHoffman ARemetec-Bauplatten GmbH(SPI,Polyurethane Div.)

A process is described for converting PU waste into construction panels (PURO plates) that can be used whenever conventional particle board panels, plywood panels or plasterboard panels cannot be used on grounds of moisture sensitivity, stability or flammability. The process, basically granulating and sintering, is briefly described. Pilot plant to deal with other materials, e.g. clothing and GRP also exists.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.499016

Item 270Deformation and Fracture of Composites. Conference Proceedings.Manchester, 29th-31st March 1993, p.9.1-9.10. 951SYNERGISTIC TOUGHENING IN HYBRID EPOXY COMPOSITESPearson R A; Smith A K; Yee A FLehigh University; Air Products & Chemicals Inc.; Michigan,University(Institute of Materials)

An investigation is described of the toughening mechanisms occurring in epoxy resins containing hollow glass spheres and rubber particles and of the nature of the interactions between the toughening mechanisms. A rationale is proposed to explain both the occurrence of and the lack of synergistic toughening. 24 refs.USA

Accession no.498016

Item 271Journal of Applied Polymer Science50, No.4, 20th Oct.1993, p.615-26HYBRID-PARTICULATE COMPOSITES BASED ON AN EPOXY MATRIX, A REACTIVE RUBBER, AND GLASS BEADS. MORPHOLOGY, VISCOELASTIC, AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIESMaazouz A; Sautereau H; Gerard J FLyon,Institut National des Sciences Appliquees

The deformation and fracture behaviours of hybrid-particulate epoxy composites were examined. The materials were based on bisphenol A epoxy resin cured with dicyandiamide, various volume contents of glass beads and different rubber contents. Young’s modulus, yield stress, dynamic mechanical spectra, and fracture energy were determined at room temperature. The Kerner model fitted well the Young’s modulus for the hybrid complexes with various glass bead contents. The analysis of the relaxation peak recorded from viscoelastic measurements allowed discussion of the influence of the introduction of the glass beads on the mobility of macromolecular chains and the characteristics of the rubber-separated phase. The fracture energy displayed a strong improvement and a synergism effect due to the presence of both kinds of particles. The toughening mechanisms were discussed. Use as adhesives is mentioned 49 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPEAccession no.494873

Item 272Filplas 92. Conference Proceedings.Manchester, 19th-20th May 1992, Paper 20. 51EFFECT OF GLASS PARTICLES ADDITION AND RUBBER (NBR) MODIFICATION ON MORPHOLOGICAL, VISCOELASTIC AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF EPOXY NETWORKSMaazouz A; Sautereau H; Gerard J FInstitut National des Sciences Appliquees(BPF; PRI)

The deformation and fracture behaviour of hybrid particulate epoxy composites based on a DGEBA/DDA (dicyandiamide) matrix with various volume fractions of different contents were investigated. Young’s modulus, yield stress, dynamic mechanical spectra and fracture energy were determined at room temp. The effects of the introduction of glass beads on the mobility of the macromolecular chains and the characteristics of the rubber related phase are discussed together with the toughening mechanisms. 15 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.476538



Item 273Polymer Engineering and Science33,No.2,Jan.1993,p.100-7DEFORMATION AND FRACTURE OF GLASS BEAD/CARBOXYL-TERMINATED BUTADIENE-ACRYLONITRILE RUBBER(CTBN)/EPOXY COMPOSITESZhang H; Berglund L ALulea,University

Studies of the above showed that CTBN decreased the modulus and yield stress of the epoxy resin but increased its fracture toughness. Addition of glass beads compensated for the loss in modulus but had little effect on yield stress. It contributed significantly, however, to the fracture toughness by providing additional mechanisms for toughening both the unmodified and rubber-modified epoxy resin. For the toughened epoxy resins studied, fracture surfaces gave only limited information on fracture mechanisms as significant energy absorption also occurred in the material below the fracture surface. Suggestions for suitable material compositions for fibre composite matrices are made. 12 refs.SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.473324

Item 274Polymer34,No.4,1993,p.885-95SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF NOVEL TOUGHENED THERMOSETS DERIVED FROM PENDENT AMINES ON THE BACKBONE OF POLY(ARYLENE ETHER SULPHONE)SPak S J; Lyle G D; Mercier R; McGrath J EVirginia,Polytechnic Institute & State University

Random incorporation of pendent aryl amines on the backbone of poly(arylene ether sulphone)s was achieved by the copolymerisation of a minor amount of a second activated aromatic dihalide, bis(4-fluorophenyl)-3-aminophenylphosphine oxide with 4,4’-dichlorodiphenylsulphone and bisphenol A via aromatic nucleophilic substitution polymerisation using N-methylpyrrolidone as the solvent, toluene as the azeotroping agent and potassium carbonate as the base. The pendent amines were optionally chemically modified by conversion to maleimides and thermally cured to afford tough insoluble networks. Epoxy networks were also obtained by reacting the pendent amines with liquid epoxy resin and 4,4’-diaminodiphenylsulphone. Selected compositions could significantly improve the fracture toughness of epoxy networks. Increased fracture toughness was attributed to the good adhesion between the polysulphone particles and the epoxy matrix as a result of the reaction of the amines with the epoxy resin. 22 refs. (Presented at ACS Symp.on Advances in Polymeric Matrix Composites,San Francisco,USA,5th-10th April 1992).USA

Accession no.471187

Item 275Journal of Applied Polymer Science46,No.11,15th Dec.1992,p.1899-914TOUGHENING OF GRAPHITE-EPOXY COMPOSITES WITH AN ELECTROCOPOLYMERISED HIGH-TEMPERATURE THERMOPLASTIC INTERPHASEWimolkiatisak A S; Bell J PConnecticut,University

A high temperature 3-carboxyphenylmaleimide-styrene copolymer interphase was electropolymerised onto graphite fibres in an effort to toughen graphite fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites. The effects of the interphase and its thickness on mechanical properties and failure modes were investigated. An optimum thickness was determined at which the average value of the DCB Mode I critical strain energy release rate was improved by about 100% and the average notched Izod impact resistance by about 60%, whilst maintaining the average interlaminar shear strength at around the same value as for control composites. The failure mode was shifted toward more ductile failure with the inclusion of an interphase. 131 refs.HERCULES INC.; SHELL CHEMICAL CO.USA

Accession no.463102

Item 276Journal of Applied Polymer Science46,No.10,5th Dec.1992,p.1723-35EPOXY COMPOSITES BASED ON GLASS BEADS. II. MECHANICAL PROPERTIESAmdouni N; Sautereau H; Gerard J FLyon,Institut National des Sciences Appliquees

An epoxy resin matrix based on bisphenol-A diglycidyl ether and dicyandiamide was used to study the toughening effect due to the introduction of glass beads with different volume fractions and which were untreated, silane treated, or coated with a crosslinked elastomeric adduct. The effect of the bead volume fraction and surface treatment was examined in terms of elastic and plastic properties, and the results were compared with theoretical models. Linear elastic fracture mechanics and impact tests were used to study the crack propagation process. The various parameters influenced the deformation mechanism, especially for composites containing coated beads, for which an optimum thickness was displayed. A large improvement in fracture energy value was obtained with a slight decrease in stiffness. 54 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.462984

Item 277Composites Plastiques Renforces Fibres de Verre Textile





32,No.3,May/June 1992,p.316-8FrenchICS PROCESS FOR SINGLE-WALL RTM BODY COMPONENTSNeveu D

An account is given of the ICS (Injection-Compression Sotira) process, developed by Sotira for the production of composite automotive components. A thermosetting resin is injected around a preform consisting of a PU foam core and glass fibre reinforcement placed in the mould. The use of this technique in the manufacture of vehicle spoilers and doors in glass fibre-reinforced unsaturated polyester resin is described.AUTOMOBILES CITROEN SA; CRAY VALLEY SA; DSM; PSA; VETROTEX SAEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.462085

Item 278Macromolecules24,No.1,7th Jan.1991,p.126-31MORPHOLOGY OF TWO-PHASE PS/PMMA LATEX PARTICLES PREPARED UNDER DIFFERENT POLYMERISATION CONDITIONSJonsson J-E L;Hassander H;Jansson L H;Toernall BLUND,INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

22 refs.SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.447039

Item 279Composites and Adhesives Newsletter7,No.1,Oct/Nov.1990,p.4NASA INVENTION ON TOUGHENING REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITES

NASA has discovered that fibre-reinforced epoxy composites can be made ‘tougher’ by incorporating a bromine-containing additive. Flexural strength and impact resistance are shown to be substantially increased. Adding a small amount of carboxy-terminated butadiene-acrylonitrile rubber (Hycar) further improves these properties.NASA,JOHNSON SPACE CENTERUSA

Accession no.441020

Item 280Composites22,No.5,Sept.1991,p.347-62IMPACT RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS - A REVIEWCantwell W J;Morton JLAUSANNE,POLYTECHNIQUE; VIRGINIA,POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE & STATE UNIVERSITY

In this paper the impact response of continuous fibre-reinforced composites is reviewed. An attempt is made to draw together much of the work published in the literature and to identify the fundamental parameters determining the impact resistance of continuous fibre-reinforced composite materials. The effect of varying the properties of the fibre, matrix and interphase are examined as well as the role of target geometry and loading rate on the dynamic response of these materials. 106 refs.SWITZERLAND; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.440003

Item 281Advanced Materials Newsletter13,No.20,28th Oct.1991,p.1PARTICULATE-FILLED INTERLAYER TOUGHENS EPOXY COMPOSITE

Toray Industries has developed a prepreg system which incorporates toughening thermoplastics in interlayers. Polyamide particles are deposited on the surface of one epoxy prepreg layer, becoming an interlayer as additional prepreg is added. When cured, the Toray material exhibits the typical heat resistance, modulus and strength of conventional aircraft-grade epoxy composites.TORAY INDUSTRIES INC.

JAPANAccession no.434389

Item 282Polymer32,No.11,1991,p.2020-32CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF MATRIX RESIN NETWORKS WITH ENGINEERING THERMOPLASTICS. I. SYNTHESIS, MORPHOLOGY, PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR AND TOUGHENING MECHANISMS OF POLY(ARYLENE ETHER SULPHONE) MODIFIED EPOXY NETWORKSHedrick J L;Yilgor I;Jurek M;Hedrick J C; Wilkes G L;McGrath J ECIBA-GEIGY CORP.; GOLDSCHMIDT; IBM ALMADEN RESEARCH CENTER; VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE & STATE UNIVERSITY

Hydroxyl-terminated and amine terminated polyether sulphones were synthesised for blending with epoxy resin (Epon 828) and thermally curing along with 4,4’-diaminodiphenyl sulphone. The resulting networks displayed significantly improved fracture toughness, with little sacrifice in modulus. The bisphenol-A based polysulphones were miscible with the epoxy precursors over the entire composition and molec.wt. ranges, but developed a two phase structure upon network formation. The two phase structures were almost transparent. 31 refs.USA

Accession no.430356



Item 283Polymer Engineering and Science31,No.4,Feb.1991,p.270-4STUDY OF RUBBER MODIFIED BRITTLE EPOXY SYSTEMS. PART I. FRACTURE TOUGHNESS MEASUREMENTS USING THE DOUBLE NOTCH FOUR POINT BEND METHODSue H JDOW CHEMICAL USA

Correlations were established for single edge notch three-point-bend, single edge notch four-point-bend and the double notch four-point-bend (DN-4PB) toughness measurement techniques using modified epoxies. Toughness of unmodified and rubber toughened epoxy was independent of the testing techniques used. Results indicate that with a single DN-4PB test information can be obtained to describe the toughening mechanisms and fracture toughness value of relatively brittle polymers. 14 refs.USA

Accession no.420616

Item 284Polymer32,No.1,1991,p.53-7MISCIBILITY AND MORPHOLOGY OF EPOXY RESIN/POLY(ETHYLENE OXIDE) BLENDSGuo Qipeng;Peng Xinsheng;Wang ZhijiCHANGCHUN,INSTITUTE OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY; JILIN,INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Polyethylene oxide was found to be miscible with uncured epoxy resin, a single Tg being obtained for each blend. PEO with Mn = 20000 was judged to be immiscible with the highly amine-crosslinked epoxy resin (ER). The miscibility and morphology of the ER/PEO blends was affected by crosslinking. Phase separation in the ER/PEO blends occurred as crosslinking progressed. 9 refs.CHINA

Accession no.417685

Item 285Composites Asia Pacific 89.Conference Proceedings.Adelaide,19th-21st June 1989,p.150-160. 627INFLUENCE OF INTERFACIAL COATING AND TEMPERATURE ON IMPACT FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF FIBRE COMPOSITESSang-Kyo Kim;Yiu-Wing Mai;Cotterell BSYDNEY,UNIVERSITY(Composites Institute of Australia)

Impact fracture toughness of Kevlar 49- and carbon-epoxy composites with or without PVOH coated fibres has been evaluated at temperatures from -50C to +80C. For coated composites, the fracture toughness measured on monolayer composite/epoxy sandwich specimens increased by more than 100% in comparison to composites without coating,

particularly at low temperatures. The dependence of impact fracture toughness on temperature was analysed qualitatively on the basis of existing toughening mechanisms from fibre pull out measurements, debond lengths and microscopy. 15 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.411172

Item 286Journal of Materials Science25,No.2B,Feb.1990,p.1435-43COATED GLASS BEADS EPOXY COMPOSITES: INFLUENCE OF THE INTERLAYER THICKNESS ON PRE-YIELDING AND FRACTURE PROPERTIESAmdouni N;Sautereau H;Gerard J F;Fernagut F; Coulon G;Lefebvre J MLABORATOIRE DES MATERIAUX MACROMOLECULAIRES; LABORATOIRE DES STRUCT.ET PROP.DE L’ETAT SOLIDE; LILLE FLANDRES ARTOIS,UNIVERSITE DES SCI.ET TECH.

