composting hand book

8/3/2019 Composting Hand Book

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Backyard Magic

THE COMPOSTINGHANDBOOK

Be eco-friendly


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Backyard Magic

Table o Contents

BackyardMagic.................................................................................................. 1

HowACompostPileWorks........................................................................... 2

UsingtheCompostYouProduce................................................................. 2

TheCompostRecipe........................................................................................ 4

- Air.................................................................................................................... 4

- Water.............................................................................................................. 6

- Food............................................................................................................... 6

- MaterialstoUse.......................................................................................... 7

- MaterialstoAvoid...................................................................................... 7

BuildingAHotCompostPile......................................................................... 8

TheCompostContainer.................................................................................. 10

OtherWaystoCompost.................................................................................. 12

- ColdComposting....................................................................................... 12

- SoilIncorporation...................................................................................... 13

- Mulching....................................................................................................... 14

CanICompostThis?......................................................................................... 15

15QuestionsandAnswersaboutComposting...................................... 18

CompostingIndoors........................................................................................ 21

WormComposting............................................................................................ 22

ExplorationsinComposting.......................................................................... 24


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COMPOSTING 1

Backyard Magic

Is there a compost pile in your past? For most NewBrunswickers, the answer is yes. Our grandparentsgenerationknewthevalueocompostingtheiryardand

kitchenwastes.Givingbacksomeothenourishmenttheytookromtheearthmadegoodcommonsense,anditstill

does!

IntodaysNewBrunswick,compostingisatraditionalidea

withabroadnewappeal.Itsmakingastrongcomebackin

allpartsotheProvince,aspeoplelookorpositivethings

theycandothemselvestobenettheenvironment.With

justalittleeort,theresultscanbeverysatisying.

Compostinguses natures own recycling system.Weeds

and leaves, grass clippings, vegetablepeels, andvarious

otherorganicwastesareturnedintohumus.Thatsanessentialsoilconditionerricher

thananythingwecanbuy.

Whythrowawaytherawmaterialwhichgeneratessomethingsovaluable?Especially

whencompostinghasotherbenetsaswell.

Reducing Garbage

Upto30%othegarbagewethrowouteachweekcangointhecompostpile.Cutting

domesticwastegenerationmeansalongerlieorlandllsitesandbetterenvironmental

managementortheentirecommunity.

Helping Plants Grow

Your lawn, garden and houseplants can neverget toomuch compost. It gradually

releasesavarietyonutrientsjustwhentheyrerequiredbythegrowingplants.Insects

anddiseasesdontseemtodoasmuchdamagewherethesoilisenrichedwithplentyo

decayedorganicmatter.Andtheresanotherbonus:darkcompostdrawsthesunsheat

towarmthegardensoil,makingourshortgrowingseasonaewdayslonger.

Building Up the Soil

Plentyocompostaddedtothesoilwillalsoactlikeasponge,soakingupwaterwhenitrainsandreleasingitindryspells.Itimprovesthestructureobothsandandclaysoils,

protectingthemagainstdroughtanderosion.


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2 COMPOSTING

How A Compost Pile Works

Whenleavesdropromatree,theydecayintosotblackhumusovertime,withoutanyhelprompeople.Whenananimaldies,itsremainsslowlyreturntotheearth.Anythingthatoncelivedwilleventuallydecompose.

Composting is based on this natural process and begins with the thousands o

microorganismswhichlivenaturallyinsoil.Theyeedonamoistheapoorganicwaste

materials,generatingconsiderableheatintheprocess.Othergroupsodecomposer

organismsgotoworkasthetemperaturerises,anever-changingworkorceobacteria,

ungi,andinsects.

Whenthetemperaturedrops,turningorstirringthepilegivesthedecomposersmore

oxygenandtheheatbuildsagain,helpingtokillharmulbacteria.Whenalltheeasily

decomposedmaterialhasbeenconsumed,thetemperaturedropsorthelasttimeandearthwormsandantsmaymovein,signallingthatthecompostisreadytoeednew

plantswithitsrecyclednutrients.

Finishedcomposthasthedistinctivereshsmellonewly-turnedsoiloraorestfoor

inspring,andwontheatupagainnomatterhowotenyouturnairintothepile.The

ideal result o the compostingprocess iscrumbly, dark, soil-like humuswherenone

otheoriginalmaterialcanbeidentied.Thenutrientsstoredincompostdependon

therichnessandvarietyoitsingredients,andonitsexposuretoharshweather.But

experiencedgardenersknowthereisnosuchthingasbadcompost!

Using the Compost You Produce

Finishedcompostaddsnutrientsandorganicmattertothesoil,improvingitstextureandincreasingitsabilitytoholdairandwater.Becauseitdoesntburnplantroots,largequantitiesocompostcanbeappliedtothesoilatanytime.

Soil Improvement

Trydiggingseveral centimeters (one inch)onishedcompost intoafowerbedor

vegetablegardenbeoreplanting.Howmuchyouusewilldependonhowmuchyou

haveavailable:thesoilcanuseitall.

Youcanalsogivetrees,shrubs,andnurseryseedlingsagoodstartbyplantingthemin

hal-and-halsoilandcompost.Newlawnswilldevelophealthyrootstokeepthemgreen,icompostisdugintothesoilbeorethegrassseedisapplied.Whenanestablished

lawnsuerswinter-kill,workingsomecompostintothebaldspotsbeoreseedingagain

isanothergoodidea.


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COMPOSTING 3

Top Dressing

Treatinglawnswithjust overa centimeter (hal-inch)

ocompostservesasaveryeectiveeedingwhenthe

groundhasdriedinthespring.Bysitingthecompost

rst,youcanremoveanyunattractivelargepiecesormaterials that may not be ully decomposed. These

largepiecescanbereturnedtothecompostorurther

breakdown.

Side Dressing

Youcanalsoapplycompostasaspotertilizer.Scratch

itlightlyintothetoplayersosoilaroundtheplantthat

needsaboost,andwaterdeeply.

Compost Tea

Heres a tidy way to supply compost nutrients to house plants or to spot-ertilize

seedlings.Soakaburlapbagoroldpillowcaseocompostinapailowateruntilthe

liquidistea-coloured.Orstironepartcompostintothreepartswaterandpourothe

tea.Usingthisliquidtowaterplantsmakesadierence,particularlyinthemiddleo

thewarmgrowingseason.

