computer communication b the semantic web. bibliography the semantic web, scientific american, may...

Computer communication B

The Semantic Web

Bibliography The Semantic Web, Scientific American, May 2001,

Tim Berners-Lee, James Hendler and Ora Lassila. Breitman, K.K., Casanova, M.A., & Truszkowski, W.

(2007) Semantic web: Concepts, Technologies and Applications. Springer Verlag, London

http://www.w3.org/ Antoniou, G., Van Harmelen, F. `(2004) “A

Semantic web Primer”(see library or Pdf copy)

The semantic web: some definitions The Semantic Web is not a separate Web but an extension of

the current one, in which information is given well-defined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation

(Berners-Lee, Hendlers, J. & Lassila, O., 2001) “The Semantic Web is a vision: the idea of having data on the

Web defined and linked in a way that it can be used by machines not just for display purposes, but for automation, integration and reuse of data across various applications (W3C, 2003)

“Soon it will be possible to access the Web resources by content rather than just by keywords (Anutariya et al, 2001)

The semantic web (SW): definitions

“The Semantic Web is a vision: the idea of having data on the Web defined and linked in a way that it can be used by machines not just for display purposes, but for automation, integration and reuse of data across various applications (W3C, 2003)

“Soon it will be possible to access the Web resources by content rather than just by keywords (Anutariya et al, 2001)

Semantic Web: Introduction

The content of the present Word Wide Web is nowadays only accessible and can be elaborated only by people

The Semantic Web is an enlargement of the WWW with semantic information that can be used by computers

With the help of semantic information the content of pages could be processed automatically and computers could make inferences about a search

The semantic web: characteristics

The semantic web is not different from the www, is actually a developing part of it.

The infrastructures and characteristics should be common Use URI (Uniform resource Identifiers) addressing Use protocols that a have a small and universally

understood set of commands (like HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

Be decentralized (like the www) Function on a large scale

The semantic web: The layer cake

The semantic web Two characteristics for the construction of the semantic web

1. Downward compatibility

Agents fully aware of a layer should also be able to interpret and use information written at lower levels. For example, agents aware of the semantics of OWL can take full advantage of information written in RDF and RDF Schema.

2. Upward partial understanding

On the other hand, agents fully aware of a layer should take at least partial advantage of information at higher levels. For

example, an agent aware only of the RDF and RDF Schema semantics can interpret knowledge written in OWL partly, by disregarding those elements that go beyond RDF and RDF Schema.

XML: Extensible Markup Language 1 It is a general purpose markup Language for creating specific

purpose mark-up languages Follows the SGML-standards (Standard Generlised Markup

Language) With XML the single users can create their own tags (which is

not possible with HTML) Differences between HTML and XML

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) Has a fixed set of tags It is most frequently used to define the lay-out Does not focus on the logical content or on the structure

XML It is possible to personally define the tags Tags reflect a content The layout is defined in a separate document (stylesheet)

WWW: HTML

Semantic web: XML

XML: Extensible Markup Language 2

A XML document consists of plain text and markup, in the form of tags. A XML document is interpreted by application programs A XML document can be represented in a form of a “tree”


A XML document consists of Elements formed by

A start-tag A content A matching end-tag

Elements can be nested in a tree form

Every element is named after the start-tag


A start-tag can have zero or more attributes Name (followed by the equal sign) Value (between double quotes)

Every XML-document has to follow a specific syntax: Every start-tag needs a matching end-tag (see previous slide) Elements need to be nested in other elements An XML-document can contain a XML-schema (defines additional constraints on the document structure)

value

Name

RESOURCE, URIs and NAMESPACES A resource is anything that has an identity

Digital (i.e an electronic document)Physical (i.e. a book)

A URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) is a character string that identifies a resource on the WebURIs can follow different schemes

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol

http://www.mysite.com/food.html

Namespaces

Namespaces are contexts, the domain of specific elements

Namespaces are identified by a URI URIref: It is a URI with an optional

fragment identifier attached to it, preceded by #

RDF: Resource Description Framework 1

RDF is a general-purpose language for representing information in the webUseful to represent metadata about Web resources

RDF describes resources (Both abstract or concrete subjects) identifiable via an URI

The syntax of RDF is based on XML RDF-documents are written as XML-

documents with the tag rdf:RDF

RDF Statements

A RDF-statement is described by a triple (S, P, O)S= Subject of the statement (It’s a URIref)P= Property (Predicate) of the statement (URIref)

The value of a property can be a simple value (ordinary number), or can be a literal (string of characters)

O= Object

RDF-Schema

A RDF-schema:Offers the bases to model hierarchies and

classes of properties.