An elastomeric adduct based on a liquid rubber, an epoxy prepolymer and a liquid diamine was prepared and deposited around glass beads reinforcing an epoxy matrix. The pre-yielding and fracture properties of such composites were studied. A linear dependence of critical stress intensity factor (CSIF) vs. volume fraction was obtained for untreated glass beads, whereas a maximum was reached at 20% volume fraction of filler for those with coated glass beads. Introduction of an elastomeric layer improved fracture toughness. The influence of interlayer thickness was studied. A maximum for CSIF was found for (e/r) (thickness of the interlayer/radius of the glass bead) equals 3% in connection with a strong decrease of the work-hardening rate compression modulus, determined in the pre-yielding stage. The toughening mechanism is discussed in terms of crack pinning and plastic deformation. 42 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.398583

Item 287Journal of Applied Polymer Science37,No.6,20th Feb.1989,p.1439-47EFFECT OF DILUENTS AND/OR FORTIFIER ON THE GLASS FIBRE-EPOXY COMPOSITESThakkar J;Patel R;Patel R;Patel VSARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY

Glass fibre-epoxy composites were fabricated using E-type glass cloth and the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A with diethylene triamine as catalyst. The properties were modified by incorporating diluents such as epoxidised 2,2,6,6-tetramethylolcyclohexanol and 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether with or without 20 parts per 100g of a condensation product of phenyl glycidyl ether and 4-





hydroxyacetanilide as fortifier. Characterisation of these epoxy laminates included resistance to chemical reagents, dynamic mechanical analysis and mechanical properties such as flexural strength, impact strength and hardness. Dielectric properties such as breakdown strength, dielectric constant, dielectric loss and loss tangent were estimated. 16 refs.INDIA

Accession no.379920

Item 288Rubber and Plastics News18,No.16,20th Feb.1989,p.38DOW POLYMER USED FOR BRAKE RELEASES

Dow Chemical Co. has begun marketing a fibre reinforced composite polymer for use by moulders of parking brake release levers. Details of the unspecified polymer, Isoplast 101 are briefly outlined in a property comparison with reinforced ABS.DOW CHEMICAL CO.USA

Accession no.378397

Item 289Composites Science and Technology34,No.3,1989,p.267-83FAILURE MECHANISMS IN GLASSY-METAL-REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITESLow I M;Hewitt G;Mai Y W;Foley CAUCKLAND,UNIVERSITY; CSIRO,DIV.OF APPLIED PHYSICS; SYDNEY,UNIVERSITY

Epoxy composites containing both rubbery particles and short or continuous glassy metal ribbons were investigated. Considerable improvement in the fracture toughness was obtained, particularly in composites containing aligned short ribbons. As the volume fraction of the ribbon was increased, so was the fracture toughness. The micromechanisms of toughening and failure processes were also identified and discussed in the light of the microstructures. 23 refs.AUSTRALIA; NEW ZEALAND

Accession no.378252

Item 290Advanced Materials Newsletter10,No.21,12th Dec.1988,p.3INTERLEAFING BISMALEIMIDE COMPOSITES OFFERS ANOTHER TOUGHENING APPROACH

The process of interleafing by putting thin layers of tough, ductile resins into prepregs between layers of resin containing fibre reinforcement, as a method of improving graphite/epoxy composites is briefly discussed. Interleafing of two bismaleimide-based graphite composites is examined and evaluated for improvements in impact resistance and delamination by McDonnell Douglas.

AMERICAN CYANAMID INC.; MCDONNELL DOUGLAS CORP.USA

Accession no.375010

Item 291Plastics Engineering44,No.11,Nov.1988,p.33/7TOUGHENING COMPOSITES BY MATRIX MODIFICATIONLian J Y;Jang B Z;Hwang L R;Wilcox R CAUBURN,UNIVERSITY

Graphite fibre/epoxy composites often suffer from low impact strength and susceptibility to delamination, possibly arising from the brittleness of the matrix resin. The addition of one or more impact modifiers to increase the toughness of both resin and composite was investigated. An analysis of the delamination, or interlaminar crack, after impact loading was conducted to determine the failure behaviour in a hybrid composite.USA

Accession no.373432

Item 29242nd Annual Conference & Expo ‘87;Proceedings.Cincinnati,Ohio,2-6 Feb.1987,Session 20-B,pp.6. 627EFFECTS OF A CONTROLLED MODULUS INTERLAYER UPON THE PROPERTIES OF GRAPHITE/EPOXY COMPOSITESChang J;Bell J P;Joseph RCONNECTICUT,UNIVERSITY(SPI,Reinforced Plastics/Composites Institute)

The results are reported of a study of the effect of a high molec.wt. polymeric interlayer between the graphite fibres and epoxy matrix of a graphite-epoxy composite on composite mechanical properties. Thickness, modulus of the interlayer and bonding between the interlayer and epoxy matrix were the three major parameters examined. A uniform thickness acrylonitrile/methyl acrylate copolymer coating, applied onto the graphite fibre surface through a batch electro-copolymerisation technique, was used as the interlayer. Interlaminar shear strength and impact resistance data of the composites are tabulated. 19 refs.USA

Accession no.372679

Item 293Composites Science and Technology31,No.4,1988,p.261-72EFFECT OF FIBRE PRETREATMENT ON THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ASBESTOS-NYLON-EPOXY COMPOSITESPapanicolaou G C;Papaspyrides C DATHENS,NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

The role of fibre pretreatment in determining the thermal expansion behaviour and Tg of fibre-reinforced



thermosetting polymers was investigated. Asbestos fibres were pretreated with polyhexamethylene adipamide and used afterwards as filler reinforcement in a bisphenol-A-based epoxy resin matrix. Two alternative processes of fibre pretreatment were used. Thermal expansion coefficients and Tgs for the asbestos-nylon-epoxy resin composites were experimentally determined. Results were qualitatively explained by theoretical models in which the concept of the boundary interphase was considered. The effects of asbestos and nylon content as well as of type of pretreatment and adhesion between the phases were investigated. 32 refs.GREECE

Accession no.356410

Item 294Plastics and Rubber International13,No.2,April 1988,p.26/31NEW MATRIX RESINS FOR STRUCTURAL COMPOSITESPritchard G

This detailed article discusses new matrix resins used in structural composites. It describes the different structures of fibre reinforcement, the process of mixing these fibres, and discusses the development of polyesters, vinyl esters and epoxy composites. Data and properties are presented for the matrix resins. 7 refs.UK

Accession no.355519

Item 295Plastics Technology34,No.1,Jan.1988,p.13TERPOLYMER TOUGHENS EPOXIES

A multi-functional liquid rubber for toughening epoxy composites and coatings was recently developed by Wolverine Gasket, division of Eagle-Picher Industries, Inkster Mich. This heat-curable nitrile-diene-acrylamide (NDA) terpolymer is said to give better fracture toughness and heat deflection temp. to epoxies than do competitive products. It is said to have potential for use in reaction injection moulding and resin transfer moulding, but will not be commercially available for six to nine months. This abstract includes all the information contained in the original article.WOLVERINE GASKET CO.USA

Accession no.351452

Item 296Journal of Applied Polymer Science33,No.2,5th Feb.1987,p.361-73INTERACTION BETWEEN THE REINFORCEMENT AND MATRIX IN CARBON FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE: EFFECT OF FORMING THE THIN LAYER OF POLYIMIDE

RESIN ON CARBON FIBRE BY IN SITU POLYMERISATIONKodama M;Karino I;Kobayashi JMITSUBISHI ELECTRIC CORP.Carbon fibre was coated with polyimide resin in an attempt to improve the reinforcement/matrix interaction and the properties of epoxy composites reinforced with the coated fibres investigated. Comparisons with untreated carbon fibre composites were made. Properties investigated included dynamic viscoelastic properties, tensile properties and T-peel strength. Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy was employed to investigate the molecular interaction between the epoxy resin and polyimide resin. 16 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.336353

Item 297SAMPE Journal22,No.6,Nov/Dec.1986,p.10-6STATIC AND IMPACT PERFORMANCE OF POLYETHYLENE FIBRE/GRAPHITE FIBRE HYBRID COMPOSITESAdams D F;Zimmerman R SWYOMING,UNIVERSITYA study was carried out to determine the benefits of using Spectra 900, high strength, high modulus PE fibres in graphite/epoxy composites to improve impact resistance of the resulting hybrid. The feasibility of using a small amount of graphite fibre in a Spectra laminate to enhance stiffness properties while maintaining high impact performance was also evaluated. Data are provided on drop weight impact, tensile properties, compression properties, in-plane shear properties and thermal expansion of the various material combinations. 8 refs.USA

Accession no.329941

Item 298Deformation,Yield and Fracture of Polymers;Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference.Cambridge,April 1-4,1985,p.16.1-16.5. 951DEFORMATION AND FRACTURE OF HYBRID PARTICULATE-FILLED EPOXY POLYMERSKinloch A J;Maxwell D;Young R JLONDON,UNIVERSITY,IMPERIAL COLLEGE; LONDON,UNIVERSITY,QUEEN MARY COLLEGE(PRI)The fracture behaviour of hybrid-particulate composites (epoxy resin/glass beads, epoxy resin/glass beads/rubber and epoxy resin/glass beads(silane)/rubber) was examined. Values of stress-intensity factor and fracture energy were determined using a double-torsion test. Considerable increases in toughness were recorded and the mechanisms of toughening and the failure criteria identified. 8 refs.UK

Accession no.312808





Item 299Die Makromolekulare Chemie- Macromolecular symposiaNo.1,Jan.1986,p.139-50ENERGY ABSORBING POLYMER-BASED COMPOSITESHull DCAMBRIDGE,UNIVERSITY

The ability of polymer-based fibre reinforced composite materials to absorb energy when subjected to high stress is shown to depend on the micromechanics of deformation and fracture of the individual laminae and the interaction between laminae. The micromechanisms depend on the properties of the matrix, fibres and fibre-matrix interface. The importance of the capacity of the material to absorb energy for various applications is considered with particular reference to the response of structures to impact. 7 refs. (30th IUPAC International Symposium on Macromolecules,The Hague,Netherlands, Aug.1985).UK

Accession no.309612

Item 300Molecular Characterization of Composite Interfaces;Proceedings of a Symposium on Polymer Composites:Interfaces at the 185th American Chemical Society Meeting.Seattle,Wash.,March 1983,p.287-98. 012THERMOSTIMULATED CREEP STUDY OF THE INTERFACE OF GLASS BEAD-REINFORCED EPOXY COMPOSITESBayoux J P;Pillot C;Chatain D;Lacabanne CEdited by: Ishida H;Kumar G(ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry)

The use of thermostimulated creep to study the anelastic behaviour of two different types of model composites is described. The method is shown to have high resolving power and to provide accurate information about the distribution of the relaxation times in the matrix of an epoxy resin reinforced with glass beads having on their surface either a coupling agent, e.g. a silane, or a release agent, e.g. silicone. From analysis of the spectra, two different mechanisms are proposed to explain the reinforcement process through modification of the matrix at its interface with the filler. 14 refs.FRANCE

Accession no.302416

Item 301Polymer Bulletin13,No.3,March 1985,p.201-8ENGINEERING-CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF MATRIX RESIN NETWORKS WITH ENGINEERING THERMOPLASTICS. I. PHENOLIC HYDROXYL TERMINATED POLY(ARYL ETHER SULPHONE)-EPOXY

SYSTEMSHedrick J L;Yilgor I;Wilkes G L;McGrath J EVIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE & STATE UNIVERSITY

Functionally terminated bisphenol-A polysulphone oligomers were used in the modification of an epoxy resin/diamino diphenylsulphone network system. Molecular weight and the amount of PSF oligomers incorporated into the network were varied and their effect on the overall properties of the resulting systems were investigated. Capping and curing reactions were followed by using Fourier transform IR spectroscopy, NMR, GPC, HPLC and DSC techniques. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.271295

Item 302Polymer24,No.5,May 1983,p.639-44PHASE SEPARATION IN EPOXY RESINS CONTAINING POLYETHERSULPHONEBucknall C B;Partridge I KCRANFIELD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Scanning electron microscopy and dynamic mechanical spectroscopy are used to study phase separation of dissolved polyethersulphone (PES) from trifunctional and tetrafunctional epoxy resins during curing. Observations of modules on fracture surfaces and of multiple peaks in the dynamic mechanical spectra provide evidence for a separate, crosslinked, PES-rich phase in the remaining materials. 13 refs.UK

Accession no.230834

Item 303Journal of Elastomers and Plastics10, July 1978, p.271-81INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON THE IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF HYBRID GLASS/GRAPHITE/EPOXY COMPOSITESHOFER K E; PORTE R

Previous studies have indicated a lack of tolerance for impact by graphite fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites, in contrast with the good impact resistance of GRP. Hybrid composites combining two fibre reinforcements alleviate this problem to some degree, whilst retaining stiffness and strength. A study was undertaken to examine the effect of hybridisation on charpy impact resistance, and to gauge modifications of this resistance as a function of moisture absorption, for hybrid glass/graphite/epoxy resin composites. 22 refs.Accession no.127381

Subject Index


Subject Index

AABRASION RESISTANCE, 23ACCELERATED AGEING, 122 221ACETIC ACID, 175ACOUSTIC EMISSION, 268ACRYLAMIDE POLYMER, 70ACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 140ACRYLATE POLYMER, 77ACRYLATE RUBBER, 77 220ACRYLIC ACID COPOLYMER,

203ACRYLIC ESTER COPOLYMER,

140ACRYLIC ESTER POLYMER, 77ACRYLIC POLYMER, 19 60 235ACRYLIC RESIN, 60 235ACRYLONITRILE COPOLYMER,

292ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE

RUBBER, 11ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE-

STYRENE TERPOLYMER, 2 17 19 62 72 76 77 171 196

ACRYLONITRILE-STYRENE COPOLYMER, 61

ACTIVATION ENERGY, 107 164ACTUATOR, 22ADHESION, 97 114 124 125 167

222 230 266 281 292 293 296ADHESIVE, 22 124 167 186 230

266ADVANCED COMPOSITE, 290AEROPLANE, 204 222AEROSPACE APPLICATION, 8

112 204 233 268AGEING, 15 87 122 221AGGLOMERATION, 62 77 100AGGREGATION, 91AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION,

62AIR BARRIER, 244AIR PERMEABILITY, 216AIRCRAFT, 204 222 268 281ALKALI TREATMENT, 84ALKENE POLYMER, 19 22 34 42

49 51 62 73 100 102 136 146 165 166 176 179 191 195 201 210 246

ALKYLAMMONIUM ION, 130ALUMINIUM, 151 181 185 235ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE, 9 10

49 52 53 82 97 121 129 137 185 194 235

ALUMINIUM OXIDE, 181 185 235

ALUMINIUM SILICATE, 62 201 207

ALUMINIUM TRIACETYLACETONATE, 31

ALUMINIUM TRIHYDRATE, 10 38 50 53 88 97 99 109 110 121 128 137 175 185 188 192 194

AMIDE, 180AMIDE POLYMER, 19 22 49 89

91 100 111 116 136 158 162 166 175 185 191 195 201 207 219 223 244 248

AMINE, 56 142 152 168 180 230 287

AMINE COMPOUND, 42AMINOPHENYLIMIDE, 173AMMONIUM COMPOUND, 52

65 192AMMONIUM ION, 189AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE, 2 3

15 51 53 60 71 92 101 165 210AMMONIUM POLYPHOSPHATE,

2 3 15 51 53 60 71 92 101 165 210

AMMONIUM SALT, 103ANALYSIS, 3 7 13 16 24 36 40 48

60 62 75 79 80 83 92 113 114 141 145 153 155 158 160 161 164 165 170 188 211 216 217 235 249 251 258 262 268 275 276 280 291

ANISOTROPY, 22 229ANTHRAQUINONE, 8ANTHRAQUINONE CYANATE, 8ANTI-SHRINK AGENT, 277ANTIMONY OXIDE, 49ANTIMONY TRIOXIDE, 9 110

128 175 185 189ANTIOXIDANT, 162ANTISTATIC AGENT, 162APPEARANCE, 7APPLICATION, 8 21 22 32 35 37

42 46 48 50 62 65 66 73 88 100 102 105 111 112 121 128 129 132 133 136 137 149 167 172 175 179 185 191 192 195 196 201 204 210 214 219 222 233 235 241 244

ARAMID FIBRE, 262 280ARAMID FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 87 250 263 285ARMOUR, 209

