Computer Communications and Networks

The Computer Communications andNetworks series is a range of textbooks,monographs and handbooks. It sets out to provide students, researchers andnon-specialists alike with a sure grounding in current knowledge, together withcomprehensible access to the latest developments in computer communica­tions and networking.

Emphasis is placed on clear and explanatory styles that support a tutorialapproach, so that even the most complex of topics is presented in a lucid andintelligible manner.

Also in this series:

An Information Security HandbookJohn M;D. Hunter1-85233-180-1

Multimedia Internet Broadcasting: Quality, Technology and InterfaceAndy Sloane and Dave Lawrence (Eds)1-85233-283-2

The Quintessential PIC'" MicrocontrollerSid Katzen1-85233-309-X

Information Assurance: Surviving in the Information EnvironmentAndrew Blyth and Gerald 1. Kovacich1-85233-326-X

UMTS: Origins, Architecture and the StandardPierre Lescuyer (Translation Editor: Frank Bott)1-85233-676-5

Designing Software for the Mobile Context: A Practitioner's GuideRoman Longoria1-85233-785 -0

OSSfor Telecom NetworksKundan Misra1-85233-808- 3

The Quintessential PIC" Microcontroller 2nd editionSid Katzen1-85233-942-X

From P2P to Web Services and Grids : Peers in a Client/Server WorldIan J. Taylor1-85233-869-5

Alan Steventon and Steve Wright (Eds)

Intelligent SpacesThe Application of Pervasive ICT

~ Springer

Alan Steventon, BSc, MTech, PhD,CPhys, MInstP[udal Associates Ltd, UK

Steve Wright, MA, PhD, CEng, MIEEBT Group, Ipswich, UK

Series editorProfessor A.J. Sammes, BSc, MPhil, PhD, FBCS, CEngCISM Group, Cranfield University, RMCS, Shrivenham, Swindon SN6 8LA,UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005929866

Computer Communications and Networks ISSN 1617-7975ISBN-10: 1-84628-002-81SBN-13: 978-1-84628-002-3

© Springer-Verlag London Limited 2006

Printed on acid-free paper

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, aspermitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be repro­duced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing ofthe publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms oflicencesissued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those termsshould be sent to the publishers.

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in theabsence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulationsand therefore free for general use.

The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of theinformation contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for anyerrors or omissions that may be made.

Printed in the United States of America (EB)

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Springer Science+Business Media

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Contents

Contributors xiIntroduction xv

1 Intelligent Spaces - The Vision, the Opportunities, andthe Barriers 1S Wright and A Steventon1.1 A Vision of Intelligent Spaces I1.2 Appl ications 31.3 Technology Capabilities 61.4 Roadmap to the Vision 91.5 Research Challenges 121.6 Summary 16

2 The Socio-Economic Impact of Pervasive Computing - 19Intelligent Spaces and the Organisation of BusinessM H Lyons, R Ellis J M M Potter, DAM Holm, and R Venousiou2.1 Introduction 192.2 Commercial Opportunities 202.3 New Organisational Forms - The Emerging Value Nets 212.4 Creating the Adaptive Company 262.5 Changing the Way We Work 282.6 Summary 32

3 No Pervasive Computing Without Intelligent Systems 37S G Thompson and B Azvine3.1 Introduction 373.2 Needs Identification 393.3 Problems from Ubiquitous Computing - Solutions from 41

Intelligent Systems Research3.4 Component Understandability - Soft Computing 463.5 Component Adaptivity - Machine Learning 483.6 Summary 50

VI IntelligentSpaces: The Application ofPervasive ICl'

4 The Supply Chain 55D Luckett4.1 Introduction and Background to RFID 554.2 Retail/Supply Chain 574.3 What About the Consumer? 604.4 Summary 63

5 Care in the Community 65S Brown, N Hine, A Sixsmith, and P Garner5.1 Introduction 655.2 The Concept of ' Well-Being' 665.3 How to Measure Changes in Well-Being 685.4 System Design, Deployment, and Service Issues 735.5 Summary and Key Technical Challenges 78

6 Pervasive Home En vironments 81P Bull, R Limb, and R Payne6.1 Introduction 816.2 Vision 826.3 Technical Challenges 846.4 Commercial Opportunities 896.5 Summary 90