Ontology: definitions

Ontology comes from:Ontos (greek)= Being + Logos=Word

Gruber (1993):“An ontology is a formal explicit specification of a

shared conceptualization”

WC3-consortium“Ontology is a term borrowed from philosophy that refers to the science of describing the kinds of entities in the world and how they are related “

Should be machine readable

A abstract model

Ontology

Ontology categorizes concepts (which are defined by a set of common properties) into classes based on common characteristics

Ontology is the representation of the knowledge of a domain where a set of objects and their relationships is described by a vocabulary.

Ontologies should provide descriptions for Classes (things) in the various domains Relationships among things Properties of these things

Ontology

Ontologies should satisfy certain demands: Expressivity: domains should be described Consistency: it should not give contradictory information It should support reasoning processes

Ontologies are useful in sharing and exchanging information between software agents

Ontologies do not necessarily reflect the human way of thinking of how knowledge is classified

Ontologies should therefore not be seen as a reflection of human intelligence

Ontology vs Taxonomy

Taxonomy Is a classification of terms in form of a hierarchy

using typically a father-son relationship (i.e. Type of) Example The taxonomy of the leaving beings

Kingdom: Animalia

Filo: Chordata

Subfilo: Vertebrata

……

Web Ontology Languages

They are designed to define ontologies They are based on RDF and RDF-schema

SHOE Oil (Ontology inference Layer)

OWL (Web Ontology Language)http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/ It is an ontology description language It is a standard language for the modeling of ontologies Facilitates the interpretability of the Web content (more

than XML or RDF) Less complex than RDF-schema Has additional vocabulary based on description logic

OWL 1 Describes classes, properties and relations to

facilitate machine interpretability of the Web content

Owl is defined as a vocabulary (like RDF) but is semantically richer

In OWL classes of entities can be specified in different ways, for example: Which individuals belong to a specific class Which qualities should have the elements that belong

to that class If individuals belong to a particular underclass

OWL 2

It is possible to limit a membership in a subclass

With RDF-schema it is possible to produce subclasses

OWL: example 1 Definition of “name”

Properties, classes and things are distinguished Things can be summarized in classes

OWL: example 2 Definition of “marine mammal”

Precise definition of classes: How many subclasses are there?

OWL: example 2 What is dolphin?

A class is defined like a cross-section of two classes

Logic 1: Logic rules With logic it is possible to go further than the explicit

information It is possible to control if till now the collected information is

consistent or if it has to be revised With the rule of logic it is possible to derive novel information

Two inference rules Modus Ponens

If A → BATherefore BIf: “if x is a person than this person has a mother”“Jan is a person” → “Jan has a mother”

Modus Tollens (from “tollere” take away from) If A → B⌐BTherefore ⌐AIf: “if x is a person than this person has a mother”“Jan does not have a mother” → “Jan is not a person”

Logic 2 Logic is the study of the principles of valid inferences

and demonstrations (traditionally considered a part of philosophy) Logic rules are used to create reasonings Their formulation is close to the formulation used in natural

language Logic is about the rules themselves, and not about the

way they have to be applied. Classical logic is unfortunately too limited to model all

types of human reasoning Default-reasoning:

“if x is a bird then x can fly” “if x a penguin is then x can not fly”

More complicated forms of logic are more difficult to process

Proof There is a difference between the rule

formulation and their application to solve a problemThere must be an intelligent choice of rules

and facts (a good order for the rules)There should be good strategies for efficient

argumentations Proof-systems are important topics in

informatics But not much has been done in the

domain of the Semantic Web

Trust Trust can be perceived at different levels

Is the processed information plausible? How can be trust be verified?

On human judgmentsBased on social trust (trust people that are

trusted by other people)

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