ARTIFICIAL MUSCLE, 22ASBESTOS FIBRE-

REINFORCED PLASTIC, 293ASPECT RATIO, 42 76 102 183

214 219 246ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY,

75 86 165 187 229ATTAPULGITE, 22AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION,

21 22 35 42 46 62 100 102 132 136 149 167 185 191 195 196 201 204 214 219 222 244 277 288

AVRAMI EQUATION, 55

BBALL MILL, 140BALLISTIC APPLICATION, 209BALLISTIC PROPERTIES, 209

258BALLISTIC RESISTANCE, 209BALLOON, 37BALSA, 69BARIUM TITANATE, 22BARRIER FILM, 102 201BARRIER PACKAGING, 21 201BARRIER PROPERTIES, 21 56 62

100 102 183 201 214 219 236 244

BATCH POLYMERISATION, 21BATTERY, 149BEER BOTTLE, 100BENTONITE, 224 229BEVERAGE, 62BINDER, 107BINDING, 21BIOCOMPOSITE, 75BIODETERIORATION, 84 146BIOPOLYMER, 102BISDIETHYLOXYPHOS

PHONYLHYDROXY PHENYLPROPANE, 94

BISETHYLHEXYL PHTHALATE, 62

BISMALEIMIDE POLYMER, 274 280 290

BISPHENOL A, 39 272 287 293BISPHENOL A DIGLYCIDYL

ETHER, 94 130 203 276BISPHENOL A EPOXY RESIN,

27 155BISPHENOL C, 69

Subject Index


BISPHENOL DIGLYCIDYL ETHER, 94 130 203

BLEND, 9 11 13 20 30 31 35 54 61 62 68 72 77 84 97 100 107 110 115 125 128 136 154 162 168 173 196 200 210 216 223 230 253 256 264 266 271 273 274 277 278 282 284 289 302

BLENDING, 103 247BLOCK COPOLYMER, 62 219BLOW MOULDING, 21 100 149BLOWING AGENT, 100BLOWN FILM, 149BODY PANELS, 191 214 277BOEHMITE, 185BOND STRENGTH, 18 227BONDING, 21 22 124 167 186BOTTLES, 100 191BOUNDARY LAYER, 293BRAGG SPACING, 227BREAKDOWN STRENGTH, 287BREAKING STRENGTH, 107BRIDGE, 66BRIDGE DECK, 255BRITTLENESS, 34 291BROMINATION, 79 175BROMINE, 30 95 128 185 196 200

279BROMINE COMPOUND, 106BROMINE-CONTAINING

POLYMER, 119BUILDING APPLICATION, 66

136 185 195 210 241BUILDING PANEL, 241 269BULK POLYMERISATION, 103

147 187 220BURNING, 3 70 92 129 175BURNING RATE, 6 33 104BUSINESS MACHINE, 111 136

185BUTADIENE POLYMER, 178 209BUTADIENE-ACRYLONITRILE

COPOLYMER, 266 271 272 273 279 298

BUTADIENE-STYRENE RUBBER, 23

BUTYL ACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 140

CCABLE, 22 46 62 63 88 105 109

121 123 132 137 149 179 191 192 194 195 210

CABLE COVERING, 38 63 99 110CABLE INSULATION, 50 120 185

196CADMIUM OXIDE, 234

CALCIUM CARBONATE, 3 9 23 33 51 277

CALORIMETRY, 9 13 17 29 30 45 53 61 65 67 73 119 122 147 158 169 170 174 250

CAMERA, 249CAPROLACTAM, 62CAPROLACTAM POLYMER, 19

21 28 30 45 49 62 67 89 102 110 111 118 127 193

CAR, 136 185 201 277CARBON, 22 39 43 47 71 78 96

100 105 123 131 136 138 143 157

CARBON BLACK, 100CARBON DIOXIDE, 100CARBON FIBRE, 63 214 226 228

233 268CARBON FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 1 18 32 114 115 131 142 145 153 181 186 205 208 218 221 226 228 232 233 239 242 248 250 252 263 267 268 275 280 285 290 291 292 296 297

CARBON MONOXIDE, 52 62 63 175 235

CARBON NANOTUBE, 50CARBON-13, 24CARBONACEOUS, 40CARBONATE COPOLYMER, 64CARBONATE POLYMER, 37 61

72 82 84 111 125 152 196 209CARBONISATION, 30 210CARBOXY GROUP, 145 203CARBOXY-TERMINATED, 141

203 273 279CARBOXYBENZIMIDAZOLE,

173CARBOXYDODECYL

AMMONIUM, 9CARBOXYL GROUP, 145 203CARBOXYL-TERMINATED, 141

203 266 271CARBOXYPHENYLMALEIMIDE

COPOLYMER, 275CASTING, 8 70 115CATALYST, 203CATALYTIC ACTIVITY, 45CATHETER, 22 37CATION, 192CATION EXCHANGE, 227CAVITATION, 264CELLULAR MATERIAL, 69 100

106 146 185 210 240 277CELLULOSE, 148 160CELLULOSE FIBRE, 160CERAMER, 58

CERAMIC, 22 45 62 201CHAIN ENTANGLEMENT, 77CHAIN EXTENSION, 235CHAIN LENGTH, 81 95CHAIN MOBILITY, 95CHAIN STRIPPING, 9 63CHAR, 3 18 40 50 53 62 85 88 91

92 99 101 121 126 137 148 160 161 171 175 179 180 182 236

CHAR FORMATION, 1 4 17 38 60 68 92 95 105 106 109 110 112 118 128 163 170 174 184 188 194 196 198 210 227 236

CHAR YIELD, 1 4 58 120 199CHARACTERISATION, 1 4 8 14

16 17 24 29 38 41 43 48 53 57 58 61 63 75 76 77 85 89 98 103 113 122 126 130 138 146 159 182 187 189 199 203 224 227 251 262 287

CHARPY, 276CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, 149CHEMICAL MODIFICATION, 4

13 24 27 30 44 79 84 91 94 103 124 128 162 163 174 175 185 189 228 247 301

CHEMICAL PLANT, 246CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 129

179CHEMICAL RESISTANCE, 22

129 179 255 287CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, 4 17

21 22 45 57 58 60 62 77 83 99 110 124 126 128 133 144 146 152 202 203 206 207 221 227 240 245 302

CHEMICAL TREATMENT, 219 246

CHEMORHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, 154

CHLORINE, 27 128 185CHROMATOGRAPHY, 161 170

220CHROMIUM OXIDE, 234CIVIL ENGINEERING, 232CLARITY, 62 100CLASSIFICATION, 22CLAY, 1 7 15 19 20 21 22 28 29 30

34 35 37 41 49 50 51 52 53 54 56 61 62 65 67 73 75 82 85 92 98 99 100 102 104 113 120 123 127 128 130 133 136 144 147 149 156 159 165 172 175 176 181 182 185 187 191 193 194 207 212 214 219 224 227 236 244 246 247

CO-ROTATING EXTRUDER, 34COAL, 101



Subject Index


COATED FABRIC, 172COATED FIBRE, 275 285COATED FILLER, 207 276COATING, 15 42 45 60 62 71 82

186 259 292 295 296COBALT OXIDE, 234COEXTRUSION, 62COEXTRUSION BLOW

MOULDING, 191COKING, 200COLD RESISTANCE, 173COLOUR, 22 185COLOUR CONCENTRATE, 111COLOUR DEVELOPING, 42COLOUR STABILITY, 185COMBUSTIBILITY, 1 45 76 189COMBUSTION, 7 36 44 63 76 94

97 108 121 126 140 158 161 163 171 182 185 189 255

COMBUSTION PRODUCT, 185 235

COMMERCIAL INFORMATION, 100 102 111 149 176 196

COMPATIBILISATION, 62 120 201

COMPATIBILISER, 6 29 34 35 61 77 90 120 196

COMPATIBILITY, 35 42 201 219COMPOSITION, 1 54 80 81 91 93

94 95 96 112 122 130 152 159 178 187 206 222 224 228 245 254

COMPOUNDING, 42 46 79 93 111 132 175 201

COMPRESSION MODULUS, 276 286

COMPRESSION MOLDING, 7 28COMPRESSION MOULDING, 7

28COMPRESSION PROPERTIES,

70 177 208 239 268 281 297COMPRESSION STRENGTH, 268COMPRESSION STRESS, 268COMPUTER SIMULATION, 215CONCENTRATION

DEPENDENCE, 54CONCRETE, 232CONDENSATION POLYMER,

146CONDENSED PHASE, 108 215CONDUCTIVE FILLER, 214CONDUCTIVE POLYMER, 111

162 214CONE CALORIMETER, 6 9 12

13 17 18 29 38 40 44 45 49 52 53 63 65 67 68 71 72 73 76 85 88 89 90 92 94 98 103 104 109 110 113 118 119 122 138 140

147 148 150 156 157 158 160 163 169 170 172 182 184 188 189 192 193 198 199 200 211 235 236

CONTACT ANGLE, 114CONTACT FORCE, 177CONTINUOUS FIBRE, 280 289COOLING RATE, 55COPPER OXIDE, 234CORE-SHELL, 145 278CORROSION RESISTANCE, 32COTTON, 172COUPLING AGENT, 57 60 73 84

97 162 171 178 223 247 276 298 300

CRACK DENSITY, 145 169CRACK GROWTH, 226CRACK INITIATION, 226CRACK LENGTH, 226 248 275CRACK PROPAGATION, 197 218

226 253 276CRACK RESISTANCE, 226CRACK TIP, 253CRACKING, 86 145 204 221 262CRAZE RESISTANCE, 35CRAZING, 35CREEP, 300CRITICAL STRESS INTENSITY

FACTOR, 271CROSS-BREAKING STRENGTH,

107CROSS-PLY, 267CROSSLINK DENSITY, 5 75 143CROSSLINKED COPOLYMER,

11CROSSLINKED POLYMER, 5CROSSLINKING, 5 27 37 122 130

175 212 216 235 284 302CROSSLINKING PHENOMENA,

5CRYSTAL STRUCTURE, 20CRYSTALLINITY, 20 22 35 54

238CRYSTALLISATION, 20 28 54

55 80CRYSTALLISATION RATE, 20CRYSTALLIZABILITY, 20CURE RATE, 154 159CURE TEMPERATURE, 8 142 203CURE TIME, 235 266CURING, 4 8 26 27 39 78 83 107

115 130 154 155 159 167 168 180 203 220 235 241 266 301 302

CURING AGENT, 8 18 39 75 81 94 107 112 130 142 154 168 180 203 220 230 234 235 243 245 254 272 276 287

CURING RATE, 154 159CURING REACTION, 256CURING TEMPERATURE, 107

159CYANATE, 8CYANATE ESTER RESIN, 47CYCLE TIME, 62 186 277CYCLIC LOADING, 197 205 253

DDAMPING, 16 81DEBONDING, 35 285DECABROMODIPHENYL

ETHER, 49DECABROMODIPHENYL

OXIDE, 110 175 189DECOMPOSITION, 1 3 4 30 38

45 54 68 128 130 175 180 198 201 235

DECOMPOSITION PRODUCT, 1 36

DECOMPOSITION RATE, 1DECOMPOSITION

TEMPERATURE, 1 54 77 185DEFORMATION, 20 268 272 273

276 286 298 299DEFORMATION

TEMPERATURE, 55 102 130 146

DEGRADATION, 4 11 15 18 54 62 84 87 101 110 122 146 160 164 169 175 188 221

DEGRADATION PRODUCT, 1 18 96

DEGRADATION RATE, 1DEGRADATION RESISTANCE, 4

11 54 194DEGRADATION

TEMPERATURE, 1 4 11 26 54 67 92 110 122

DEGREE OF CONVERSION, 107DEGREE OF CROSSLINKING, 5DEGREE OF DISPERSION, 11 20

34 47 51 53 54 59 126 156DEGREE OF POLYMERISATION,

107DEGREE OF SWELLING, 75DEHYDRATION, 185DELAMINATION, 30 42 66 77

118 153 237 239 258 259 263 290 291

DELAMINATION RESISTANCE, 18

DENDRIMER, 202DENTAL APPLICATION, 22DERIVATIVE

THERMOGRAVIMETRY, 3

Subject Index


DESIGN, 22 255DGEBA, 31DIAMINE, 286DIAMINE COMPOUND, 112DIAMINODIPHENYL

METHANE, 8 155DIAMINODIPHENYL SULFONE,

107 282DIAMINODIPHENYLMETHANE,

8 155DIBROMOCYCLOHEXANE, 173DIBROMOSTYRENE, 103DIBROMOSTYRENE

COPOLYMER, 119DICARBOXYLIC ACID, 27 173DICYANDIAMIDE, 272 276DIELECTRIC CONSTANT, 4 287DIELECTRIC LOSS, 287DIELECTRIC LOSS FACTOR, 4DIELECTRIC LOSS TANGENT,

4 27DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES, 4 27

129 287DIETHYL TOLUENE DIAMINE,

168DIETHYLENE TRIAMINE, 287DIETHYLHEXYL PHTHALATE,

62DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING

CALORIMETRY, 8 13 14 16 24 28 31 48 52 55 60 61 75 80 83 92 151 161 203 227 230 256 265 301

DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS, 8 13 14 15 16 24 28 31 48 52 55 60 61 75 80 83 92 151 161 203 227 230 235 256 265 301

DIFFERENTIAL THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 2 3

DIFFRACTION PATTERN, 41 80 98 122 130

DIFFUSION, 16 191 210DIGLYCIDYL ETHER, 272 287DIGLYCIDYL ETHER

BISPHENOL A, 31DIHYDROOXAPHOSPHAPHEN

ANTHRENE OXIDE, 155DIISODECYL PHTHALATE, 9DIMENSIONAL STABILITY, 42

62 100 201 224 244 277DIMETHYL

BENZYLOCTADECYL AMMONIUM, 175

DIMETHYL FORMAMIDE, 175DIMETHYL SILOXANE

POLYMER, 110 118 175

DIMETHYLDISTEARYLAMMONIUM, 9

DIMETHYLDISTEARYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE, 65

DIMETHYLSILOXANE COPOLYMER, 64

DIOXIN, 161 174DIPENTAERYTHRITOL, 60DIPHENYL ETHER, 161DIPHENYLMETHANE

DIISOCYANATE, 75DIRECT COMPOUNDING, 17 42DISCOLORATION, 9DISPERSED PHASE, 178DISPERSIBILITY, 17 76 89 90 149

246DISPERSING AGENT, 235DISPERSION, 11 12 20 22 28 34

42 43 47 51 53 54 55 59 62 64 75 77 78 79 80 85 91 94 95 96 97 100 102 126 130 143 152 156 158 170 175 191 196 241

DODECYL METHACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 229

DODECYLAMINE, 56DODECYLAMMONIUM, 9DOMESTIC APPLIANCE, 149DOMESTIC EQUIPMENT, 149DOOR PANEL, 196DOSE RATE, 42 196DOUBLE CANTILEVER BEAM

TEST, 226 262DRAPEABILITY, 222DRIP INHIBITOR, 194DROP-WEIGHT, 260 261DRUG DELIVERY, 22DRUG RELEASE, 22DUCTILE FAILURE, 275DUCTILE-BRITTLE