Mulch

Mulchingshouldbedonelateinthespringwhenthegroundisthoroughlywarmed,but

beoresummersheat,toconservemoisture.Spreadapproximately8cm(3inches)o

compostontopothesoilaroundtreesandshrubs,romnearthebaseothetrunkout

tothedripline.Youcanalsomulcharoundvegetablesandfowersassoonastheplants

areapproximately8cm(3inches)high,tokeeprootscoolanddiscourageweeds.

Potting Soil

Houseplants,windowboxesandhangingbasketswillallbenetromapottingsoil

mixed with sited compost. Compost alone can beused or growing vegetables in

containers,andorstartingplantsromseed.Forindooruse,youmaywanttosterilize

compostintheovenoranhourat95 oC(200oF),butdontbealarmedbythe(temporary)

strongsmell.


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4 COMPOSTING

The Compost Recipe

Compostingisaverybasicprocess.Youcansimplytossgrassclippingsandleavesinaheapandletnaturedotherestinitsowngoodtime,oryoucanhelpitalong,byprovidingabalanceddietorthemicro-organismswholldomostothework,aswellas

ahomethatmeetstheirneeds.

Justlikeus,thesedecomposerorganismshavethreebasicrequirements:air,water,and

ood.

Air provides oxygen and enables bacteria to carry out aerobic decomposition.

Withoutoxygen,anaerobicdecompositionothewastemaytakeplaceinstead.Thisis

somethingwenormallywanttoavoid,sinceanaerobicbacteriaproducetherotten-egg

smellotenassociatedwithdecay.

Therearetwomethodsoaerobiccomposting,dependingonwhetherornotthepile

heatsup.Acoldcompostpilewilldecomposeassurelyasahotone,butitlltake

muchlonger.

Coldcomposting is slowbut its easy. Someonewithmore space or compost than

physicalenergyandtimetodevotetoitmayoptorthecoldapproach.Thiscould

alsobethemethod tochoose iyourprimary concern

is reducing waste, rather than making quantities o

compost.

In contrast, hot composting is a airly ast method o

creating compost and makes ecient use o smaller

spaces. It does take more physical eort than cold

composting,butgardenerswhowantasmuchcompost

aspossiblewillusuallychoosethismethod.

Therearemanyvariationsoapproach,asindividualas

the peoplewho compost.Youmightpick onemethodto startwithand adapt it, asyougainexperienceover

time.Aboveall,keepyoursystemsimple,convenient,and

suitedtoyourliestyle.

Air

Airpenetratesonlythetoplayersothepile,soitneedshelptoreachthecentre.Avile

smellaroundthecomposttellsyouthatanaerobicbacteriaaremovingin,andthepilemaysimplyneedtobreathe.Inhotcomposting,plentyoairisessentialtodevelopthe

hightemperaturesthatkillpathogensandspeedtheprocessodecomposition.


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COMPOSTING 5

Turning

Themosteectivemethodointroducingair isto turn

thepilewithagardenork.Litthematerialromthetop

andsides,tossitintothemoreactivecentreothenew

pile, then add the partially decomposed centre to theoutside.

Stirring

Iyouwouldrathernotdotheworkoturningapile,try

stirringitwithastickinstead;thiswontdistributetheair

as evenly, however, so the composting processwill be

somewhatslower.

Aerator Tools

Youcanbuyanaerator,arodwithfapsononeendandahandleontheother,ata

gardencentre.Youjabthetoolintothecompostpile,andthefapsunoldtoloosenthe

materialsasyoupullitbackout.Theresultiseasierthanturningandproducesmoreair

thanstirring.

Air StacksAnotherapproachistobuildyourcompostpilearoundaperoratedpipe,abundleo

longtwigs,oratubeowiremeshstandingonend.Thiscarriesairtothecentrebetween

turnings.Withairstacks,youcanskiptheturning,althoughthepilewontheatupas

eciently.

Elevated Compost

Mostcompostpilesrestonbareground,butyoucanbuildthepileonaraisedplatormolooselyspacedboards,allowingairtobedrawnupromthebottom.Iyouelevateyour

compost,however,besuretosprinklegardensoil throughthecomposttointroduce

thoseessentialsoilbacteria.


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6 COMPOSTING

Water

Yourcompostpileshouldbeasdampasawrung-outsponge,moisttothetouch,butno

watershouldcomeoutwhenyousqueezeahandul.

Too dry?

Youcanpokeholesinthepileandwateritromthetopwithatricklinghose.Betteryet,

pullthepileapartandrebuildit,wettingeachlayerasitgoeson.Verybrousmaterials

suchasdeadleavesmayneedtobesoakedinabucketoranhourortwo.

Too wet?

Asoggypileshouldbeturnedsothatclumpsomaterialarebrokenup,lettingairinandwaterout.Ithecompostisabsolutelysoaked,youcanspreadthematerialstodry

inthesun,orscatterpeatmossthroughthepileasyourebuilditwiththedriermaterials

inthecentre.

Food

Decomposer organismsworkbest with as varied adiet as you can eed them. The

ingredients areall aroundus, almost anything thatonce livedisacandidate or the

compost,sotryorlotsovarietytogetagoodmixotexturesandplantnutrients.

Incompostingjargon,woodymaterialsthatarehighincarbon(autumnleaves,paper,

peat moss, sawdust, cornstalks, hay and straw, etc.) are called brown ingredients.

Materials likegardenreuse,manure, teaandcoeegrounds, eathers,hair, andood

scrapsarehighinnitrogen,orgreen.Somematerialscanactuallybeboth:reshgrass

clippingsaregreen,orexample,butdriedgrassisbrown.

For successul results, you can use the

simplerulethatcompostneedstobeabouthal brown and hal green by weight.

Dont bother to weigh your ingredients,

though: an estimate is ne. Composting

soonbecomesamatteroinstinct,likethe

cook who bakes without a recipe. I the

piledoesntheatup,youknowtheresnot

enoughgreeninthemix,whileasmello

ammoniameansitneedsmorebrown.


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COMPOSTING 7

Materials To Use

Green(NitrogenRich) Brown(CarbonRich)

Algae Buckwheathulls

Bonemeal CoeeltersCoeegrounds Corncobs

Eggshells Cotton/wool/silkscraps

Feathers Grassclippings(dried)

Flowers Hay

Fruitandruitpeels Leaves(dead)

Grassclippings(resh) Paper

Hair Peatmoss

Manure Pineneedles

Seaweed SawdustTeaLeaves Straw

Vegetablesandpeelings Teabags

Weeds Woodchips

Woodash

Thislistisarromcomplete.Anythingorganiccan,intheory,becomposted--some

moreeasilythanothers.Butcommonsensesuggestsaewexceptions.Theollowing

materialsmaycauseproblemsinabackyardcompostpile.