7 Traffimatics - Intelligent Co-operative Vehicle HighwaySyst ems 93G Bilchev, D Marston, N Hristov, E Peytchev, and N Wall7.1 Introdu ction 937.2 Vision of Intelligent Co-operati ve Vehicle Highway Systems 947.3 Vision Implementation 967.4 Market Opportun ities and Barriers 1047.5 Summary 107

8 Mixed-Reality Applications in Urban Environments 109J Bulman, B Crabtree, A Gower, A Oldroyd, and J Sutton8.1 Introduct ion 1098.2 3D Virtual-Reality and Mixed-Reality Scene Rendering 1108.3 Pervasive Gaming - Gaming in Urban Environments III8.4 Workforce Management Application 1168.5 Military Operat ions in Urban Environments 1198.6 Future 1238.7 Summary 123

Contents

9

10

A Sensor Network for GlaciersK Martinez, A Riddoch, J Hart, and R Ong9.1 Introduction9.2 The Glacsweb Project9.3 System Architecture Version 29.4 Example Results9.5 Summ ary and Future Work

Co-operation in the Digital Age - Engendering Trust inElectronic EnvironmentsA Seleznyov, M 0 Ahmed, and S Hailes10.1 Introduction10.2 Security Issues in Ubicomp10.3 Decentral ised Trust Management10.4 ADAM10.5 Summ ary

Vll

125

125126128137138

141

141142145147154

11 Maintaining Privacy in Pervasive Computing - Enabling 157Acceptance of Sensor-based ServicesA Soppera and T Burbridge11 .1 Introduction 15711 .2 Emerging Pervasive Computing - Opportunities and Threats 15811 .3 Understanding Privacy in Pervasive Computing 16111.4 Technical Approaches to Privacy 16711 .5 Research Challenges 17311.6 Summary 174

12 RFID Security and Pri vacy - Issues, Standards, and Solutions 179A Soppera, T Burbridge. and D Molnar12.1 Introduction 17912.2 RFID Tags Technology - An Overview 18112.3 Understa nding Privacy in Pervasive Computing 18512.4 Privacy as a Mult ilayer Problem 18612.5 Transfer of Ownership at the Applic ation Level 19212.6 Summ ary 196

13 Ambient Technology - Now You See It, Now You Don't 199R Payn e and B MacDo nald13.1 Introduction 19913.2 Living in a Moore's Law World 20 113.3 Hardware Technology lnfluencers and Issues 20213.4 The Key Hardware Techno logies for Enabling iSpaces 20413.5 Summary 215

Vlll Intelligent Spaces: The Application ofPervasive iCl'

14 Integrated Sensor Networks for Monitoring the Health and 219Well-Being of Vulnerable IndividualsD J T Heatley, R S Kalawsky, 1Neild, and P A Bowman14.1 Introduction 21914.2 Importance of Well-Being Care Provision 22014.3 Activities of Daily Living 22014.4 Ethical Considerations 22114.5 Sensing Activities of Daily Living 22314.6 Multiple Occupancy Issues 22414.7 Sensor Fusion 22514.8 Sensor Networks 22714.9 Experimental Work 23414.10 Summary 235

15 Segmentation and Tracking of Multiple Moving Objects for 239Intelligent Video AnalysisL-Q XU, J L Landabaso, and B Lei15.1 Introduction 23915.2 Moving Objects Segmentation with Shadow Removal 24315.3 Multi-Object Tracking Using Temporal Templates 24715.4 Experimental Results 25115.5 Summary 253

16 An Attention-based Approach to Content-based Image 257RetrievalA Bamidele, F W M Stentiford, and J Morphett16.1 Introduction 25716.2 State of the Art 25816.3 Current Research 26016.4 Results 26416.5 Discussion 26716.6 Summary and Future Work 269

17 Eye Tracking as a New Interface for Image Retrieval 273o K Oyekoya and F W M Stentiford17.1 Introduction 27317.2 State of the Art 27317.3 Current Research Objectives 27617.4 Discussion 28317.5 Summary 284

Contents ix

18 The Implications of Pervasive Computing on Network Design 287R Briscoe18.1 Introduction 28718.2 Architecture 28818.3 Com ponen t Services 29718.4 Business Implications 3 1518.5 Summary 317

19 Autonomic Computing for Pervasive ICT - A Whole-S ystem 323PerspectiveM Shackleton. F Sajfre, R Tateson, E Bonsma, and C Roadknight19.1 Introdu ction 32319.2 Illustrative Example Systems 32419.3 Discussion of Example Systems 33019.4 The Need for 'Complex Systems' Theory and Modelling 33219.5 Summ ary 333