TRANSITION, 35DUCTILITY, 62 152 203 220 232DURABILITY, 87 197DYE, 22 62DYNAMIC MECHANICAL

ANALYSIS, 12 13 16 31 56 61 107 143 146 266 287 302

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 4 5 47 81 115 130 228 296

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL SPECTROSCOPY, 271 272

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL THERMAL ANALYSIS, 230

DYNAMIC PROPERTIES, 4 5 47 81 115 130 228

DYNAMIC TESTING, 26

EE-GLASS, 177E-MODULUS, 20 66 75 78 80 107

159 229ECONOMIC INFORMATION, 62

100 128 136 162 169 201 219ELASTIC DEFORMATION, 20ELASTIC MODULUS, 20 66 75 78

80 107 159 229 249 251 276ELASTIC PROPERTIES, 17 20 81

210 221 251 268ELASTICITY, 194 276ELASTOMER, 11 23 28 34 41 46

57 64 65 77 102 107 128 132 133 145 167 172 178 185 195 203 210 214 215 216 220 223 238 254 264 265 270

ELECTRIC CABLE, 88 109 191 194

ELECTRICAL APPLICATION, 50 62 73 88 105 121 137 149 179 185 192 195 210

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, 62 100 118

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT, 195ELECTRICAL INSULATION, 32

63 185ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, 27

32 63 175 185 287ELECTRICAL STRENGTH, 27ELECTROINITIATED

POLYMERISATION, 275 292ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELD,

100ELECTRON BEAM, 10 23 34 67

84 120 152 166 167 203 229 235

ELECTRON DIFFRACTION, 151ELECTRON MICROGRAPH, 94

95 96 122 130 152 189 203ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 39

40 41 51 60 62 78 79 85 86 87 89 90 94 95 96 97 98 103 113 114 117 122 134 138 141 142 145 156 237

ELECTRON SCANNING MICROSCOPY, 39 40 41 60 78 79 86 87 89 90 94 95 96 97 98 103 113 114 117 122 134 138 141 142 145 156 237

ELECTRONIC APPLICATION, 102 111 129 185

ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT, 17ELECTROPOLYMERISATION,

275 292ELECTROSPINNING, 146ELECTROSTATIC DISSIPATION,

100



Subject Index


ELECTROSTATIC SPRAYING, 214

ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS, 155ELONGATION, 28 37 183 246ELONGATION AT BREAK, 10 23

34 67 84 120 152 166 203 229 235

EMBRITTLEMENT, 34EMI SHIELDING, 100EMULSION POLYMERISATION,

213ENCAPSULATION, 10 22 234 245ENERGY ABSORPTION, 237 258

261 273 280 299ENERGY BALANCE, 153 264ENERGY DISSIPATION, 258ENERGY RELEASE RATE, 1 7 9

12 17 18 19 30 36 38 43 45 49 50 51 53 63 65 67 68 69 73 76 88 89 90 92 94 104 120 140 156 157 158 189 236 246 247 275

ENGINEERING APPLICATION, 8 100 111 162 185 195 201 280 301

ENGINEERING PLASTIC, 17 37 76 100 111 128 162 185 201 246 280

ENGINEERING THERMOPLASTIC, 17 37 76 100 128 246 301

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, 163 174

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION, 21 62 128

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, 30 128 162 200

ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 41

EPICHLOROHYDRIN, 39EPM, 35 54EPOXIDE POLYMER, 1 4 5 8 13

16 17 18 19 24 26 27 31 32 33 35 37 39 49 52 62 66 68 70 74 76 78 81 83 84 86 87 94 107 112 114 115 130 131 141 142 143 241

EPOXIDISED SOYBEAN OIL, 230

EPOXY CYANATE RESIN, 221ETHENE, 210ETHENE COPOLYMER, 34 44 73

151ETHERSULFONE COPOLYMER,

274ETHYLENE, 210ETHYLENE COPOLYMER, 34 44

73 151

ETHYLENE OXIDE POLYMER, 227 284

ETHYLENE POLYMER, 6 21 37 44 48 62 73 100 105 106 111 123 139 191 297

ETHYLENE-OCTENE COPOLYMER, 34

ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE COPOLYMER, 35 54

ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATE COPOLYMER, 7 9 11 38 40 43 49 50 54 61 62 63 73 82 88 91 97 99 100 105 109 110 121 123 126 134 137 139 156 157 169 175 184 185 188 191 192 194 217 231

ETHYLENE-VINYL ALCOHOL COPOLYMER, 21 100 102

ETHYLHEXYL ACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 203

ETHYLHEXYL ACRYLATE POLYMER, 203

EVAPORATION, 171EVOLVED GAS ANALYSIS, 18EXFOLIATION, 6 12 17 20 21 22

33 35 38 42 44 54 62 63 67 76 77 89 91 94 102 118 133 152 159 191 207 214 224 247

EXPLOSION RESISTANCE, 71EXTENDED X-RAY

ABSORPTION FINE STRUCTURE SPECTROSCOPY, 12

EXTRUDER, 6 7 34 62 95 100 152 190 201

EXTRUSION, 21 34 54 62 95 111 122 149 175 185 190 194 201 207 219 231

EXTRUSION COMPOUNDING, 54 201

EXTRUSION MIXING, 54 190 207EXTRUSION RATE, 194

FFABRIC, 172 193 196 225FABRIC REINFORCED, 84 251FAILURE, 35 237 249 257 258 267

268 275 280 289 291 298FAILURE ANALYSIS, 197FAILURE MECHANISM, 35 280FATIGUE, 22 86 205 253FATIGUE RESISTANCE, 255FATTY AMINE, 156FEEDSTOCK, 75FIBRE, 25 30 62 100 111 160 162

214 226 228 233 248 258 294FIBRE ALIGNMENT, 268

FIBRE BUNDLE, 249FIBRE CONTENT, 125 235 248

251 275 277FIBRE DISTRIBUTION, 257FIBRE GLASS, 62 69 74 233FIBRE KINKING, 268FIBRE ORIENTATION, 84 248

268 275 280FIBRE TREATMENT, 74FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC,

1 18 32 84 87 114 115 131 142 145 153 162 181 205 208 218 226 228 231 232 233 239 248 250 255 294

FILLER CONTENT, 5 20 26 35 38 42 53 54 55 56 63 75 77 80 84 110 185 191 194 198 201 219 235 246

FILLER DISTRIBUTION, 5 11 20 75

FILLING, 136FILMS, 21 100 102 111 149 201

219 223 266FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS,

153 249 268FINITE ELEMENT ITERATIVE

METHOD, 153 249FIRE, 175 195 210FIRE HAZARDS, 46 132 175 195FIRE PROTECTION, 15 60FIRE RESISTANCE, 1 11 54 62 67

69 98 112 195FIRE RETARDANT, 1 11 59 67 68

106 122 189 199 200 216FLAME INSULATION, 236FLAME PROPAGATION, 185FLAME RESISTANCE, 1 11 29 30

41 45 54 59 63 67 112 129 135 158 164 169 184 187 188 193 199 217 224 247

FLAME SPREAD, 3 19 52 241FLAME SPREAD INDEX, 63FLASHOVER, 9 63FLAX, 100FLEXIBILITY, 16 22 62FLEXURAL MODULUS, 20 21 37

42 67 75 166 183 207 218 235 252 282

FLEXURAL STRENGTH, 8 47 57 166 218 225 235 252 279 287

FLOOR COVERING, 185FLOORING, 136 210FLOW CHART, 251FLOW DIAGRAM, 80FLOWABILITY, 67FLUORESCENCE, 62FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY,

86

Subject Index


FLUORESCENCE SPECTRA, 74FLUOROMICA, 77FLUOROPOLYMER, 62 63 111

175 207FOAM, 69 100 106 146 185 210

240 269 277FOAMING AGENT, 100FOOD PACKAGING, 22 62 219FORMULATION, 27 71 93 105

149 210 213FOURIER TRANSFORM

INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY, 3 8 14 18 24 31 48 58 75 114 117 126 138 147 151 155 217 227 296 301

FRACTOGRAPHY, 86 270FRACTURE, 5 20 124 144 153 205

226 257 258 262 263 265 266 268 270 272 273 276 282 283 285 286 289 298 299 301 302

FRACTURE ENERGY, 271 272 276 298

FRACTURE MECHANICS, 276FRACTURE MORPHOLOGY, 5 9

11 14 17 20 29 31 34 40 41 44 47 51 52 54 55 59 64 67 75 76 77 78 79 80 85 89 91 94 95 96 102 117 119 121 122 124 126 130 138 142 151 154 163 168 182 192 239

FRACTURE PROCESS ANALYSIS, 20

FRACTURE RESISTANCE, 226FRACTURE SURFACE, 5 39 40

78 141 145 249 258 271 273 276

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS, 5 8 13 20 86 145 226 248 259 262 273 282 285 289

FRAGMENTATION, 205FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES, 257FRIEDEL-CRAFTS REACTION,

212FUEL TANK, 21 191FULLERENE, 214 247FUNCTIONAL GROUP, 53 145

203FUNCTIONALISATION, 47 154

159 168FUNCTIONALITY, 159 203 220

254FURNITURE, 46 132 185

GGAS BARRIER, 26 246GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY, 161GAS EMISSION, 235

GAS PERMEABILITY, 133 207GAS PHASE THERMOLYSIS, 12GAS-PHASE, 108 185 210 215 235GASES, 108 235GASIFICATION, 96 217 227GEARS, 111GEL CHROMATOGRAPHY, 170

220GEL PERMEATION

CHROMATOGRAPHY, 170 220 301

GEL TIME, 154 168 235GELATION, 26GELLING, 26 274GELLING AGENT, 142GELS, 215GLASS, 149GLASS BEAD, 271 272 273 276

286 298 300GLASS CONTENT, 235 277GLASS FABRIC, 249GLASS FIBRE, 62 69 74 233GLASS FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTICS, 62 66 70 74 86 87 100 114 115 125 129 131 141 142 148 160 178 185 186 207 225 232 233 235 237 243 249 250 252 262 277 280 287 303

GLASS MAT, 235 277GLASS ROVING, 125GLASS SPHERE, 253GLASS TRANSITION

TEMPERATURE, 4 5 8 12 16 31 52 56 66 67 75 81 107 115 130 155 193 203 211 228 229 235 261 265 274 278 282 284 293

GLYCIDOXY ALKYL ALKOXYSILANE, 57 155

GLYCIDOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE, 57 155

GOLD OXIDE, 234GRAFT COPOLYMER, 6 20 34

122 151 189GRAFT POLYMERISATION, 151GRANULATION, 269GRAPHITE, 128 226GRAPHITE FIBRE, 275 291GRAPHITE FIBRE-

REINFORCED PLASTIC, 226 242 252 257 258 259 260 261 275 290 292 297 303

GRAPHITE OXIDE, 140GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 2 3 8

9 13 15 16 18 24 26 28 29 31 34 38 40 41 44 45 48 50 51 52 53 56 58 63 64 65 68 75 77 79 85 88 92 94 95 96 97 103 109 110

113 117 119 122 134 135 138 143 147 156 164 184 187 221

GROWTH RATE, 128 162

HHACKLEMARK, 258HALIDE, 27HALLOYSITE, 59HALOGEN, 30 110 128 175 185

195HALOGEN COMPOUND, 25 49

106 161 241HALOGEN-FREE, 18 26 62 73 89

110 116 129 179 185 194 198 235 240

HARDENER, 39 180 203 234 243 245

HARDNESS, 23 80 287HAZE, 64 246HEALTH HAZARDS, 46 69 128

132 134 161 163 175 179 185 196 216 235

HEAT ABSORPTION, 128 235HEAT AGEING, 277HEAT CURING, 295HEAT DEFLECTION

TEMPERATURE, 21 219 244 246

HEAT DEGRADATION, 1 4 18 44 54 55 59 64 66 67 77 92 117 121 122 151 156 160 161 164 170 184 193 198 211 216 217 221 252

HEAT DISTORTION, 55 102 130 146 196

HEAT DISTORTION TEMPERATURE, 55 102 130 146 196 227

HEAT FLOW, 30 227HEAT FLUX, 18 148 198HEAT INSULATION, 32 185 198

236HEAT OF COMBUSTION, 236HEAT RELEASE, 1 67 109 110

137 148 156 169 174 184 188 193 215 216 227

HEAT RELEASE RATE, 1 7 9 12 17 18 19 30 36 38 43 45 49 50 51 53 63 65 67 68 69 73 76 88 89 90 92 94 104 120 140 156 157 158 189 236 246 247

HEAT STABILITY, 1 3 4 44 59 121 137 162 171 180 187 192 224

HEAT TRANSFER, 215 216HEAT-RESISTANT, 1HELIUM, 175HEMP, 100



Subject Index


HERBICIDE, 62HEXADECYLTRIMETHYLAMM

ONIUM BROMIDE, 90 150HIGH DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE, 6 21 191HIGH IMPACT PS, 36 72HIGH-RESOLUTION ELECTRON

MICROSCOPY, 90HINDERED AMINE, 128HOLLOW FIBRE, 214HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE, 222HOSE, 21HOT WATER RESISTANCE, 222HPLC, 301HYBRID COMPOSITE, 57 58 77

155 186 297 298 303HYBRID POLYMER, 35 236HYDROBROMIC ACID, 185HYDROCHLORIC ACID, 185HYDROGEN BROMIDE, 185HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, 185HYDROLYSIS, 210HYDROLYTIC STABILITY, 196HYDROPHILICITY, 22 244HYDROPHOBICITY, 22 30 62 133HYDROTALCITE, 22 40 79 117HYDROXY GROUP, 27HYDROXYACETANILIDE, 287HYDROXYL GROUP, 27

IIGNITION, 19 30 52 72 175 235IGNITION TIME, 63 156IMIDE POLYMER, 4IMIDISATION, 4 24IMPACT ENERGY, 177 261IMPACT MODIFIER, 20 145 202

253 275 282 289 291 295IMPACT RESISTANCE, 20 21 35

42 107 177 197 204 214 222 224 228 238 242 254 255 258 259 279 280 288 290 292 299 303

IMPACT STRENGTH, 10 20 22 34 47 55 56 57 67 75 77 100 107 130 143 152 166 168 201 219 220 224 228 229 230 235 264 275 276 277 287 297

IMPACT VELOCITY, 177IN SITU POLYMERISATION, 4

92 94 110 118 182 296IN-MOULD DECORATING, 100IN-PLACE CURING, 155IN-SITU HYBRID COMPOSITE,

155INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION,

222

INFRARED SPECTRA, 8 14 18 24 31 48 58 62 75 114 117 138 234 301

INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY, 8 14 18 24 31 48 58 62 75 114 117 126 138 147 151 155 217 296 301

INJECTION MOULD, 277INJECTION MOULDING, 21 62

64 111 122 149 170 201 207INJECTION MOULDING

MACHINE, 62INJECTION-COMPRESSION

MOULD, 277INORGANIC FILLER, 26 229INSTRUMENT PANEL, 191INSULATION, 32 50 120 185 196

198 236INTERACTIONS, 3 7 39 60 77 102

146 253 299INTERCALATION, 12 16 17 22

29 30 34 36 44 48 54 63 76 77 80 89 90 91 94 102 110 118 130 133 140 146 151 152 159 161 163 171 182 191 224 227 229 246 247