Materials To Avoid

petwastescancontainextremely weedswithmatureseeds,and

harmulbacteria; plantswithapersistentroot

system(likecrabgrass,ground

meat,sh,atsanddairyproducts ivy,ordaylilies),maynotbe

arelikelytosmellastheyrotand killedbytheheatothecompost;

mayattractour-ootedvisitors;

leavesorhubarbandwalnut

insect-inestedordiseasedplants containsubstancestoxicto

maypersistinthecompost; insectsorotherplantssomost

peoplechoosenottocompost

materialscontaminatedby them.

syntheticchemicalsortreated

withherbicidesorinsecticides

shouldneverbeused;


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8 COMPOSTING

Building A Hot Compost Pile

Directions

1. Gather both green andbrown ingredients, enough to make a compost pilemeasuringatleast1meter(3eet)ineachdirection(high,wideandlong).

Asmallerpilewontgenerateorretainenoughheattoeectivelykillanyharmul

bacteriapresent.Iyouchoosehealthyingredientstocompost,andkeeppetsand

pestsout,theresnoreasonorconcern.

Amuchlargerpileismorelikelytocompact,shuttingoutair,andismoredicultto

workwith.

2. Choporshredintosmallpiecesasmuchothematerialaspossible.Drymaterials

likeleavescanberunthroughashredderorunderalawnmower.Awhipper-snipper

inagarbagecanworkswelltoo,likeabigblender.

Shreddedmaterialsmake abetter home or decomposer organisms,withmore

suraceareaorthemtoworkon.Ashreddedpileisalsobetterinsulated,hasmore

pocketsorairandretainsmoisturemoreeasily.Thenerthepieces,theasteryour

compostwillbenished.

3. Layer15cm(6inches)owell-wateredbrownsand15cmogreens,mixingthe

twolayerstogether.

4. Alternateandmixlayersoeachtypeomaterial,addingwaterasneeded,untilthe

pileisatleastonemeter(3eet)high.

Adding the material in layers simply helps you judge the right proportions o

brown and green. But everything should then be thoroughly combined to

composteciently.

5. Coverthepiletoprotectitromheavyrain,andwait.Thecompostshouldbeginto

heatupwithinhours.

Towitnessdecompositioninaction,youcanstickametalrodintothecentreothe

pileoraewminutes,thencheckiithaswarmedup.Compostthermometersare

availableatgardencentres,oryoucanmountameatthermometerattheendoa

stick,iyouwantprecisetemperaturereadings.

Vapouremergingromaerationholes,andanegreyungusjustunderthesurace,

areothergoodsignsoanactivehotcompost.


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COMPOSTING 9

What if it doesnt heat up?

Whenacompostpilewontheatup,theproblemisalmostcertainlyoneothreethings:

a)thepile istoo small; b) its toodry; c) itneedsmoregreensor, especially incold

weather,astartertogiveitmorenitrogen.

Compost Activators

Gardensupplierssellcompoststartersoractivators,otencomposedohigh-nitrogen

ertilizers. In some cases, inoculants o dehydrated bacteria are also described as

compostactivators.

While high-nitrogen ertilizersmaybehelpul, the benetsoaddingmorebacteria

romapackagehaveyettobeproven.Allthebacteriayouneedshouldalreadybe

presentinthesoilunderthecompostpileortheoodandgardenwasteyouadd.You

couldtrysoakingordinarygardensoilinwateroranhouranddousetheheapwiththe

teacolouredliquid.Butgivingaboostonitrogentothebacteriayoualreadyhaveisthe

bestsolution.

Freshstablemanureistheidealcompoststarter,thoughitmaybehardorsomeo

ustond;harderyettoexplaintoyournext-doorneighbours.Whilethecommercial

activatorsbasedonhigh-nitrogenertilizersdoheatupthecompostquickly,itshardto

controltheamountonitrogenaddedthiswayandtheexcessmayleachoutorescape

asammoniaintotheair.

Thereareseveraleectiveorganicalternatives:bloodmeal,nishedcompost,orwell-

compostedmanure, or example. Or, you can simply rebuild the compost pile with

additionalgrassclippingsorothergreenmaterials.

The Hot Composting Timetable

Thetemperatureothepileshouldrisesteadily,peakingbetween50oCto65oC(120oFto150oF),24hourstooneweeklater.Whenthetemperaturebeginstodrop,thecompost

isreadyorturning.Breakupanyclumpsomaterial,andmovetheoutsidepartstothe

baseandcentre.Ithepileistoodry,thisisthetimetowetit.Coverthepileagain,and

wait.

Thetemperatureshouldpeakagaininaboutaweek,inapilemadeowell-shredded

materials. Remember, the smaller the pieces, the aster the compost. As soon as it

beginstocool,turnthepileoncemore.Inanotherweekortwo,thecompostshouldbe

nished;thatis,darkandcrumbly,resh-smelling,withverylittleotheoriginalmaterialidentiable.Whencompostisreadyoruse,thetemperatureothepilewontriseabove

43oC(110oF)nomatterhowotenyouturnit.


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10 COMPOSTING

Key Points to Remember

Useequalamountsogreensandbrowns.

Mixtogetheravarietyoingredients.

Shredorchopallingredients,ipossible.

Buildthepilelargeenoughtoretainheat. Turnoraeratetheheapregularlytoletintheair.

Keepthepileasmoistasadampsponge.

The Compost Container

Anyonewhohascomebackhomeateralongholiday

knowsthat,givenenoughtime,organicmattercandecompose even in the back o the ridge. Out in the

backyard, nature certainly doesnt care whether the

compostisheapedoutintheopenorenclosedinabin.

However,acontainerosomesortdoeshelptokeepthe

yardneatandtheneighbourshappy.Acoveredcontainer

alsomeansthepilecanretainbothheatandnutrients,

whilekeepingoutrodents,raccoonsandpets.

Hotcompostpilesneedregularturning,andyoullwanttoharvestnishedcompost

romtimetotime.So,aboveall,thecontainershouldmakeiteasytodothiswork.Beyond

thatconsideration,youresaeinchoosingacontaineroritsappearance,convenience,

cost,size,orotherqualities.