20 Scale-Free Topology for Pervasive Networks 337F Sajfre, H Jovanovic. C Hoile , and S Nicolas20.1 Introduction 33720.2 Methodology 34020.3 Results 3402004 Summary 348

21 NEXUS - Resilient Intelligent Middleware 351N Kaveh and R Ghanea Hercock2 1.1 Introduction 35 12 1.2 Motivating Scenario 35221.3 NEXUS Architecture 35321.4 NEXUS Prototype 35521.5 Related Work 3562 1.6 Summary 358

22 Intelligent Data Analysis for Detecting Behaviour Patterns 361in iSpacesD D Nauck, B Majeed, and B-S Lee22. 1 Introduction 36 122.2 Approaches to iSpaces 36222.3 Intell igent Data Analysis in Sensor Networks 36322.4 Detecting Unusual Patterns 36722.5 Summary 374

x Intelligent Spaces: The Application ofPervasive leT

23 xAssist - Inferring User Goals from Observed Actions 377J Allen, S Appleby, and G Churcher23.1 Introduction 37723.2 Reasoning and Action Selection 37823.3 xAssist Framework 38123.4 Example xAssist Application 38323.5 Discussion 38623.6 Summary 386

24 Programming iSpaces - A Tale of Two Paradigms 389V Callaghan, M Colley, H Hagras, J Chin, F Doctor, and G Clarke24.1 Introduction 38924.2 Degrees ofIntelligence and Autonomy 39024.3 The iDonn 39024.4 Embedded Agents 39324.5 Embedded-Agent-based Approaches 39824.6 An End-User Programming-based Approach 40724.7 Summary and Future Directions 416