INTERFACIAL ADHESION, 35 84 125 131 231 274 292 293 296

INTERFACIAL DEBONDING, 35INTERFACIAL ENERGY, 61 278INTERFACIAL INTERACTION,

39 77 102 146INTERFACIAL PHENOMENA, 74INTERFACIAL PROPERTIES, 39

74 77 84 86 91 97 102 146 202 253 280

INTERFACIAL SHEAR STRESS, 205

INTERLAMINAR PROPERTIES, 18 115 125 141 145 153 221 248 259 262 275 292

INTERLAMINAR SHEAR STRENGTH, 115 125 141 145 221 275

INTERLAYERS, 30 276 281 292INTERLAYER SPACING, 229INTERNAL LUBRICANT, 111INTERNAL STRESS, 107INTRAMOLECULAR MOTION,

272INTUMESCENCE, 49 51 60 63 90

101 106 128 148 150 160 161 163 165 174 175 185 210 216

INTUMESCENT COATING, 15ION EXCHANGE, 30 133 152 227IONIC CONDUCTIVITY, 118IR REFLOW SOLDERING, 245

IRON OXIDE, 234IRRADIATION, 122ISOCYANURATE POLYMER, 75ISOPHTHALIC POLYESTER

RESIN, 56ISOTHERMAL CURING, 26IZOD, 229 275

KKEVLAR, 248KINETICS, 18 28 55 155 167KINK BAND, 268KINKING, 268KNEADER, 207KNITTED FABRIC, 193 225 251KNITTED REINFORCEMENT,

251

LLACTONE POLYMER, 238LAMELLAR, 102LAMINATED PLATE THEORY,

251LAMINATES, 1 8 141 225 226 235

239 258 259 267 280LAMINATION, 226LANGEVIN EQUATION, 86 134

143 164 197LAP SHEAR STRENGTH, 114LASER RAMAN MICROSCOPY,

205LATEX, 278LAUROLACTAM POLYMER, 224LAUROYL PEROXIDE, 278LAYER REARRANGEMENT, 207LAYERED DOUBLE

HYDROXIDE, 48LAYERED STRUCTURE, 9 17 30

38 63 76 77 91 92 110 118 130 133 146 157 189 198 224 227

LEAD SUBSTITUTE, 162LEGISLATION, 21 62 128 185 196LIFETIME PREDICTION, 221LIGHT AGEING, 122LIGHT DEGRADATION, 22 122LIGHT STABILISER, 162LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE, 102LIMITING OXYGEN INDEX, 2 4

6 10 18 19 40 41 43 52 57 60 68 73 79 101 104 122 126 128 155 160 164 171 180 235 294

LINEAR LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE, 48 62

LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY, 301

LIQUID POLYMER, 244

Subject Index


LIQUID RESIN, 76LIQUID RUBBER, 107 178 203

208 220 230 266 286 295LOAD BEARING, 32 66LOAD DEFLECTION, 275LOADING, 62 93 94 96 100 122

130 152 205 262 267 268 280LOSS FACTOR, 5 56 81LOSS MODULUS, 5 224LOSS TANGENT, 5 56 81 224 287LOW DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE, 100 105 123

LOW SMOKE, 73LOW TEMPERATURE

PROPERTIES, 201 285LUBRICANT, 22 111 162

MMACHINERY, 34 62 95 100 201

277MACROCOMPOSITE, 247MAGNESIA, 185MAGNESIUM, 151MAGNESIUM ALUMINIUM

HYDROXIDE, 48MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE, 7

11 26 40 41 49 62 80 89 93 110 120 126 128 175 185

MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE SULFATE HYDRATE, 44

MAGNESIUM OXIDE, 185MAGNESIUM SILICATE, 22 63

123MALEATION, 44MALEIC ACID, 90MALEIC ANHYDRIDE

COPOLYMER, 6 20 34 44 51 73 122 151 189

MALEIMIDE COPOLYMER, 275MALEIMIDOPHENYL GROUP,

24MANGANESE OXIDE, 234MANUFACTURING, 100 179 204

222MAR RESISTANCE, 191MARKET GROWTH, 100 136MARKET SHARE, 100MARKET TREND, 128MASS FRACTION, 96MASS POLYMERISATION, 103

147 187 220MASS SPECTROMETRY, 12 161

227MASS TRANSPORT, 77 198 236MASTERBATCH, 9 42 62 63 123

201

MATERIAL REPLACEMENT, 35 62 71 100 110 128 148 149 160 162 175 194 210

MATERIALS SUBSTITUTION, 35 62 71 100 110 128 148 149 160 162 175 194 210

MATRIX, 16 22 39 62 70 94 123 130 141 152 167 175 201 203 210 221 258 259 262 268 276 278 292 294 296

MATTRESS, 196MECHANICAL STRENGTH, 246MEDICAL APPLICATION, 22 37

149 167MEDICAL EQUIPMENT, 22 37

149MELAMINE, 15 60 116 128 195MELAMINE COPOLYMER, 101MELAMINE PHOSPHATE, 53MELAMINE POLYPHOSPHATE,

71 140MELT BLEND, 20 38 55 76 80 88

89 138 157 193 211MELT COMPOUNDING, 20 42 59

77 102MELT EXTRUSION, 80 244MELT FLOW, 67MELT FLOW INDEX, 42 185MELT FLOW RATE, 42MELT INDEX, 42 185MELT MIXING, 20 152MELT POLYMERISATION, 227MELT PROCESSING, 20 45 59 76

152 219MELT PROPERTIES, 224MELT RHEOLOGY, 67 146 224MELT SPINNING, 193MELT STRENGTH, 21MELT TEMPERATURE, 128MELT VISCOSITY, 19 67 127MELT VISCOSITY INDEX, 42

185MELTING POINT, 54 163MELTING TEMPERATURE, 54 80MELTS, 3 34 36 44 48 62 79 103

133 166 182MERCAPTO GROUP, 228 231MERCURY OXIDE, 234METAL, 62 100METAL FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 289METAL HYDRATE, 25 128METAL HYDROXIDE, 71 137 185

200 234 245METAL OXIDE, 25 30 234 245METAL REPLACEMENT, 32 255METHACRYLAMIDE

POLYMER, 69

METHACRYLATE POLYMER, 227

METHACRYLIC ESTER POLYMER, 227

METHANOL, 75METHYL ACRYLATE

COPOLYMER, 292METHYL ALCOHOL, 75METHYL DODECYL

AMMONIUM, 9METHYL METHACRYLATE, 235METHYL METHACRYLATE

COPOLYMER, 60 229METHYL METHACRYLATE

POLYMER, 19 35 61 95 96 100 104 110 118 278

METHYL TETRAHYDROPHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE, 94

METHYLBENZENE, 175METHYLENE CHLORIDE, 278METHYLMETHACRYLATE, 235METHYLMETHACRYLATE

COPOLYMER, 60 229MICA, 77 171 201MICROCOMPOSITE, 118MICROCRACK, 145MICROFIBRE, 262MICROGRAPHY, 13 41 61 85 98

258MICROMECHANICAL

PROPERTIES, 205MICROMOULDING, 167MICROPARTICLES, 33MICROSCOPY, 13 14 41 51 61 62

85 86 87 90 98 114 138 205 260 285

MICROSPHERE, 70MICROSTRUCTURE, 6 17 36 130

289MIGRATION, 22 62 91 135 196

201 210MILITARY APPLICATION, 204MILLING, 62 140 241MINERAL FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 142MINERAL FILLER, 185 187 214MISCIBILITY, 22 35 256 282 284MIXING, 3 20 28 54 137 152 166

190 207 294MODEL COMPOUND, 293 300MODIFIER, 17 76 77 107 117 162

173 219 253 295MODULUS, 12 23 35 42 115 146

152 268 273 292MOISTURE, 303MOISTURE ABSORPTION, 66MOISTURE RESISTANCE, 252



Subject Index


255 260 261MOISTURE VAPOUR

TRANSMISSION, 21MOLECULAR BONDING, 246MOLECULAR DYNAMICS, 95MOLECULAR INTERACTION,

296MOLECULAR MASS, 35 60 77

152 170 220MOLECULAR MOBILITY, 35MOLECULAR MOTION, 272MOLECULAR STRUCTURE, 4 17

21 22 45 57 58 60 62 77 83 99 110 124 126 128 133 144 146 152 202 203 206 207 221 227 240 245 265 294 301 302

MOLECULAR WEIGHT, 35 60 77 152 170 220 274 282 284 292 301

MOLYBDATE, 128MOLYBDENUM OXIDE, 234MONOLAYER, 285MONOMETHYL

METHACRYLATE, 235MONTMORILLONITE, 2 6 9 16

17 20 22 30 36 38 41 42 43 44 49 51 52 54 55 56 62 65 73 75 76 82 83 85 89 90 91 92 94 100 101 103 104 109 120 121 122 135 150 156 158 159 166 172 184 188 192 193 207 211 224 227 244 246

MOULD, 277 294MOULD CYCLE, 277MOULDABILITY, 235MOULDING, 7 21 28 62 64 111

122 167 186 218 225 235 294MOULDING COMPOUND, 214MULTILAYER, 22 100 175 191MULTIWALL, 47 50 63 105 138

157

NNANOCLAY, 1 15 20 53 54 67 73

92 99 102 149 156 181 191 194NANODISPERSION, 1NANOFIBRE, 62 63 71NANOFILLER, 1 3 4 10 11 16 17

20 26 35 38 40 42 44 45 47 54 59 63 67 71 77 82 88 99 102 109 110 121 123 137 146 176 183 185 191 192 194 196 198 199 201 207 209 214 219

NANOLAYER, 91NANOPARTICLE, 1 4 7 11 14 21

30 33 37 43 47 54 59 60 67 69 75 80 82 126 128 136 183 199

207 209 214 229NANOPHASE, 1 4 11 20 47 54 67

199 209NANOPIGMENT, 22NANOPOWDER, 59NANOREINFORCEMENT, 16 201NANOSTRUCTURE, 31 63 79 190

247NANOTECHNOLOGY, 37 62 128NANOTUBE, 22 39 43 47 59 62 63

78 96 100 105 131 136 138 143 146 157 169 214

NATURAL FIBRE, 100NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 6 84NATURAL POLYMER, 230NETWORK, 5 130 203 220 221

230 274NETWORK DENSITY, 5NETWORK STRUCTURE, 58 221NICKEL OXIDE, 234NIOBIUM OXIDE, 234NITRILE RUBBER, 266 271 272

273 298NITRILE-DIENE-ACRYLAMIDE

TERPOLYMER, 295NITROGEN, 30 96 163 185 221NITROGEN COMPOUND, 27NOTCH, 275 283NOVOLAC, 180 206NOVOLAC POLYMER, 57NOVOLAC RESIN, 57NUCLEAR MAGNETIC

RESONANCE, 7 24 43 57 58 155 227 301

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTRA, 7 24 43 57 58

NUCLEATING AGENT, 162NUCLEATION, 80NUMBER AVERAGE

MOLECULAR WEIGHT, 284NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, 153NYLON, 19 22 49 89 91 100 111

116 128 136 158 162 166 175 185 191 195 201 207 214 216 219 223 244 248

NYLON-12, 183 207 224 227NYLON-6, 19 21 28 30 45 49 62

67 89 102 110 111 118 127 146 158 163 183 191 193 198 201 207 210 214 217 219 227 236 244 246 248

NYLON-6,6, 20 102 198 201 207 215 246

OOCTADECYL GROUP, 152OCTENE COPOLYMER, 34OFFSHORE APPLICATION, 32OLEFIN POLYMER, 19 22 34 42

49 51 62 73 100 102 136 146 165 166 176 179 191 195 201 210 246

OLIGOMER, 103 107 240OLIGOMERIC, 22 45OLIGOURETHANE, 235ONIUM ION, 133OPTICAL MICROGRAPH, 96OPTICAL MICROSCOPY, 14 86

138OPTICAL PROPERTIES, 62 118

183 185 201 219 244ORGANIC-INORGANIC

COMPOSITE, 4 7 11 45 155 227 236

ORGANOCLAY, 6 9 12 20 35 42 50 54 61 63 65 75 77 85 89 92 94 105 110 118 119 120 122 130 139 152 156 157 175 189

ORGANOCLAY COMPOUND, 152 187 224

ORGANOPHILIC, 42 91 146 219ORGANOPHOSPHORUS, 163ORGANOPOLYSILOXANE, 57

110 118ORGANOSILICON POLYMER,

41 57 110 118 215 227ORGANOSILICONE POLYMER,

41 57 110 118 215 227ORGANOSILOXANE POLYMER,

41 57 110 118 215 227OSMIUM OXIDE, 234OSMOMETRY, 203 220OXIDATION, 18 101 110 122OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION, 18

101 110 122OXIDATIVE STABILITY, 75OXIDISATION, 18 101 110 122OXIRANE POLYMER, 227OXYGEN, 21 22 62 179 210OXYGEN BARRIER, 244OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, 189OXYGEN INDEX, 2 4 6 10 18 19

40 41 43 52 57 60 64 68 73 79 101 104 122 126 128 155 160 163 164 171 180 235 294

OXYGEN PERMEABILITY, 111OXYGEN SCAVENGER, 100 191OXYGEN TRANSMISSION

RATE, 21 191 219OZONE, 179

Subject Index


PPACKAGING, 21 22 35 100 102

111 167 191 201 207 244 246PACKAGING FILM, 111 201PAINTING, 62 214PAINTS, 240 244PALLADIUM OXIDE, 234PARTICLES, 33 91 152 241 254PARTICLE DENSITY, 75PARTICLE DISTRIBUTION, 75

77 95PARTICLE SIZE, 4 22 42 62 64 67

73 75 77 80 91 93 100 107 185 201 204 235 241 246 264

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION, 235

PATENT, 22 37 62 100 191 194 204 246

PATTERN, 41 80 98 122PEEL STRENGTH, 222 296PENTAERYTHRITOL, 2 15 51

101 210PERFLUOROALKYL

COMPOUND, 247PERMEABILITY, 22 133 191 198

207 216 246PERMEATION, 21PERMITTIVITY, 27PEROXIDE, 235PESTICIDE, 62PETP, 30 37 55 79 100 102 166 191

201 219 244 246PETROLEUM, 62PHASE BEHAVIOUR, 14PHASE MORPHOLOGY, 203PHASE SEPARATION, 31 107 118

124 154 168 202 230 266 282 302

PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 148 160

PHENOLIC RESIN, 57 58 66 69 235 240 250

PHENYL GLYCIDYL ETHER, 287

PHENYLENE OXIDE POLYMER, 62 68 100

PHOSPHATE, 18 70 148 160 171 185

PHOSPHATE ESTER, 9PHOSPHINATE, 18 128PHOSPHINE OXIDE, 18 215PHOSPHINE OXIDE GROUP, 68PHOSPHONATE, 18 240PHOSPHONATION, 13PHOSPHONIUM COMPOUND,