Allsortsocompostingunitsareavailablecommercially.

Someare simplydigesters, suchasa conecoveringa

collectingbasketinapit.Others,withsolidbases,have

doorsorchutestoletyouharvestthecompostromthebottomandputittouse.

Yourownsystemmaybeassimpleasacircleochicken

wire,orabottomlessbarrelwithairholesinitssides.Just

lititawayromthepile,setitupagainnearby,andput

the newer layers back in, leaving behind the nished

compost.


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COMPOSTING 11

Pens

Oneothesimpleststructuresisacircleosnowencingorwiremeshsupportedby

postsorstakes.Atturningtime,youunwrapandremovetheencing,setitupinanew

locationnearby,andorkthecompostbackintothepen.Thisrequiresalittlemorespace

andsomelitingeort,anditleavesthecompostinullview;butitisinexpensive,strongenough,andveryeasytoconstruct.

Bins

Binsaresturdierandmorediscreetthanpens.Theymayrequirealittlemoreskilltobuild

butarestillinexpensive.Theoursidescanbemadeoalmostanything:wirescreen

stretchedonwoodenramesoroldpalletsstandingonend.Threewallsarenormally

xedpermanentlytogether,butmaybehinged,hookedortied.Onedesignhasthree

walls o concrete blocks, stacked without mortar, and a ourth wall o removable

boards.

Toturnthepile,therontothebinisremovedandthecompostorkedoutontothe

ground.Thenthepileisrebuiltinthebin.Youdoneedtheextragroundspaceinront

othebinorturning,butyoudonthavetolitthecompostoverawalltogetitbackin.

Onevariationcallsorthebintobesetoverapit,toprovideextrainsulation.Although

thisencouragesthepresenceohelpulearthworms,itdoesmeanreachingdownbelow

groundleveltoturnthecompost.

Drums

A rotatingbarrel compostercanbemaderoma large

drumwithaerationholespunchedinit,andnsinsideto

litandmixthecompostmaterials.Ahingedloadingdoor

in the sideallowswastes tobe addedgradually. Some

arerolledonthegroundtomixthecontents;othersare

mountedhorizontallyonstandswithcrankattachments.Variouscommercialmodelsareavailable.

Ibacteriaisintroducedwithagoodamountogarden

soil and the barrel is turned every ew days, compost

canbemadeinaewweeksthiswaywithlittlephysical

eort.


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12 COMPOSTING

Boxes

Perhapsthebestsmall-scalesystemortherelativelyen-

ergeticcomposterisadesignknownastheNewZealand

box.Abottomlesswoodenboxwithventilation spaces

betweenthewallboards,itsaceiseasilyremovabletoacilitate turning. Since the compost rests directly on

theground,alid isnormallyaddedtopreventnutrients

leachingromthepileduringheavyrains.

ANewZealandboxorsomethingsimilarcanbemadeat

homewithaminimumoskill.Itcanbemovedtoanewlocationairlyeasily,irequired,

anditkeepsthecompostneatlyoutosight.

Apopularvariationhastwoorthreecompartmentsinarow:compostisturnedromoneboxintoanother;theemptiedboxthenaccumulatesthemakingsoranotherbatch.Itis

idealorpeoplewhousekitchenandyardwastesastheyaccumulateandcantsaveup

enoughmaterialstomakeareallybigpile.

Other Ways to Compost

Cold Composting

Iyou arent interested inthephysical tasko turningacompostpile, oriyouhave

plentyospaceanddontneedthecompostinahurry,coldcompostingistheanswer.

Smallhouseholdsmayaccumulateorganicwastetooslowlytobuildahotcompostpile

allatonce,butyoudontneedmuchtostartacoldcompost.Thepilebuildsgradually

asmaterialscometohand.

Althoughtheeedingprocessislessdemanding,theresultstakealongtime.Youcanwaitrom6monthstoayearorabatchocomposttobeproducedbythismethod.It

dependsonwhatgoesintothepile:sotgreenslikegrassclippingsandkitchenwastes

breakdownmuchasterthanwoodybrownsorunshreddedpieces.Ontheplusside,

absolutelynoturningisrequired!Butitsagoodideatobuildthepilearoundanair

stack,ortopokeitwithanaeratortooloccasionally,tohelpitalong.

Aswithahotcompost,coldpilesshouldbekeptmoist,andneedavarietyooodsor

thedecomposerorganismstoprosper.Thelowerlayersdecomposerst,becausenew

materialisconstantlybeingaddedtothetop.Acompostcontainerisntnecessary,butitmayhelpyoutogetatthenishedstuonthebottom.


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COMPOSTING 13

Whateveryou choose, a ancycontainerorapileinthecornerotheyard, compost

producedslowlywillneedtobecoveredoralotoitsnutrientswillbeweatheredaway

overtime.Thismeanstheresultingmaterialwillstillbevaluableasasoilconditioner,but

notveryeectiveasaertilizer.

Soil IncorporationSoilincorporationisprobablythesimplestmethodocomposting.Foodandyardwastes

arenelychopped,mixedwithsoil,andburied20cm(8inches)ordeeperintheearth.

Dependingonsoiltemperature,bacterialactivity,andthecarboncontentothewastes,

decompositionwilltakeromonemonthtoayear.

Onewordocaution,however!High-carbonmaterials(likerawautumnleaves)arenot

appropriateorthismethod,becausetheyllstealtheirnitrogenromthesurrounding

soil.Leavesmayalsoacidiythesoilorinhibitthegrowthoplantsitheyaredugintothegroundwithoutrstbeingatleastpartiallycomposted.

Evenhigh-nitrogenmaterialsshouldbegivenampletimetodecomposeunderground

beore the area is used or planting, because the decomposer organisms will take

nitrogenwherevertheycannditwhiletheyreworking.Somepeoplegetaroundthe

problemonitrogenlossbyaddingbloodmealtothesoilbeoretheyburythecompost

materials.

Postholing

Apostholediggerisahandytoolorsoilincorporation,althoughaspadewilldo.The

ideaistodigaseriesoholesaroundthedriplineotreesandshrubs,orinaallowarea

othegarden(toavoidstealingnitrogenromgrowingplants),andburyorganicwastes

there.Thecompostismaderightwhereitismostneeded.Youcanusewhatspaceyou

have,thenstartoverwheretherstloadhascomposted.Itheholesaredugbeore

thegroundreezes,youcancontinuetodisposeowastesinthiswayallthroughthe

winter.