Acronyms

Index

423

429

Contributors

M 0 Ahmed, Department of Computer Science , University College London

J Allen, Natural Language Research, BT, Adastral Park

S Appleby, Multimedia Coding Research, BT, Adastral Park

B Azvine, Intell igent Systems Research , BT, Adastral Park

A Bamidele, Department of Computer Science, University College London

G Bilchev, Web Research , BT, Adastral Park

E Bonsma, Nature Inspired Computing, BT, Adastral Park

P A Bowman, Customer Networks Research, BT, Adastral Park

R Briscoe, Networks Research, BT, Adastral Park

S Brown, Technology for Business, BT, Adastral Park

P Bull, Networks Research, BT, Adastral Park

J Bulman, Broadband Applications Research, BT, Adastral Park

T Burbridge, Networks Research , BT, Adastral Park

V Callaghan, Computer Science Department, University of Essex

J Chin, Computer Science Department, University of Essex

G Church er, Web Research , BT, Adastral Park

G Clarke, Computer Science Departm ent, University of Essex

M Colley, Computer Science Department, University of Essex

B Crabtree, Broadband Applications, BT, Adastral Park

F Doctor, Computer Science Departm ent, University of Essex

R Ellis, Chimera, University of Essex

P Gamer, Pervasive ICT Research, BT, Adastral Park

R Ghanea Hercock, Future Technology, BT, Adastral Park

Xli Intelligent Spaces: The Applicationa/PervasiveleT

A Gower, Broadband Applications Research, BT, Adastral Park

H Hagras, Computer Science Department, University of Essex

S Hailes, Department of Computer Science, University College London

J Hart, School of Geography, University of Southampton

D J T Heatley, Pervasive ICT Research, BT, Adastral Park

N Hine, Applied Computing, University of Dundee

C Hoile , Future Technology, BT, Adastral Park

DAM Holm, Strategic Analysis, BT, Adastral Park

N Hristov, Influx Technology Ltd

H Jovanovic, PHB Automation, Zagreb

R S Kalawsky, Department of Computer Science, University of Loughborough

N Kaveh , Future Technology, BT, Adastral Park

J L Landabaso, Technical University of Catalunya, Spain

B-S Lee, Research Fellow, BT, Adastral Park

B Lei, Visual Information Processing, BT, Adastral Park

R Limb , Customer Networks Research, BT, Adastral Park

D Luckett, Strategic Projects, BT, London

M H Lyons, Strategic Analysis and Research, BT, Adastral Park

B MacDonald, Consultant

B Majeed, Intelligent Systems Research, BT, Adastral Park

D Marston, deceased, formerly Web Research, BT, Adastral Park

K Martinez, School of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton

D Molnar, University of California, Berkeley, USA

J Morphett, Media Business Development, BT, Adastral Park

D D Nauck, Intelligent Systems Research, BT, Adastral Park

I Neild, Disruptive Technology Research, BT, Adastral Park

S Nicolas, formerly Future Technology, BT, Adastral Park

A Oldroyd, Future Applications and Services, BT, Adastral Park

R Ong, Department of Engineering, University of Leicester

Contributors xiii

o K Oyekoya, Department of Computer Science, University College London

R Payne, Mobility Research, BT, Adastral Park

E Peytchev, School of Computing and Mathematics, Nottingham Trent University

J M M Potter, Strategic Analysis and Research , BT, Adastral Park

A Riddoch , School of Electronic s and Computer Science , University of Southampton

C Roadknight, Customer Networks Research , BT, Adastral Park

F Saffre, Future Research, BT, Adastral Park

A Seleznyov, Department of Computer Science, University College London

M Shackleton, Future Technology, BT, Adastral Park

A Sixsmith, Department of Primary Care , University of Liverpool

A Soppera, Software Research, BT, Adastral Park

F W Stentiford, Electrical and Engineering Department, University College London

A Steventon, Research Consultant

J Sutton , Multimedia Research , BT, Adastral Park

R Tateson, Future Technology, BT, Adastral Park

S Thompson, Intell igent Systems Research , BT, Adastral Park

R Venousiou, Strategic Analysis and Research , BT, Adastral Park

N Wall, Shadow Creek Consulting Ltd

S Wright, Strategic Research , BT, Adastral Park

L-Q XU, Visual Information Processing, BT, Adastral Park

Introduction

This book sets out a vision of pervasive IT through intelligent spaces and describessome of the progress that has been made towards its realisation.

The context for intelligent spaces (or iSpaces) is the world where information andcommunication technology (lCT) disappears as it becomes embedded into physicalobjects and the spaces in which we live and work. The ultimate vision is that thisembedded technology provides us with intelligent and contextually relevant support,augmenting our lives and our experience of the physical world in a benign and non­intrusive manner.

The enormous advances in hardware, system design, and software that are beingachieved enable . this vision . In particular, the performance advances and costreductions in hardware components - processors, memory, storage, andcommunications - are making it possible to embed intelligence andcommunications ability into lower cost objects . The Internet is a living experimentin building complex, distributed systems on a global scale. In software, there havebeen solid advances in creating systems that can deal with complexities on the scalerequired to interact with human activity, in limited domains at least.

The ultimate vision is challenging, and there are many obstacles to its realisation.There are several technical barriers, especially in the creation of intelligent software,but there are also social and economic barriers . We can already see the firstdeployments of this technology in domains where the benefits are substantial. It isnot clear, however, whether there are sufficient value points and benefits to supportthe fully pervasive and synergistic infrastructure of the iSpace vision.

An iSpace consists essentially of three components:

• the physical world in which users exist, in their relevant context;

• the interface between the digital world and the physical world - this containsembedded sensors to gather parameters, labels to identify objects , actuators tocontrol things/appliances in the physical world, together with support software tofacilitate non-intrusive two-way communication across the interface ;

• the digital world in which digital knowledge and intelligent systems are availableto influence and support actions in the physical world.

This volume opens with three general chapters . Firstly an overview, by theeditors, to describe the broader topic, followed by Lyons et ai, in Chapter 2, whodescribe the impact of iSpaces on businesses and the way people will work. This isfollowed, in Chapter 3, by Thompson and Azvine, who identify what intelligentsystems research is needed to prevent users being overwhelmed by the complexity ofthe systems with which they will be asked to interact.

Physical World - Applications, Benefits, and ConcernsThere follows a set of chapters describing several different iSpace application areas.Firstly, Luckett , in Chapter 4, descr ibes the use of such technologies for supply chain

XVI Intelligent Spaces: The Application ofPervasive leT

and production improvements, where application has advanced to the stage ofcommercial trials. Next, Brown et ai, in Chapter 5, describe monitoring the well­being of people in need of care in their own home. The first systems for well-beingmonitoring have also undergone trials, and the chapter describes research on the nextgeneration of more intelligent systems . The following three chapters describe theconversion of the home to an intelligent space (Bull et al in Chapter 6), an intelligentco-operative vehicle highway system (Bilchev et al in Chapter 7), and mixed-realitysystems where the real and digital multimedia worlds can be merged to augment userexperiences (Bulman et al in Chapter 8). Martinez et ai, in Chapter 9 on glacialiSpaces, emphasise that the technology is applicable to hostile environments wherehumans rarely go but where we want to know what is happening.