52PHOSPHORIC ACID, 128

PHOSPHORUS, 10 30 41 49 89 128 147 164 185

PHOSPHORUS COMPOUND, 1 18 25 27 51 52 94 98 106 113 116 140 155 180 241

PHOSPHORUS COPOLYMER, 155

PHOSPHORUS GROUP, 155PHOSPHORUS POLYMER, 4 112PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING

POLYMER, 4 112PHOTOCHEMICAL

DEGRADATION, 122PHOTOCHEMICAL STABILITY,

122PHOTODECOMPOSITION, 122PHOTODEGRADATION, 122PHOTOELECTRON

SPECTROSCOPY, 18 60 135 165

PHOTOGRAPHY, 69PHOTOOXIDATION, 122PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 33 42

54 102 108 149 163 175 190PHYSICOMECHANICAL

PROPERTIES, 27PIGMENT, 22PIPE, 62 149PLANT CONSTRUCTION, 162

246PLANT EXPANSION, 111 162PLANT START-UP, 111PLASMA TREATMENT, 43PLASTICISER, 62 162PLASTICS INDUSTRY, 149PLATE, 258PLATELET, 21 42 62 77 152 191

207 219 246PLATINUM OXIDE, 234PMR, 24POLY-EPSILON-

CAPROLACTAM, 19 21 28 30 45 49 62 67 89 102 110 111 118 127 193

POLYACETAL, 102 201POLYACRYLAMIDE, 70POLYACRYLATE, 77 220POLYALKENE, 19 22 34 42 49 51

62 73 100 102 136 146 165 166 176 179 191 195 201 210 246

POLYAMIC ACID, 256POLYAMIDE, 19 22 49 89 91 100

111 116 128 136 158 162 166 175 185 191 195 201 207 214 216 219 223 244 248 281 293

POLYAMIDE-12, 183 207 224 227POLYAMIDE-6, 19 21 28 30 45 49

62 67 89 102 110 111 118 127

146 158 163 183 191 193 198 201 207 210 214 219 227 236 244 246 248

POLYAMIDE-6,6, 20 102 246POLYBISMALEIMIDE, 274POLYBUTADIENE, 178 209POLYBUTYLENE

TEREPHTHALATE, 10 29 37 45 185 246

POLYCAPROAMIDE, 19 21 28 30 45 49 62 67 89 102 110 111 118 127 193

POLYCAPROLACTAM, 19 21 28 30 45 49 62 67 89 102 110 111 118 127 193

POLYCARBONATE, 37 61 72 82 84 111 125 152 196 209

POLYDIMETHYL SILOXANE, 57 110 118 175

POLYESTER RESIN, 69 98 213POLYETHER, 266POLYETHER AMIDE, 43POLYETHER AMINE, 81POLYETHER SULFONE, 37 282

302POLYETHER URETHANE, 9POLYETHER-AMIDE, 43POLYETHER-ETHERKETONE,

37 62 259 280POLYETHER-URETHANE, 9POLYETHERAMINE, 81POLYETHERETHERKETONE,

37 62POLYETHERIMIDE, 227POLYETHERSULFONE, 37POLYETHYL HEXYL

ACRYLATE, 203 220POLYETHYLENE, 6 21 37 44 48

62 73 100 105 106 111 123 139 149 162 166 175 185 191 219 242 297

POLYETHYLENE ADIPATE, 141POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL

ADIPATE, 141POLYETHYLENE OXIDE, 227

284POLYETHYLENE

TEREPHTHALATE, 30 37 55 79 100 102 166 191 201 219 244 246

POLYETHYLHEXYL ACRYLATE, 203 220

POLYHEDRAL OLIGOMERIC SILSESQUIOXANE, 24 43 45 69 71 113 123 172

POLYHEXAMETHYLENE ADIPAMIDE, 293

POLYHYDROXYETHER, 266



Subject Index


POLYIMIDE, 4 256 296POLYISOCYANURATE, 75POLYLACTONE, 238POLYLAUROLACTAM, 224POLYLAURYLLACTAM, 224POLYMERIC COMPATIBILISER,

120POLYMERIC CURING AGENT,

81 256POLYMERIC FLAME

RETARDANT, 67 213 217 240POLYMERIC IMPACT

MODIFIER, 145 253 275 289 295

POLYMERIC MODIFIER, 17 76 77 107

POLYMERIC PRECURSOR, 256POLYMERIC PROPERTY

MODIFIER, 266 275 276POLYMERIC SHRINK

RESISTANCE AGENT, 277POLYMERIC TOUGHENING

AGENT, 34 125 238 256 274POLYMERISATION, 4 21 62 92

94 100 103 110 118 133 146 147 155 175 182 187 213 219 220 227 230 275

POLYMERISATION INITIATOR, 278

POLYMERISATION MECHANISM, 151 221

POLYMERISATION RATE, 278POLYMERISATION

TEMPERATURE, 278POLYMETHACRYLAMIDE, 69POLYMETHACRYLATE, 227POLYMETHYL

METHACRYLATE, 12 19 35 61 95 96 100 104 110 118 166 215 219 278

POLYOL, 75 210 235POLYOLEFIN, 19 22 34 42 49 51

62 73 100 102 136 146 165 166 176 179 191 195 201 210 246

POLYOLEFIN ELASTOMER, 120POLYORGANOSILOXANE, 41 57

110 118 215 227POLYOXYDIPHENYLENE

PYROMELLITIMIDE, 256POLYOXYETHYLENE, 227POLYOXYETHYLENE GROUP,

152POLYPHENYLENE ETHER, 62

68 100POLYPHENYLENE OXIDE, 62

68 100POLYPHENYLSILSESQUIOXA

NE, 31

POLYPHOSPHINE OXIDE, 274POLYPHOSPHONATE, 240POLYPROPENE, 3 14 19 22 25 30

34 35 37 42 45 49 51 59 62 72 90 91 93 100 102 106 120 135 138 149 150 162 166 175 185 189 190 191 207 210 214 219 227 228 231 244 246

POLYPROPYLENE, 3 14 19 22 25 30 34 35 37 42 45 49 51 59 62 72 90 91 93 100 102 106 120 135 138 149 150 162 166 175 185 189 190 191 207 210 214 219 227 228 231 244 246

POLYSILICONE, 41 57 110 118 215 227

POLYSILOXANE, 41 57 110 118 165 215 227

POLYSILSESQUIOXANE, 45POLYSTYRENE, 19 30 43 46 49

61 62 72 79 95 100 103 104 106 110 128 132 161 162 166 170 185 187 212 219 227 244 278

POLYSULFONE, 13 68 107 301POLYUREA, 71POLYURETHANE, 9 37 62 63 65

75 85 106 123 162 172 185 186 210 219 240 241 269 277

POLYURETHANE-ACRYLATE, 235

POLYURETHANE-METHACRYLATE, 235

POLYVINYL ALCOHOL, 163 285POLYVINYL CHLORIDE, 9 37

62 63 69 117 128 162 175 185 194 213

POLYVINYL ESTER, 62 70 113 167 294

POLYVINYL HALIDE, 9 69 117POLYVINYLBENZENE, 30 43 46

61 95 100 103 104 106 110 128 132 187 244

POLYVINYLIDENE FLUORIDE, 62

POROSITY, 222POST CURING, 221POWDER, 100 148 213POWDER COATING, 186PPE, 100PPO, 62 68 100PRE-TREATMENT, 17PRECISION, 62PREFORM, 225 277PREFORMING, 145PREHEATING, 191PREPARATION, 92 126 130PREPOLYMER, 131 286PREPOLYMERISATION, 230

PREPREG, 218 221 222 254 277 281

PRESSURE, 100PRETREATMENT, 17 293PRINTED CIRCUIT, 129PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, 246PRINTED WIRING BOARD, 129PROCESSABILITY, 22 73 110 198PROCESSING, 17 18 21 22 37 62

63 82 146 149 172 184 201 210 239 243 294

PROCESSING AID, 162 190PROCESSING CONDITIONS, 6

20 122PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT, 82

102 176 191 194 196 246PRODUCTION, 21 62PRODUCTION CAPACITY, 246PRODUCTION COST, 42 186PROPENE, 210PROPENE COPOLYMER, 6 34 51

122 189PROPENE POLYMER, 14 59 90

91 93 100 102 106 120 138 228PROPERTY MODIFIER, 275 276PROPYLENE, 210PROPYLENE COPOLYMER, 6 34

51 122 189PROPYLENE POLYMER, 14 59

90 91 93 100 102 106 120 138 228

PROPYLENE-ETHYLENE COPOLYMER, 35 54

PROTECTIVE COATING, 45PROTON MAGNETIC

RESONANCE, 24PROTOTYPE, 255PULTRUSION, 66 252PULVERISATION, 129PUNCTURE RESISTANCE, 100PURIFICATION, 78PYROLYSIS, 13 18 30 68 128 163

221PYROLYSIS MASS

SPECTROMETRY, 227

QQUALITY CONTROL, 62QUARTZ, 197QUATERNARY AMMONIUM

COMPOUND, 9 30QUATERNARY AMMONIUM

SALT, 42 119

RR-CURVE, 226

Subject Index


RADIANT PANEL TEST, 71RADIOGRAPHY, 268RAILWAY APPLICATION, 185

235RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY, 40 91

135RAW MATERIAL, 75REACTION CONDITIONS, 92 94

130 203REACTION INJECTION

MOULDING, 295REACTION MECHANISM, 80

189 203 221REACTION MOULD, 295REACTION PRODUCT, 213REACTION RATE, 159REACTIVE EXTRUSION, 7REACTIVE POLYMER, 274RECORDING MEDIA, 249RECYCLED CONTENT, 191RECYCLING, 61 129 162 167 213

269RED PHOSPHORUS, 10 41 89 185REFRACTIVE INDEX, 282REINFORCED CONCRETE, 232REINFORCED

THERMOPLASTIC, 162REINFORCED THERMOSET, 74

178 226REINFORCEMENT, 5 16 39 78

100 186 201 205 224 225 228 232 248 257 267 268 287 300

REINFORCING FILLER, 224RELAXATION TIME, 7 300RELEASE AGENT, 300RESIDUAL STRAIN, 268RESIDUAL STRENGTH, 280RESIDUAL STRESSES, 202RESIN, 76 100 167RESIN INJECTION, 186 235 277RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING,

186 218 235 277 295RESORCINOL, 171RESTORATION, 232REVIEW, 25 30 43 49 77 106 116

124 128 133 146 166 180 200 207 214 275 282

RHENIUM OXIDE, 234RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES,

17 19 30 67 73 76 77 91 115 135 154 167 170 185 201 216 224 235

RHEOLOGY, 17 19 67 73 76 77 91 115 135 154 185 201 224 235

RHEOMETER, 17 210RIGIDITY, 183RING OPENING

POLYMERISATION, 227

RISK ASSESSMENT, 46 128 132 196

RIVET BONDING, 186ROBOT, 100RUBBER, 11 23 28 34 41 46 57 64

65 77 102 107 128 132 133 145 167 172 178 185 195 203 210 214 215 216 220 223 238 254 264 265 270 271 272 273 276 279 286 295 298

RUTHENIUM OXIDE, 234

SSAFETY, 128 175 195 210 255SANDWICH STRUCTURE, 69

222 235SATURATED POLYESTER, 55

172SCANNING ELECTRON

MICROGRAPH, 39 40 41 60 78 79 86 87 89 90 94 95 96 97 98 103 113 114 117 122 134 138 141 142 145 156 237

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 2 6 12 13 15 16 17 24 28 29 31 35 38 39 40 41 43 44 48 51 52 55 56 60 61 64 73 77 78 79 86 87 89 90 94 95 96 97 98 103 113 114 117 122 124 125 126 127 130 134 138 140 141 142 144 145 150 155 156 170 181 187 203 227 236 237 239 248 249 258 262 263 265 270 271 274 275 276 282 301 302

SCRAP POLYMER, 213SCRATCH RESISTANCE, 62 191SCREW DESIGN, 35SCREW EXTRUDER, 95SEA WATER, 260 261SECONDARY ION MASS

SPECTROMETRY, 12SEEDED POLYMERISATION,

278SEISMIC REPAIR, 232SEMICONDUCTOR, 234 245SEPIOLITE, 22 63 123SERVICE LIFE, 234 245 255SHAPE-MEMORY, 242SHEAR, 115SHEAR FLOW, 146SHEAR FORCE, 77SHEAR MODULUS, 66 224 271SHEAR PROPERTIES, 77 114 152

181 265 292 297SHEAR STRENGTH, 114 275 292SHEAR STRESS, 152

SHEAR VISCOSITY, 67 77SHEATHING, 38 121SHEET MOULDING

COMPOUND, 185SHEETING, 219SHORT FIBRE, 248 289SHRINKAGE, 32 201SHUTTLE PRESS, 186SILANE, 60 84 171 223 276 298

300SILANE COMPOUND, 74 247SILICA, 4 5 22 57 58 60 64 95 104

155 190 197 204 223SILICATE, 9 34 38 42 44 46 49 52

53 62 63 77 88 91 92 94 100 109 110 118 132 133 137 139 146 157 166 170 171 175 182 184 185 188 189 192 198 199 201 214 224 227 236 247

SILICON, 45 62 164SILICON COMPOUND, 25 172SILICON COPOLYMER, 155SILICON DIOXIDE, 4 5 22 57 58

60 64 95 104 155 190 204 223SILICON ELASTOMER, 41 57 67SILICON POLYMER, 41 57 110

118 215 227SILICON RUBBER, 41 57 67SILICON-29, 24SILICON-CONTAINING

COPOLYMER, 155SILICON-CONTAINING

POLYMER, 41 57 110 118 215 227

SILICONE, 300SILICONE COPOLYMER, 155SILICONE ELASTOMER, 41 57

67SILICONE POLYMER, 41 57 110

118 165 215 227SILICONE RUBBER, 41 57 67SILOXANE, 175SILOXANE ELASTOMER, 67SILOXANE POLYMER, 41 110

118 165SILOXANE RUBBER, 67SILSESQUIOXANE, 22 172SILVER OXIDE, 234SINGLE LAP BOND, 114SINGLE SCREW EXTRUDER, 95SIZING AGENT, 131SKATES, 21SKI BOOTS, 21SKI SHOES, 21SMALL ANGLE X-RAY

SCATTERING, 156 165SMART MATERIAL, 22SMECTITE, 22 133 214



Subject Index


SMOKE, 46 128 132 148 175 179 185 216 235

SMOKE EMISSION, 36 63 69 185 235

SMOKE GENERATION, 52 53 73 236 241

SMOKE SUPPRESSANT, 128 185 235

SMOKE SUPPRESSION, 118SMOKE TOXICITY, 69SNOWBOARD, 21SODIUM MONTMORILLONITE,

36 152 175SOFTENING TEMPERATURE, 66SOL-GEL, 82 155SOL-GEL FORMATION, 155SOL-GEL POLYMERISATION,

155SOL-GEL REACTION, 57 58 155SOLDER RESISTANCE, 129SOLUTION POLYMERISATION,

220SOLVENT, 16 75 110 175 182SOLVENT ACTIVITY, 118SOLVENT EVAPORATION, 79SOLVENT RESISTANCE, 22SONICATION, 143SOYBEAN OIL, 75 142SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 14 23 62 176SPECIFIC HEAT, 66SPECTROSCOPY, 3 8 12 14 18