Rotation Trenching

Trenchinginvolvesdiggingalongpitinsteadoseparateholes,usuallybetweenrowsin

agarden.Itiscappedwithalayerosoilasthewastesaregraduallyadded.

Thismethod isotenusedbyBritishgardeners ina simple three-yearrotation o1)

soilincorporation,2)crops,and3)pathways.Intherstyearatrenchisdug,lledwith

nitrogen-richwastes,andcoveredwithsoil.Therownexttoitisusedtogrowcropsandathirdrowisusedasapath.


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14 COMPOSTING

Ineachsuccessiveyear,theertilesoilothepreviousyearstrenchisusedtogrowthe

crops,andtheormerpathisthecompostingtrench.Thusthegardenssoiliscontinuously

renewed.Althoughthismethoddemandsarlessspacethanaconventionalcomposting

system,itdoesrequirethreerowstogrowonerowocrops.Eachgardenwillsuggestits

ownvariations.Trenchescanbedugunderthepathwaysinuse,onesectionatatime,

asthespaceisneeded.Inagardentoosmallorpaths,atwo-yearrotationocropsand

trenchisne.

Mulching

Mulchingcopiesnatureswayocompostingonthesuraceothesoilandgardeners

havebeendoingitorcenturies.Woody,brownorganicmaterialsarespreadinalayer

ontheground,overagarden,oraroundshrubsandtrees.Becausetheyarenotduginto

thesoilbutdecomposeonthesurace,theydontdisturbthepHbalanceothesoilor

robitonitrogen.

Although it is perhaps the slowest method o composting, mulching oers other

benets.Itdiscouragesweeds,protectssoilromcompactingoreroding,andkeepsthe

rootsoplantscoolandmoistinhotweather,insulatedinthewinter.


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COMPOSTING 15

Can I Compost This?

Ashes Maybe Fromuntreatedwoodorpaper,yes,

insmallamounts;butnotrom

barbecues,plywood,colouredor glossypaper

Banana Skins Yes Decomposerapidly;canhelpto

activateaslowcompost;loadedwith

plantnutrients

Cardboard Yes Shred,soak,andmixwithgreens;

buttryrsttoreuseorrecycleit

Citrus Fruits Yes Shredrinds;buryincompostto

discourageruitfies

Coffee Grounds Yes Goodearthwormood;usedirectly

onmanyplants;compostshredded

lters,too

Corn Cobs Yes Shred;addsbothbreandnutrients

tocompost;goodmulch;slowto breakdown

Dairy Products No Fatssealoairromcompost;

odoursattractpests

Diseased Plants No Compostheatmaynotdestroy

disease;destroyordiscardtoavoid

spreading

Dishwater Maybe Iwaterdoesntcontaingreaseor

chemicalcleansers,useittowetpile

Dust and Lint Maybe Usevacuumcleanerdebrisandlint

romclothesdryer,imostlynatural

bres

Eggshells Yes Dryandcrushrst;goodearthworm

ood;slowtobreakdown;help neutralizeacidity;asmulch,may

discourageslugs


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16 COMPOSTING

Evergreen Needles Maybe Highlyacidic;betteryet,useas

mulch

Fabrics Maybe Smallscrapsowool,cotton,eltand

silk;notsyntheticbresorblends

Feathers Yes Keepsomewhatwetterthanusual;

extremelyhighinnitrogen

Fish Maybe Odoursandpestsareproblemswith

reshorsmokedsh,butdried

shmealisne

Grass Clippings Yes Availableandvaluable;mixwellto

avoidclumps;leavesomeclippings

toeedlawn

Hair Yes Bothhumanandpethair;keepquite

damp;avoidusingicolouredwith

chemicals

Hay and Straw Yes Verygoodbre,nutrientsusuallylow

Leaves Yes Shredandsoak;addbothnutrients

andbre;tendtobeslightlyacidic

Manure Yes Cow,horse,pig,rabbit,poultry,the

resherthebetter,helpsanycompost

Meat and Bones No Odoursandpestsareproblems;but

dried,groundbonemealisne

sourceonitrogen

Soil Yes Addsdecomposersoilorganisms;

scatterlightlythroughpiletoavoid

compacting

Nutshells Maybe Crushdelicateshellslikepeanuts;

heaviershellsarebetterusedas

decorativemulch

Paper Maybe Shred;notglossy/colouredwhich

containchemicals;bettertorecycle

ipossible


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COMPOSTING 17

Pet Wastes No Riskopathogensandparasites;

useonlybarnyardmanure(horse,

cow,sheep,etc.)

Rhubarb Maybe Rawleavespoisonoustohumans;

compostedleavesmayharminsects

andotherplants;stemsarene;

rootsmaycontinuetogrow

Sawdust Maybe Hardwoodsawdust,yes,invery

smallquantities;sotwoodsmay

inhibitcomposting;plywoodmay

containchemicals

Seafood Shells Yes Crushorgrindverynely;break

downveryslowly;reduceacidity;

goodmulch

Seaweed Yes Rinseosaltsoitwontcontaminate

soil;greatertilizer

Sod Yes Knockoexcesssoil;pileupside

down;covertopreventrooting;

compostseparatelytoavoid

compaction

Soup Maybe Vegetable,yes;donotusesoups

withcreamormeat-basedbrothsto

avoidodoursandpests;readlabels

oncannedsoups.

Tea Leaves Yes Highinnitrogen;canbeapplied

directlytosomeplants;composttea

bagstoo

Toadstools Yes Decomposequickly;excellent

sourceomanyminerals

Weeds Yes Discardmatureseeds,persistent

roots,weedstreatedwithherbicides/

pesticides

Wood Chips Yes Shredipossibleandsoak;usebig

piecesasmulchrst,compostwhen

weathered


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18 COMPOSTING

15 Questions and Answers About Composting

Structure/Space:

Do I need a bin to make compost?

No,organicmatterwilleventuallydecomposewithouthumanhelp.Butacontainero

somesortwillkeepyourpileneat,protectitromtheweatherandpests,andmakethe

jobotendingitmucheasier.

Where is the best place to put a compost pile?

Pickashelteredspot,outotheullsummersunipossible.Avoidtreesandshrubsthatmaypushtheirrootsupintothepile.Andgivesomethoughttobothconvenienceand

appearanceinchoosingalocation.