These are just a few example application areas selected from the almost limitlesspossibilities where the technology could have a significant impact.

There are, however, concerns about trust, privacy, and security in these systems.Selezynov et ai, in Chapter 10, define realistic models of digital trust that are capableof dealing with the uncertainties inherent in the environment to help engender trust.Then Sopppera and Burbridge , in Chapter II, describe privacy issues, includinglegal and technical aspects, and offer a privacy management system for iSpacedevices . In Chapter 12, the same authors describe the issues and approaches tosatisfying the needs for privacy in the application of radio frequency ID (RFID)technologies, such as those introduced in Chapter 4.

The Interface - Observing Human ActivityIn order that the relevant parameters can be gathered to make applications trulybeneficial there is a need for a wide range of high-performance and low-costhardware technology to form the interface between the real and digital worlds.Payne and Macdonald, in Chapter 13, analyse the massive advances and ongoingtrends that have occurred in the hardware area, covering silicon, batteries, displays,wireless connectivity, etc. They conclude that there is still some way to go to achievethe full vision, but that enough progress has been made to have real impact in theimmediate future . Heatley et ai, in Chapter 14, show how large amounts ofinformation can already be gathered from very simple sensors, e.g. attaching amicrophone to the water pipe can lead to inferences of many household activities tofeed data to a homecare application .

Xu et ai, in Chapter 15, tackle the issue of automating visual events detection­and-behaviour analysis for advanced visual surveillance systems . Extractingbehaviour from such sensors would considerably empower iSpace technology. TheiSpaces can also allow the inference of interests a user might have and hence helpretrieve contextually relevant information to support the user. Bamidele et ai, inChapter 16, do this by using a visual attention algorithm to drive content-basedimage retrieval, while Oyekoya and Stentiford, in Chapter 17, describe how theytrack eye-gaze direction to infer what a user is interested in, for image retrievalpurposes .

Digital Infrastructure - Architectures and IntelligenceThe realisation of iSpaces as an application of pervasive ICT will radically increasethe number of intelligent , communicating objects in the world. The complex anddynamic nature of these systems will require new approaches to system design and

Introduction XVII

implementation. For example, the Internet provides the glue for iSpaces, combiningwire and radio links, but will it cope with the future scale, dynamics , andheterogeneity? Briscoe, in Chapter 18, concludes that the Internet was wellconceived for this sort of usage, but that a number of issues will arise and will needattention. Three further chapters consider aspects of the digital infrastructure. Firstly,Shackleton et ai, in Chapter 19, consider self-managing, self-repairing systems thatcan be easily deployed ; secondly, Saffre et ai, in Chapter 20, consider the design ofscale-free networks; thirdly Ghanea-Hercock et ai, in Chapter 2 I, consider theimplementation of a service-oriented architecture in a heterogeneous world .

The networks gather the data from the interface clements and present them forintelligent analysis, according to the requirements of the applications . Some of theseaspects are tackled by the final three chapters . Nauck et ai, in Chapter 22, describetheir development of a system that abstracts required information from an iSpaceand provides the data for automatic intelligent data analysis, which is then used for ahomecare application. One significant problem is that of inferring users ' needs fromobservations of their behaviour. Allen et al, in Chapter 23, have developed thexAssist framework as a vehicle to experiment with such an inferencing process.Both these chapters seek to create software that explicitly infers intent or needs,whereas Callaghan et al, in the final chapter, discuss a solution based on the use ofembedded agents to enable emergent intelligent behaviour by predominantlyimplicit processes .

Towards the VisionThis book provides an overall vision of intelligent spaces, where they are expectedto provide benefits, and what many of the social and technical issues are that must besolved before widespread adoption . However, it is clear that before this vision can befully realised there are many other technical, social, economic, and business issuesto be solved. En route to the full vision there are many more constrained visions thatcan provide valuable benefits to users and useful business opportunities. Thetechnologies arc now ready for the development and implementation of such spaces.It is hoped that the content of this book will help readers to imagine and then create afuture in which iSpaces become widely implemented .

Steve WrightHead of Strategic Research

Research and Venturing, BT CTO

Alan SteventonResearch Consultant