24 31 40 48 58 60 62 75 91 114 117 135 138 165 216 227 302

SPIN-SPIN RELAXATION, 7SPINNING, 193 231SPORTS APPLICATION, 21SPORTS EQUIPMENT, 21 102SPORTS GOODS, 21 102SPRAY DRYING, 52SPRAYING, 131 214STABILISERS, 117 162 171STABILITY, 1 2 4 8 9 11 17 22 26

28 29 30 31 34 38 45 47 51 54 55 56 59 63 65 67 75 76 88 92 95 96 104 107 109 110 111 118 122 127 130 133 146 147 152 156 160 164 171 175 182 184 185 187 188 193 196 198 210 211 216 219 221 224 227 229 236

STACKING SEQUENCE, 258STANDARD, 69 128 137 235 241STARVE FEEDING, 278STATIC DISSIPATION, 100STATIC ELECTRICITY, 136STATISTICS, 100 128 136 162 169

195 201 219STIFFNESS, 21 35 39 42 47 62 66

100 142 149 152 183 191 196 201 214 219 232 276 297 303

STIFFNESS MODULUS, 232STORAGE CONTAINER, 32STORAGE MODULUS, 4 5 17 31

76 130 224 271STRAIN, 205 262 268STRAIN ENERGY, 264 275STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE

RATE, 275STRAIN RATE, 237STRENGTH, 32 37 75 142 146 176

197 207 219 232 267 288 303STRESS CONCENTRATION, 268STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR,

276 286 298STRESS TRANSFER, 205STRESS WHITENING, 20STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES,

5 8 152 197 223 257 268STRESSES, 202 268 299STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, 75STRUCTURE-PROPERTY

RELATIONSHIP, 20STYRENE, 103STYRENE COPOLYMER, 49 60

106 119 140 166 275STYRENE POLYMER, 30 43 46

61 95 100 103 104 106 110 128 132 187 244 278

STYRENE-ACRYLONITRILE COPOLYMER, 61

STYRENE-BUTADIENE RUBBER, 23

STYRENE-ETHYLENE BUTYLENE-STYRENE BLOCK COPOLYMER, 20

STYRENE-ETHYLENEBUTYLENE-STYRENE BLOCK COPOLYMER, 20

SULFONE COPOLYMER, 274SULFONE POLYMER, 13 68 107SULFUR, 30SUPERCRITICAL FLUID, 191SURFACE ACTIVE AGENT, 51 52

62 90 91 100 102 152 235SURFACE ANALYSIS, 114SURFACE AREA, 73SURFACE ATTACHMENT, 47SURFACE CHEMISTRY, 47SURFACE ENERGY, 264SURFACE FINISH, 42 201 277SURFACE MODIFICATION, 5 21

47 74 91 244 300SURFACE MORPHOLOGY, 155SURFACE PREPARATION, 5 74SURFACE PROPERTIES, 42 47

114 144 151 155SURFACE REACTION, 5SURFACE STRUCTURE, 47SURFACE TENSION, 247SURFACE TREATMENT, 5 21 42

47 74 91 102 114 172 178 207 244 276 296 300

SURFACTANT, 51 52 62 90 91 100 102 152

SWELLING, 16 75 166 214 278SWELLING AGENT, 214SWELLING INDEX, 23SYNTHESIS, 4 8 9 24 27 38 48 53

58 60 63 75 80 110 118 133 140 166 173 182 194 200

SYNTHETIC FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 87 231 248 250 263 285 297

SYNTHETIC RUBBER, 102 107 133

TTACKINESS, 222TACTOID, 152TALC, 42 46 62 100 132TALLOW AMINE, 156TANTALUM OXIDE, 234TECHNETIUM OXIDE, 234TELECOMMUNICATION

APPLICATION, 179TELEVISION, 185TEMPERATURE, 21 22 62 81 100

171 203 204 235 260 261 276TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE,

4 66 67 107 159TEMPERATURE MODULATED

DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY, 13

TENSILE MODULUS, 56 84 152 235

TENSILE PROPERTIES, 4 5 8 10 16 22 23 28 33 34 39 40 41 55 56 67 70 73 75 78 80 84 85 97 120 130 133 146 148 152 159 203 208 223 225 235 237 246 249 251 257 267 296 297

TENSILE STRENGTH, 5 10 22 23 75 78 80 120 130 203 223 225 235

TERNARY BLEND, 11 20TERNARY SYSTEM, 11TERPOLYMER, 62TEST EQUIPMENT, 110 134 235

280TEST METHOD, 9 17 26 27 35 38

42 57 58 62 75 76 84 95 96 110 128 134 149 175 197 198 200

Subject Index


204 210 221 232 250TEST SPECIMEN, 268TESTING, 9 17 26 27 35 38 42 57

58 62 75 76 84 95 96 110 128 134 149 175 197 198 200 204 210 221 232 235 250 255 258 259 277 278 280 283 286 292 296 297 300 301 302

TETRAETHOXYSILANE, 58TETRAMETHYLOL

CYCLOHEXANOL, 287TEXTILE, 193 216 240THERMAL AGEING, 221THERMAL ANALYSIS, 13 16 24

48 60 75 80 83 92 151 158 160 164 165 170 188 211 217 235

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, 66 100 138

THERMAL CYCLING, 145THERMAL DECOMPOSITION, 1

4 38 45 54 68 128 130 180 201 278

THERMAL DEGRADATION, 1 4 18 44 54 55 59 64 66 67 77 92 101 110 117 121 122 151 155 156 160 161 164 170 184 193 198 211 216 217 221 252 277 278

THERMAL EXPANSION, 22 62 293 297

THERMAL FLUCTUATION, 197THERMAL INSULATION, 32 185

198 236THERMAL PROPERTIES, 1 4 5

8 14 18 19 23 26 29 31 34 41 42 45 48 49 50 51 52 53 55 56 57 58 59 64 65 66 67 73 77 80 83 88 100 108 115 120 126 130 138 140 143 148 154 155 156 160 165 168 175 181 182 187 188 221 228 230 235 236 244 265 293 301

THERMAL RESISTANCE, 1 2 4 11 54 59 67 100 187 204 224 228

THERMAL STABILITY, 1 2 4 8 9 11 17 22 26 28 29 30 31 34 38 45 47 51 54 55 56 59 63 65 67 75 76 88 92 95 96 104 107 109 110 111 118 122 127 129 130 133 146 147 152 156 160 164 166 171 175 182 184 185 187 188 193 198 201 210 211 216 219 221 224 227 229 234 236 245 246 254 256 277

THERMAL TRANSITION, 8 221THERMALLY STIMULATED

CREEP, 300

THERMO-OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION, 101 110 155 164

THERMOGRAM, 80THERMOGRAVIMETRIC

ANALYSIS, 2 3 8 9 13 15 16 18 24 26 28 29 31 34 38 40 41 44 45 48 50 51 52 53 56 58 60 63 64 65 68 75 77 79 85 88 92 94 95 96 97 103 109 110 113 117 119 122 134 135 138 143 147 151 156 164 172 184 187 192 193 221 227 229 256

THERMOLYSIS, 12THERMOMECHANICAL

PROPERTIES, 31THERMOOXIDATIVE

DEGRADATION, 101 110 155 164

THERMOOXIDATIVE STABILITY, 1 2 9 65

THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMER, 65 102 185 214 215

THERMOPLASTIC RUBBER, 65 102 185 214 215

TISSUE, 22TITANIUM OXIDE, 234TOLUENE, 175TORQUE, 93TORSION, 298TORSION PENDULUM, 52TORSIONAL PENDULUM, 52TORSIONAL VIBRATION, 26TOUGHENED, 20 47 203TOUGHENING AGENT, 8 20 28

34 35 47 57 125 130 141 145 154 168 203 208 220 230 238 253 256 259 262 264 266 271 272 282

TOUGHNESS, 8 20 21 35 47 52 57 71 86 159 202 203 204 208 223 235 265 266 270 273 274 275 276 279 281 282 283 286 291 295 298

TOXICITY, 46 69 128 132 134 161 163 175 179 185 196 216 235 255

TRANSFER MOULDING, 186 218 225

TRANSITION PHENOMENA, 224TRANSMISSION ELECTRON

MICROSCOPY, 6 12 15 16 17 24 28 29 31 35 38 39 40 41 43 44 48 51 52 55 56 60 61 73 77 78 79 86 87 89 90 94 95 96 97 98 103 113 114 117 122 126 127 130 134 138 140 141 142 144

145 151 152 156 170 187 189 192 227 229 236 237 278

TRANSPARENCY, 183 201 219 244

TRANSPORT PROPERTIES, 77TRICHLOROMETHYLOLIMIDE,

27TRIETHYLENE TETRAMINE,

39 203TRIGLYCIDYL AMINOPHENOL,

154TRIMETHOXYSILANE, 155TRIPHENYL PHOSPHATE, 171TRIPHENYLPHOSPHINE, 161

203TRISDIMETHYLAMINO

METHYLPHENOL, 203 230TUBING, 22TUNGSTEN OXIDE, 234TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER, 6 7

34 152 190 201

UULTRA HIGH MOLECULAR

WEIGHT POLYETHYLENE, 111

ULTRASONIC TEST, 260ULTRAVIOLET IRRADIATION,

122ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT, 122UNDER THE BONNET

APPLICATION, 136 219UNSATURATED POLYESTER,

53 56 69 92 98 185 207 213 241 277 280 294

UPHOLSTERY, 196URETHANE POLYMER, 9 85 106

123UV DEGRADATION, 122UV RADIATION, 122UV RESISTANCE, 179UV STABILITY, 22 122

VVANADIUM OXIDE, 234VAPOUR, 21VAPOUR PHASE, 108 185 210

215VAPOUR PRESSURE

OSMOMETRY, 203VARNISH, 240VEHICLE CAB, 186VEHICLE DOOR, 277VEHICLE EXTERIOR, 42 136 201VEHICLE INTERIOR, 62VEHICLE SEAT, 235



Subject Index


VEHICLE SHELL, 277VEHICLE SPOILER, 277VERTICAL BURNING TEST, 12VERTICAL MACHINE, 277VIBRATION, 26VIBRATION DAMPING, 16 81VIBRATIONAL

SPECTROSCOPY, 8 14 18 24 31 40 48 58 62 75 91 114 117 135 138

VIDEO CAMERA, 249VINYL ACETATE-ETHYLENE

COPOLYMER, 9 11 43 54 61 82 88 91 97 99 100 105 109 110 121 123 139 156

VINYL ALCOHOL POLYMER, 163 285

VINYL CHLORIDE POLYMER, 9 69 117

VINYL ESTER POLYMER, 62 70 113

VINYL ESTER RESIN, 167VINYL HALIDE POLYMER, 9 69

117VINYL POLYMER, 146VINYLBENZYL CHLORIDE, 103VIRGIN POLYMER, 175VISCOELASTIC, 17 81 210 221VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES,

17 81 154 168 210 221 271 272 296

VISCOELASTICITY, 17 81 154 168 210 221 271 272 296

VISCOSITY, 17 30 67 73 77 91 115 170 216 235 265

VISCOSITY MODIFIER, 287VOLUME FRACTION, 3 10 125

225 237 243 251 253 272 275 276 286 289

VULCANISATION TIME, 235

WWALL THICKNESS, 62WARPAGE, 201WASTE DISPOSAL, 128 129WASTE MANAGEMENT, 195WATER, 22 44 56 235 278WATER ABSORPTION, 56 74 87WATER REPELLENT, 30WATER RESISTANCE, 56 87 222WATER SORPTION, 74WATER UPTAKE, 74WATER VAPOUR, 185 235WEAR RESISTANCE, 23WEATHER RESISTANCE, 32 75WEATHERING RESISTANCE,

32 75

WEAVE STRUCTURE, 267WEAVING, 267WEFT KNITTING, 249 251WEIGHT LOSS, 8 12 18 26 36 52

57 110 122 156 221 227WEIGHT REDUCTION, 102 149

186 207WETTING, 131WETTING AGENT, 162 235WHISKER, 44WICKING, 19WIDE ANGLE X-RAY

SCATTERING, 6 152 229WIRE, 46 62 132 149 210WOOD, 136WOOD FIBRE, 100WOOD FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 6 162WOUND HEALING, 22WOVEN FABRIC, 186 262WOVEN FIBRE, 186

XX-RAY DIFFRACTION, 2 3 6 9

15 16 17 23 28 29 33 34 38 41 44 48 51 53 55 56 62 77 79 80 85 89 90 91 98 103 113 119 122 126 127 130 134 140 144 147 150 151 152 158 170 181 187 189 192 212 227

X-RAY MICROSCOPY, 61X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON

SPECTROSCOPY, 18 60 135 165

X-RAY SCATTERING, 2 3 6 9 15 16 17 23 28 29 33 34 38 41 44 48 51 53 55 56 62 77 79 80 85 89 90 91 98 103 113 119 122 126 127 130 134 140 144 147 150 151 152 156 158 165 170 181 187 189 192 212 227 229

X-RAY SPECTRA, 12 18 60 135X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY, 12 18

60 135 165XYLENE, 151

YYARN, 251YIELD, 268 276YIELD STRENGTH, 152YIELD STRESS, 272 273 276YOUNG'S MODULUS, 20 66 75

78 80 107 159 229 249 251 257 271 272 276

ZZINC BORATE, 9 99 128 185ZINC OXIDE, 22 234ZINC PHOSPHATE, 128ZINC STANNATE, 128 185ZIRCONIA, 234ZIRCONIUM OXIDE, 234

Subject Index




Company Index


Company Index

AAEROSPATIALE SA, 268AIR PRODUCTS & CHEMICALS

INC., 270ALBRIGHT & WILSON UK LTD.,

240ALKAN SHELTER LLC, 32ALLIEDSIGNAL, 201ALLIEDSIGNAL TECHNICAL

SERVICES CORP., 250AMERICAN CYANAMID INC.,

290ANHUI,UNIVERSITY, 158ANNA,UNIVERSITY, 8APME, 195APPLIED POLERAMICS INC., 112ARCUEIL,CENTRE

TECHNIQUE, 221ARIZONA,UNIVERSITY, 142ASHLAND COMPOSITE

POLYMERS LTD., 235ATHENS,NATIONAL

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 293

AUBURN,UNIVERSITY, 291AUCKLAND,UNIVERSITY, 289AUDI, 62AUTOMOBILES CITROEN SA,

277AZERBAIJAN,ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, 27

BBAM FEDERAL INSTITUTE FOR

MATERIALS RESEARCH & TESTING, 52

BASELL, 201BASELL ADVANCED

POLYOLEFINS, 42BASELL NORTH AMERICA

INC., 100BAYER AG, 201BAYREUTH,UNIVERSITY, 13

18 68BEIJING,INSTITUTE OF

CHEMISTRY, 125BEIJING,INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 106 116BEIJING,RESEARCH INST.OF

THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, 11 67

BEIJING,UNIVERSITY OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY, 10 11 67 97 117

BELFAST,QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, 77

BERLIN,FEDERAL INST.FOR MAT.RES.& TESTING, 13 68

BHARATH DYNAMICS LTD., 125

BOEING, 62 242BOLTON INSTITUTE, 92 148 160BOLTON,UNIVERSITY, 53BRAZIL,INSTITUTO DE

AERONAUTICA E ESPACO, 228 231

BROOKLYN,POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY, 12

BUDAPEST,UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY & ECONOMICS, 91 135 165

BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS CO., 100 136

BYK-CHEMIE GMBH, 235

CCALIFORNIA,STATE

UNIVERSITY, 232CALTRANS, 255CAMBRIDGE,UNIVERSITY, 299CATANIA,UNIVERSITY, 94CHANGCHUN,INSTITUTE OF

APPLIED CHEMISTRY, 284CHEIKH ANTA

DIOP,UNIVERSITY, 122CHEIL INDUSTRIES, 171CHEONBUK,NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY, 226CHINA,MINISTRY OF

EDUCATION, 10 36CHINA,UNIVERSITY OF

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 26 40 41 44 51 85 89 126 140 150 151

CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 20

CHUNG SHAN,INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 57 155 267

CHUNG YUAN,CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, 155

CIBA-GEIGY CORP., 282CINCINNATI,UNIVERSITY, 223

CNRS, 265CO-OP CHEMICAL CO., 62COAHUILA,CENTRO DE

INVESTIGACION EN QUIMICA APLICADA, 54

CONNECTICUT,UNIVERSITY, 275 292

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 247CRANFIELD INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 302CRANFIELD,UNIVERSITY, 153CRAY VALLEY SA, 277CREPIM, 156 216CSIRO, 1 144 159CSIRO,DIV.OF APPLIED

PHYSICS, 289CSIRO,DIV.OF MOLECULAR

SCIENCE, 154 168

DDALIAN,INSTITUTE OF LIGHT

INDUSTRY, 2DALIAN,UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, 2DAYTON,UNIVERSITY, 62DAYTON,UNIVERSITY,RESEAR

CH INSTITUTE, 72DDG CRYOGENICS, 62DEGUSSA CORP., 62DELPHI CORP., 62DIETER SCIENTIFIC, 62DMS XPLORE, 62DONGHUA,UNIVERSITY, 55 79DOW CHEMICAL CO., 35 49 73

288DOW CHEMICAL USA, 283DRAKA CABLE, 62DRESDEN,INSTITUTE OF

POLYMER RESEARCH, 68DSM, 277DYNEON LLC, 62

EECOLE NATIONALE

SUPERIEURE DE CHIMIE DE LILLE, 156 210 216 217

ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE DES ARTS & IND.TEXT., 172 193

EINDHOVEN,UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 55

Company Index


ELAM EL INDUSTRIES, 62ELEMENTIS SPECIALTIES INC.,

62EMS-CHEMIE AG, 224ENICHEM, 266ENSAIT, 217ENSAM, 87ENSC, 135ENSCL, 43EUROPEAN FLAME

RETARDANT ASSN., 195EXECUTIVE CONFERENCE

MANAGEMENT, 62EXXONMOBIL RESEARCH &

ENGINEERING CO., 12

FFAIRFAX,GEORGE MASON

UNIVERSITY, 209FENG CHIA,UNIVERSITY, 267FIRE RETARDANT CHEMICALS

ASSN., 195FLAME RETARDANTS

ASSOCIATES INC., 93FLORIDA,INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 95 104FOSTER CORP., 22 37 100 183FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT F‹R

FERTIGUNGSTECHNIK UND ANG.MATERIALFORSCH, 52

FREIBURG,ALBERT-LUDWIGS UNIVERSITY, 224 229

FUJI XEROX CO.LTD., 7

GGDANSK,UNIVERSITY, 87GEMTEX, 193GENERAL ELECTRIC, 201GENERAL MOTORS, 22 42 100

136 201GEOFLOW, 62GEORGIA,INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 262GERMANY,FEDERAL

INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH & TESTING, 18 19

GITTO GLOBAL CORP., 176GOLDSCHMIDT, 282GOODRICH B.F.,CO., 266GREAT LAKES CHEMICAL

CORP., 170GREENWICH,UNIVERSITY, 227

HHALLE,MARTIN-LUTHER-

UNIVERSITAT, 224HARBIN,INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 133HEBEI,UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, 130HEFEI,UNIVERSITY OF

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 29 48 90 158

HERCULES INC., 275HEXCEL COMPOSITES, 148 160HEXCEL COMPOSITES LTD., 160HITE BREWERY CO., 100HONEYWELL INC., 201HONEYWELL SPECIALTY

POLYMERS, 100HONG KONG,POLYTECHNIC

UNIVERSITY, 106HUAZHONG,UNIVERSITY OF

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 20

HUNG-KUANG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 164

HUNG-KUANG,UNIVERSITY, 57 58

HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 135 165

HYBRID PLASTICS CORP., 22 190HYPERION CATALYSIS

INTERNATIONAL, 100

IIBM ALMADEN RESEARCH

CENTER, 282ICE/HT-FORTH, 205IDEMITSU KOSAN CO.LTD., 64INDIA,NATIONAL AEROSPACE

LABORATORIES, 225INDIA,NATIONAL CHEMICAL

LABORATORY, 80INDIA,NAVAL MATERIALS

RESEARCH LABORATORY, 16 81 115 124 141 144 168 203

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 16 56 177 180 230

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,MATERIALS RESEARCH CENTRE, 220

INDIAN PETROCHEMICAL CORP.LTD., 161 167

INHOL BV, 179INSTITUT DE CHIMIE DES

SURFACES ET INTERFACES, 122

INSTITUT NATIONAL DES SCIENCES APPLIQUEES, 272

INSTITUTO DE CIENCIAS DE MATERIALES DE ARAGON, 78

INTERACTIVE CONSULTING INC., 196

ISTITUTO GUIDO DONEGANI SPA, 266

JJALGAON,NORTH

MAHARASHTRA UNIVERSITY, 14

JILIN,INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 284

KKABELWERK EUPEN AG, 9 38

50 62 63 65 88 105 109 110 118 121 123 137 169 175 182 184 188 192 194 198

KANAZAWA,UNIVERSITY, 64KARLSRUHE,FORSCHUNGSZE

NTRUM, 13 18 68KOREA,ADVANCED

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 248

KOREA,AGENCY FOR DEFENCE DEVELOPMENT, 248

KOREA,UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY & EDUCATION, 120

KUNSAN,NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, 226

KYOTO,INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 82 249 251

KYUNG HEE,UNIVERSITY, 226

LLABORATOIRE DES

MATERIAUX MACROMOLECULAIRES, 286

LABORATOIRE DES STRUCT.ET PROP.DE L'ETAT SOLIDE, 286

LAUSANNE,ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FEDERALE, 202

LAUSANNE,POLYTECHNIQUE, 280

LAWRENCE BERKELEY LABORATORY, 61



Company Index


LE HAVRE,UNITE DE RECHERCHE EN CHIMIE ORGANIQUE ET MACROMOLECULAI, 114

LE HAVRE,UNIVERSITY, 114LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, 86 253

270LEHMANN & VOSS & CO., 111LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE OF

POLYMER RESEARCH, 13LEIBNIZ-INSTITUT F‹R

POLYMERFORSCHUNG DRESDEN EV, 18

LEUVEN,CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY, 264

LEXINGTON,UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY, 138

LG CABLE LTD., 120LILLE FLANDRES

ARTOIS,UNIVERSITE DES SCI.ET TECH., 286

LILLE,UNIVERSITE DES SCIENCES ET TECHNOLOGIES, 156

LONDON,UNIVERSITY,IMPERIAL COLLEGE, 298

LONDON,UNIVERSITY,QUEEN MARY COLLEGE, 298

LULEA,UNIVERSITY, 273LUNA INNOVATIONS, 70LUND,INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

& TECHNOLOGY, 278LUZENAC, 99LYON,INSTITUT NATIONAL

DES SCIENCES APPLIQUEES, 5 271 276

MMADRID,UNIVERSIDAD

CARLOS III, 74MALAYSIA,UNIVERSITI

TEKNOLOGI, 34MANCHESTER,MATERIALS

SCIENCE CENTRE, 208MARQUETTE,UNIVERSITY, 3 98

103 113 119 147 187 189 211 212

MARTINSWERK GMBH, 235MARYLAND,UNIVERSITY, 127MASSACHUSETTS,UNIVERSI

TY, 3MCDONNELL DOUGLAS CORP.,

290MENDELEEV D.I.,RUSSIAN

CHEMICO-TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, 30

MICHIGAN,STATE UNIVERSITY, 143 190

MICHIGAN,UNIVERSITY, 270MIDDLE EAST,TECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY, 178MING HSIN,UNIVERSITY OF


MISSISSIPPI,UNIVERSITY, 252MITSUBISHI ELECTRIC CORP.,

296MITSUBISHI GAS CHEMICAL

AMERICA INC., 100MONASH,UNIVERSITY, 1 144

154 159 168 203MONTELL, 201MOSCOW,STATE SCIENTIFIC

ESTABLISHMENT,CENTRE FOR COMPOSITE MATERI, 30

NNAN YA,INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 155NANOCOR INC., 100 149 176 244

246 247NANOSPERSE LLC, 62NASA LANGLEY RESEARCH

CENTER, 112NASA,JOHNSON SPACE

CENTER, 279NATURALNANO INC., 62NEC CORP., 129 206NEW ORLEANS,UNIVERSITY,

258NEW YORK,STATE

UNIVERSITY, 61NEW YORK,STATE

UNIVERSITY AT STONY BROOK, 12

NEW YORK,YESHIVA UNIVERSITY, 12

NEXANS, 62NISHIZAWA,TECHNICAL

INSTITUTE, 7 82NIST, 71 72NIST,BUILDING & FIRE

RESEARCH LABORATORY, 96 127

NIST,POLYMERS DIV., 96NITTO DENKO CORP., 234 245NOBLE POLYMERS, 100NORTE FLUMINENSE,

UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL, 243

NORTH CAROLINA,STATE UNIVERSITY, 61

NORTH MAHARASHTRA, UNIVERSITY, 23 33 80

NYCOA, 21NYLON CORP.OF AMERICA, 21

OOHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, 100

204OWENS CORNING FIBERGLAS

TECHNOLOGY INC., 213OXFORD UNIVERSITY, 77

PPARIS,ECOLE CENTRALE, 39PATRAS UNIVERSITY, 205PENNSYLVANIA STATE

UNIVERSITY, 260 261PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY,

96PERUGIA UNIVERSITY, 83PETRU PONI,INSTITUTE OF

MACROMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY, 161 167

PITTSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY, 75

POLYONE CORP., 62 100 149PREMIX THERMOPLASTICS, 62PSA, 277PUTSCH KUNSTSTOFFE GMBH,

62PYROGRAPH PRODUCTS INC.,

62 100

QQINGDAO,UNIVERSITY OF


RRAYTHEON CO., 233REMETEC-BAUPLATTEN

GMBH, 269RHODIA SPECIALITIES LTD.,

160RICE UNIVERSITY, 131RIO DE JANEIRO,CATHOLIC

UNIVERSITY, 243RIO DE

JANEIRO,UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL, 228

RIO DE JANEIRO,UNIVERSITY, 231

ROCKWELL SCIENCE CENTER, 257

Company Index


RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 30 161 174 200 215

SSACHTLEBEN CHEMIE GMBH,

62SALFORD,UNIVERSITY, 134SAN LUIS

POTOSI,UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA, 54

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY, 287

SATERI FIBERS, 160SEOUL,NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY, 120SEQUENTIA INC., 241SHANGHAI,JIAO TONG

UNIVERSITY, 17 24 31 76SHELL CHEMICAL CO., 275SHENYANG,CHINESE

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 15SHENYANG,INSTITUTE OF

METAL RESEARCH, 60SHOWA DENKO, 201SINGAPORE,NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY, 249SKSJT INSTITUTE, 225SOTIRA SA, 186SOUTH

CAROLINA,UNIVERSITY, 242

SOUTH CHINA,UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 59

SOUTHERN CLAY PRODUCTS INC., 100 152

SOUTHERN MISSISSIPPI UNIVERSITY, 187

SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA UNIVERSITY, 84 125

STANFORD UNIVERSITY, 259SUD-CHEMIE INC., 62 100SUMGAIT STATE UNIVERSITY,

173SUNG KYUN KWAN

UNIVERSITY, 171SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 66SYDNEY UNIVERSITY, 20 285

289SZCZECIN,POLYTECHNIC, 166

TTAIWAN,CHENG-

SHIU COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, 164

TAIWAN,NATIONAL CHUNG-HSING UNIVERSITY, 4

TAIWAN,NATIONAL I-LAN UNIVERSITY, 28

TAIWAN,NATIONAL TSING HUA UNIVERSITY, 57 58 164

TAIWAN,TAO-YUAN UNIVERSITY, 28

TECHMER PM LLC, 111TEXAS,UNIVERSITY AT

AUSTIN, 152TIANJIN,UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, 130TNO SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY,

22TOKYO,INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 256TORAY INDUSTRIES INC., 222

254 281TORINO,POLITECNICO, 45 94

108TORINO,UNIVERSITA DEGLI

STUDI, 94 139 189 216TORO CO., 62TORONTO UNIVERSITY, 6TOYOTA, 201TOYOTA CENTRAL R & D

LABORATORIES INC., 244TOYOTA CORP., 62TOYOTA TECHNICAL

INSTITUTE, 146

UUBE, 201UBE AMERICA INC., 62ULSTER,UNIVERSITY, 218UNION CARBIDE CORP., 266UNIONDALE,HEBREW

ACADEMY, 61US,AIR FORCE, 62 236US,EDWARDS AIR FORCE

BASE, 190US,FEDERAL AVIATION

ADMINISTRATION, 112US,NASA,JOHNSON SPACE

CENTER, 250US,NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

AEROSPACE, 112US,NATIONAL INSTITUTE

OF STANDARDS & TECHNOLOGY, 138 170 175 189 212 215 217 236

US,NAVAL SURFACE WARFARE CENTER, 69 242

US,OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH, 69

USDA, 142

VVETROTEX SA, 277VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE & STATE UNIVERSITY, 242 274 280 282 301

VOLKSWAGEN, 62

WWACKER-CHEMIE AG, 5WARWICK,UNIVERSITY, 237WASHINGTON,UNIVERSITY,

145 181WESTERN

AUSTRALIA,UNIVERSITY, 239 263

WOLVERINE GASKET CO., 295WORCESTER,POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE, 3WRIGHT-PATTERSON AFB, 62WYOMING UNIVERSITY, 297

XXIAN,NORTHWESTERN

POLYTECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 25

XIAN,UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 101

ZZHEJIANG,UNIVERSITY, 47ZOLTAN BAY APPLIED

RESEARCH FOUNDATION, 165

ZYVEX CORP., 100



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HOW TO ORDER

Orders can be made by post, fax, telephone, e-mail, on-line via the website database (http://www.polymerlibrary.com), or through an online host.

When ordering please include your full company details and which documents you require, quoting one of the following:

1. Accession Number or Copyquest number or,2. Full Bibliographic Details

Please include which payment method you wish to use and how you wish to receive the article (i.e. e-mail, post, fax, etc.)

Documents can be ordered from Smithers Rapra online using the appropriate command of your online host. In this case we will issue you with an invoice and statement every three months.

For further information, please see www.rapra.net/absdocs/copyquest.htm or contact Sheila Cheese or Jackie McCarthy on +44 (0)1939 250383 or e-mail [email protected].