Process/Problems:

What is the easiest way to compost yard wastes and ood wastes?

Woodyorbrownyardwastes,liketreetrimmingsandautumnleaves,canbeshreddedandusedasmulcharoundplantsandonpaths.Eventuallytheyllreturntothesoil.Food

wastes,aswellasgreenyardwasteslikevegetabletopsandgrassclippings,canbedug

intotheground.Uselarger-scalesoilincorporationonlywhereyouwontbeplanting

oraewmonths.

Can I compost in the winter?

EvenresearchteamsontheSouthPolehavecomposted

their garbage successully!Youcan retain heat a littlelongerintheallbycoveringthepileandinsulatingthe

container, perhapswith bags o leaves. Increasing the

amountogreenorusingacompostactivatormayhelp

keepthetemperatureup.Keepaddingtothecompost

throughthewinter:itmaynotseemtobedoingmuch,

buttherozenmaterialswillquicklynishbreakingdown

whenspringcomes.


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COMPOSTING 19

What i the pile has an odour?

Anearthyscentisnormalandinoensive,butawell-builtcompostshouldntproduce

unpleasantodours.Iitdoes,yourproblemiseithertoomuchgreenstu(ammonia

smell)ortoolittleair(rotten-eggsmell).First,aeratethepile.Itheodourpersists,turn

andrebuildthepilewithmorebrownmaterials.

Should I wear gloves to handle compost?

Iyouhaventcompostedpetmanures,whichcontainbacteriaharmultohumans,there

isnoneedtoweargloves.Finishedcompostcanbehandledjustasyouwouldgarden

soil.

How can kitchen wastes be stored or later composting?

Collectoodscrapsinaplasticcontainerintheridgeorreezer,iyouhavespace,or

keepa tightly lidded container handy, covering eachadditiono compostable ood

wasteswithjustenoughpeatmossorsawdusttocontrolodours.

Should I add ground limestone, soil, or ertilizer?

Aperectlygoodcompostpilecanbebuiltoutonothingancierthanleavesandgrass

clippings. Limewillbalanceout the pH oapileohighly acidicmaterials, likepineneedles.However,mostcompostisnaturallyclosetoneutralinpHbythetimeitisready

oruse.Ascatteringosoilshouldbeaddediyourcompostisntincontactwiththe

ground,becauseitisthesoilorganismsthatdothedecomposingwork.Withavarietyo

ingredients,ertilizerisseldomnecessary.

What i the compost pile doesnt heat up?

Theoddsarethataninactivecompostpilejustdoesnthaveenoughgreensinitto

startitstemperaturerising.Theansweristorebuildthepilewithmorehigh-nitrogenmaterialsorastarterlikemanuretea.Thatwillprobablysolvetheproblem,butalso

checkthatthepileisasmoistasawrung-outsponge.

How do I compost with too many high-nitrogen materials?

Youcandigextragreensdirectlyintothesoil,storesomeinareezerorsealedcontainer,

buypeatmosstomixwithit,or,asalastresort,drysomeinthesuntodecreasethe

nitrogencontent.Perhapsacompostingneighbourcanuseadonation?


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20 COMPOSTING

How do I compost with too many high-carbon materials?

Thisisotenaprobleminautumn,whentheresnoshortageodeadleaves.Iyouhave

space,bagsomeandstorethemorcoveringuptheoodscrapsyoulladdthroughthe

winter,ororspringandsummerwhenbrownsarehardertond.Bagsoleavesalso

makeinsulatingwindbreaksorcompostbins.Ormoistentheleavesandstoretheminsealedbagstobegindecomposing.Inspring,addthemtothecompost.Mulching

isanotheralternative,butshredtheleavesnelyandagain,acompostingneighbour

mightbeabletouseyoursurplus.

Finished Compost:

When is compost fnished and sae to use?

When an active compost pile ails to heat

uponcemore,andverylittleotheoriginal

material can be recognized (perhaps an

eggshell or the shapes o old leaves), the

compost is ready to use. It will be the

rich brown colour o good soil and smell

somethinglikethehumusoaorestfoor.

Does it need to be sterilized or screened?

Compostdoesntneedtobesterilizedorscreenedorthegarden.Foruseindoors,it

shouldbeputthroughastrainerorquarter-inchscreenandsterilizedintheovenor1

hourat95oC(200oF).Youwillprobablywanttoscreenthecompostyouusetotopdress

thelawnaswell.

Do I need to ertilize i I use compost?

Thenutritionalvalueocompostdependsonthematerialsthatwereusedtomakeit.

Thatswhyitsimportanttoputasmuchvarietyintothepileaspossible.Iyouretrying

toenrichaseverelydepletedgardenplot,orgrowingplantslikepeoniesthatdemand

alotoood,youmightwanttoaddsomecommerciallyproducedorganicertilizer.Soil

testingisagoodideainthiscase.Formostgardensandfowerbeds,however,compost

providesaconcentratedsourceobalancednutrientsaswellastheorganicmatterthe

soilneedstostorethem.

What i I make too much compost?

Itshardtoimaginesuchasituation!Theearthcanusealltheorganicmatteryoucan

giveit,andyoucanapplycompostatanytimeoyear.Digitintofowerbeds,layeritover


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COMPOSTING 21

avegetablegarden,orspreaditunderatreetoeedtheroots.Finelyscreenedcompost

canbescatteredoveralawn,orsterilizedandmixedwithpottingsoilorhouseplants.

Andyoucanstorecompostinabagorholdingpen,aslongasitiswellprotectedrom

rain,windandsun.

Composting IndoorsNobackyardorgarden?Collectyourkitchenwasteinthereezeroracoveredpailto

givetoacompostingriend.Ormakeyourowncompostindoors!

Holding Units

With a basement, garage, porch or balcony, you haveplentyospaceoracoldcompostingcontainer.

Tryalargemetalorplasticgarbagecanwithalid.Punch

nailholesinthesidesandtop,andstirwithabroomhandle

oruseanaeratorstacktogetoxygenintothecompost.

Startyourcompostwithabrownlayer:approximately8

cm(3inches)opeatmoss,sawdust,orshreddedleaves

romsomeoneelsesallclean-up.

Collect your kitchen scraps into a covered pail as they

comealong.Everyewdays,whenthepailllsup,justtoss

thecontentsontothecompostandcovereachaddition

withalittlemorebrownstutocontrolodours.Adda

ewhandulsotopsoiliyoucangetit,orcompostromanearlierbatch,andkeepall

thematerialsasmoistasawrung-outsponge.

Harvestingthecompostiseasiestwithtwocansonthego.Oncetherstcanislled,

juststiriteveryewdaysandkeepitmoist.Newkitchenscrapsgointothesecondcan.Bythetimeitisull,therstbatchshouldbereadyoruse.

Bags-and-Pails

Evenwithoutthespacetohidelargecontainers,orthephysicalabilitytostirthecontents,

youcanstillcompostanaerobically(withoutoxygen).Compostingthiswaytakessix

monthsorayear,butitrequiresverylittleeort,justsomestoragespace.

Collectkitchenscrapsinacoveredpailandsprinklesawdustorcrumbledpeatmossover

eachadditiontoit.Orstoreoodwastes(clearlylabelled)intheridgeorreezer.When


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22 COMPOSTING

thepailis ull, empty itintoasturdyplasticbagwithoutholesandadd justenough

watertomoistenitthoroughly.

Hal-lleachbagandsealitverytightly.Tobeonthesaeside,youmaywanttoputit

insideasecondbag.Dontbetemptedtopeekuntilitshadtimetonishcomposting:

decomposerorganismsworkingwithoutairproduceanawulsmell!

Storethebagsoutoyourway,onabalconywhentheweatheriswarm,orinastorage

closet. The compost is ready to usewhen you open a bag and it doesnt smell o

decompositiononcetheairrominsidehasdispersed.

Worm Composting

Letwormsdothework!Compostingwithearthworms,orvermi-composting,isgreatorapartmentdwellerswhodonthaveyardspace,andorhomeownerswhodontwanttohikethroughsnowdritstoabackyardcompostbin.Andmanykidslovekeeping

hundredsowigglersorpets.ThereareseveralcompaniesinCanada,whocansellyou

thebins,bedding,wormsandall.

Covered Bin

Yourwormscanliveinaplasticbinorwoodenbox,withplentyoairholespunchedinthesidesandtop.Linethewormbinwithnylonnettokeepthesmallonesin.Holesinthe

bottomareneededordrainage,soyoullwantatrayunderthebin.Somepeoplemove

theirwormsouttoabalconyoryardinwarmseasons.Youmaynditmoreconvenient

tohaveseveralsmaller,moreportableunitsratherthanonelargeone.Thesizeothe

boxwillalsodependonhowmuchspaceyouhave.

Bedding

Loamorblacktopsoil,availableromgardencentres,makesaparticularlygoodbedding

material.Beddingcanalsobeshreddednewspapers,soakedtosotentheedges(the

wormswilleatthistoo,soavoidcolouredinksandglossypaper)oramixtureosawdust,

peat,shreddedleaves,andsoil.

Fill the binwith about 30 cm (1 oot) o bedding, about as damp as awrung-out

sponge,notsoggyandnotdry.Withalidonthebinandregulareedingotheworms,

maintainingthecorrectmoisturelevelshouldntbedicult.


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COMPOSTING 23

Worms

Its true that earthworms arent pets or the squeamish, but they are great little

composters!Youllwant the kindowormsthatare soldorshingbait, suchas red

wigglers or brandling worms, not ordinary eld worms rom someones garden.

Redwormsnormallyliveinbarnyardmanurepiles,andeedonreshorganicmaterial.Fieldwormsarebetteratdigestingthingsthatarealreadywelldecomposedandarent

likelytosurviveinawormbinonadietokitchenscraps.

Yourvaluablelittleredwormswilllivequietlyintheirdarkboxandmultiplyrapidly.Just

bury your letovers intheirbeddingatereachmeal. It isunlikelythatyouwillhave

toomuchwaste tocompost: redworms will eat theirownweight in kitchen scraps

and bedding each day. The castings they produce are incredibly rich ertilizer and

looklikene-texturedsoil.Foreachcubicootowormbin,planonusing200grams

(approximatelyhalapound)oredwigglers(about500,dependingontheirsize).

Food

Coeegrounds,vegetablesandruitaretherecommendedoodorworms.Avaried

dietisimportant.Avoidbones,dairyproducts,meats,garlicandpotatopeelings.What

doesntcauseodoursorattractinsectswillsimplytakeaverylongtimetobreakdown.

Eggshellsareessentialtokeepthebeddingrombecomingtooacidicortheworms.

Drythemwell,crushthem,andsprinklethetinypiecesoverthetopothebedding.

Temperature

Redwormswillsurviveintemperaturesrom5 oCto32oC(40oFto90oF)butpreeritator

aboveroomtemperature.Iyoukeepthewormbinoutsideingoodweather,beready

tobringitinpromptlywhenthetemperaturedrops.

Harvesting the CastingsRemovingtheworm-compostcouldntbeeasier.Youwillnoticethatredwormshate

thelight.Theyllwriggledownintotheirbeddingwheneveryoutakethelidothebin.

Everyewmonths,whenthecastingsoutweighthebeddingthatremains,placethe

openedbinunderaverybrightlightandgivethewormstenminutestogetwellaway

romthesurace.Thenthecoastisclearorscrapingawaythewormcastingsromthe

toplayer.

Whenyoustarttoseethewormsagain,keepthelightonthemandgivethemanothertenminutestogodeeperstill.Andremovethenextlayerocompost.Keepgoinginthis

wayuntiltheharvestisdone.Thenllupthebinwithreshbeddingandstartagain.


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24 COMPOSTING

Outdoors

Somepeoplebuildspecialwormpitstotakeadvantageothewormsnaturaltalents.

Tomakeawormpit,allyouhavetodoisdigasquarehole60cm(2eet)deepandset

abottomlessboxoverit.Thecompostmaterialsandwormsaretossedinhere.Youcan

keepaddingorganicwasteasitaccumulates.

Keepthepiledampanddark,andthewormswilldotherest.Remembertoharvestyour

compostcareully,inbrightsunshine,tosavethewormsromanunpleasantate.They

wontlivelongitheyrestrandedinordinarygardensoil,dumpedtherewithaorkul

ocompost.

HereinNewBrunswick,ourclimateistooextremeorredwormstosurviveoutdoors

throughthewinter.Someworm-ownersinmilderareashavegoodluckusingverydeep

wormpitswith thickly insulatedwalls,butits riskybusiness indeed.Better,bringthewormsindoorstoabinassoonasarealrostthreatens.

Explorations in Composting

For teachers, youth group leaders, or day-care supervisors, here are some simpleexperimentswhichwillhelpyourkidsunderstandhowcompostinghelpstheearthandplants.Youwontneedmuchinthewayoequipment,andtheresultsareuntowatch.

How does compost help growing plants?

Activity

1. Soaksixoreightbeansovernightinwater.

2. Fill one jar or fowerpot with ordinary soil dug up rom your garden, lawn, or

pathway.

3. Fillasecondjarorpotwiththesamekindosoil,butmixithal-and-halwithnished

compost.Iyoudonthaveacompostpileyet,youcanusecompostedmanurerom

agardencentre.

4. Plantaewbeansineachpot.

5. Placethemwheretheywillbewarmandhavesomesunshine.


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COMPOSTING 25

6. Keepthepotswatered,andcheckeachdaytoseewhathappens.

Soilsthatcontainlotsodecomposedorganicmatter,likecompost,canstoremore

oodortheplantsandreleaseittothemastheyneedit.Unlessyouarelucky

enoughtohaveveryrichsoilalready,youllprobablyndthatthebeansgrewaster

andstrongerinthepotthathadcompostaddedtothesoil.

How does compost help soil structure?

Activity

1. Findtwowide-mouthedglasscontainers(mayonnaisejarsareperect).

2. Maketwosmallbasketsorwireracksoquarter-inchscreen.Foreachrackyouwill

needapieceoscreenabout7.5cmby25cm(3inchesby10inches).Bendthewiresothatittsdownintothejarslikealittlebasket.

3. Findaplacewherethesoilisverylightincolour,likeaconstructionsiteoraheavily

armedeld.Collectseveralclumpsosoilaboutthesizeoast.

4. Collectasecondsampleosoilclumpsromdarkearth,suchasagardenthathas

beenedregularlywithcompost,orapark.

5. Fillthejarswithwaterwithin2.5cm(oneinch)othetop.

6. Placethelumpsosoilinthebasketsandlowerthemgently intothejars.Watch

closely!

Whydoesthesoilinonebasketallapartanddroptothebottomothejar?Organic

matter, like decomposed leaves and roots, helps soil hold water and air.When

organicmatterisusedup,wehave togivenature timeto replaceit,oreedthe

earthwithcompost.Whenearthholdstogetherlikethis,itcanstandthehardrains

thatwashawaylesshealthysoil.


28/32

26 COMPOSTING

Can everything be turned into compost?

Activity

1. Find our or ve wide-

mouthedglassjars.Youllwanttobeabletoseethroughthe

sidesothem.

2. Collectabananaskinorapple

core, ascraponewspaper, a

lea(greenorbrown),andapieceoplastic.Theremaybeotherthingsyouwantto

testaswell.

3. Placeeachotheseitemsinaseparatejar.Holdthemclosetotheside,whereyoucanseethem,andllthejarswithordinarysoil.

4. Dontcoverthejars,butmakesurethesoilcoversyoursamples.

5. Watereveryday,justenoughtokeepthesoildamp.Dontletitdryoutorreeze.

6. Watchwhathappens,ordoesnthappen,ineachjar.

Youllsoonnoticechanges insomeoyoursamplesastheystarttodecompose.Some change aster than others, and the piece o plastic wont change at all!

Anythingthatoncecameromalivingthingiscalledorganicandwillbreakdown.

Youcanusethesetomakecompost.Whatdoyouthinkhappenstoallthesethings

whentheyretakenawaybythegarbagecollectorandburiedinalandll?


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COMPOSTING 27

Other Experiments to Try

The Garbageless Lunch

Knowingwhatwillbreakdowninacompostpileandwhatwont,trytopackyourselalunchthatwontleavegarbagebehind.Willachocolatebarmakegarbage?Abanana?

Shouldyouchoosewaxedpaperoraplasticbagorwrappingyoursandwich?Heres

somethingtrickytothinkabout:is itbettertouseapapernapkin,eventhoughitwill

decompose,oraclothnapkinthatyoucanwashanduseagaintomorrow?Whatwillyou

carryyourlunchin?

Taking Out the Trash

Thisweek,countthenumberogarbagebagsyouramilylls.Maybesomeonewillhelp

youweighthem.Writedownwhatyoudiscover.

Wasthisanordinaryweek?Figureouthowmuchgarbageyoudhaveaterayear.Where

doesthegarbagego,andwhathappenstoit?Whatdoyouthinkmighthappenwhen

theresnomorespaceorourgarbage?

Nextweek,collectalltheorganicgarbageinaseparatepailorbag.Itwillstartsmelling

beoretheendotheweek,sokeepthecontainerclosedwhenyouarentllingit.Atthe

endotheweek,countandweightheregulargarbagebagsthatyouramilyhaslled.

Comparetheresultstolastweeksgarbage.Isthereadierence?


30/32

Notes


31/32

Department of Environment

P.O.Box6000

Fredericton,NewBrunswick

Canada

Telephone:(506)453-3700

Fax:(506)453-3676

Email:[email protected]

www.gnb.ca/environment

Reprintedin2010

ThankyoutotheFrederictonBackyard

Compostersorprovidingsomephotographs.


32/32

The Short Course in Composting

Withnothingancierthanallenleavesandgrassclippings,youcanmaketherichdarkhumusthattheearthneedstosupportgrowingplants.Andcompostingorganicwastescan

reducebymorethanathirdtheamountogarbageproduced

byyourhousehold.

Compostcanbemadeinaslittleastwoweeks,oritcantake

asmuchasayear,dependingontheeortandattentionyou

wanttogivetotheprocess.Mostorganicmaterials,chopped

orshreddedintosmallpieces,willdecomposequicklyitheyre

keptmoistandturnedorstirredregularlytoexposethemto

air.

Organicwastes will break down into humus even without a

compostcontainer.Butsomesortobarrel,boxorpenwillkeep

yourbackyardcompostpiletidyanddiscourageanimalpests.

Indoorsorout,anyonecancompost.Andalmostanythingthat

oncelivedisacandidateorcomposting.Someorganicwastes

aretrouble-makerstoavoid,however.Althoughactivecompost

pilesbuilduptemperatureshighenoughtokillmanyweedsandharmulbacteria,meatandsh,bones,dairyproductsand

ats,petwastes,diseasedplantmaterials,andthoseweedswith

hardyrootsorripeseedsshouldnotbecomposted.

composting hand book

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