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COMPUTER CONCEPTS

Computer Definition

A computer is an electronic device that is use for information processing. It accepts

data and instruction, stores it in its memory, processes and gives the results to the user. The term

computer is derived from the Latin word compute which means to calculate or to manipulate.

Capabilities of a computer

Huge data storage: A computer can store any amount of data instruction in its mercury.

Input & Output: A computer the data & instruction from the user &displays it after the

execution.

Processing: It processes the data entered by the user. Processing means performing the

necessary operation such as AM or logical operations on the data.

Features of computers

1. High processing speed: A computer is extremely fast information processes device. It

carries out all sort of computation within a fractions of seconds. The unit for calculation

of speed MIPS [Million Instruction Per Second].

2. Accuracy: It gives accurate result current input data here accurate means correctness of

process data. It input data is not valid, the output will not be correct.

3. Reliability: It gives consists result even though it even on electronic circuits and

electronic connections.

4. Versatility: Computer are used everywhere - be it is scientific calculation training,

media, teaching, entertainment.

5. Diligence: It does not feel tired. it is used for num, it is used days, months or nonstop. It

will work satisfactorily without any problem.

Due to the advancement in the technology, size, shape, processing power and price of the

computer are changing year on year. Based on these factors the computers on the following;

I. Computers for individuals;

a. Desktop computers: It is independent personal computer that is design to sit

on the desk in office or home.

1) Tablet type desktop 2) Tower type desktop

b. Note book computer: It is light weight person computer it is also called

laptop.

c. Workstation : It is specialized single user computer system it is used to

perform satisfaction user computer system it is used to perform sophisticated

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group of tasks such as engineering applications(CAD/CAM)3D graphics,

animation, modeling and editing audio and video information.

d. Tablet PC’s : It is a small size note book or a slate kind of a device it has a

small screen which can write of type the intrusctions it requires a special pen

called as digital pen or stylus.

e. Handled computer: This are computing device which can hold in hand. It is

also called handled pc. The most popular handled pc is PDA [Personal Digital

Assistance].

f. Smart phone: This are basically mobile (cellur) phones containing the

advance feature with help of access web information, send message, MMS.

II. Computer for organizations;

a. Network computer: Most of the organization have their own network servers

or computer of PC. And user will access computer. Which is called network

server which carry out specific task.

b. Mainframe computer: Mainframe computer: It is used in large business

organization and industries &research works universities, govt offices, banks,

insurance company. Where multiple user access some data at same time. It

very large computer will occupies huge room is it connected to desktop,

minicomputer.

Types of mainframe computers

Dumd terminals: It does not store any information nor process it. i

simply input output device that enables user the access the control

computer.

Intelligent terminals: It can process and data information, but does

not have any storage. This are called as small terminals.

c. Minicomputer: It is multiuser system where in more than one user works

simultaneously. This are medium size computer the cost minicomputer is

more macro computer[individual user computer]

d. Super computer: Application that involves vast numeric computation such as

weather for costing designining of an aircraft, defence activities such as

weapon country it required machine high capability and speed.

History of computer:

Evaluation of computer from the beginning of abacus computer to today digital

computerized discussed to this section.

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Abacus

The first recorded computer who existence dates back to 2500 B.C. it was invented in china and

used by Greeks, Romans, Japanese in early days.

Napier’s bones

In 1614, a Scottish mathematician John Napier introduced the concepts of Logarithms. It is used

a set of bones to perform multiplication. It is used faces11 bones having four faces each. Each

bone was carved with numbers on it.

Slide Rule

I consists of two scales. One of which slides over the other. It was so designed that whenever one

scales slides over the other, the alignment of one on the other gave the results of basic AM

operation.

Pascalein

Rotating Wheel Calculator

In 1671, a German mathematician, Gottfried Von Leibnitz, invented an electro mechanical

computer called the rotating wheel calculator. It was designed based on the principles of counter

wheels that were used in Pascalien.

Differential Engine

In 1822, a professor of mathematics at the Cambridge University, Charles Babbage, invented the

Differential Engine. This was a hand operated machine built with wheels, levers and mechanical

linkages. It was used to calculate various mathematical functions.

Mark-1

In 1943, an electro mechanical camp name Mark-1. It consists of 72 adding accumulator, 60sets

switches, buttons, punched tape, etc. It was capable of performing a sequence of AM operations.

ENIAC

It is a 1st electronic computer. ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.

It is a revolution semi-conduct technology in 1946.it is was capable of caring out 5000 addition

per second. It had a short memory various components manually rewired in various ways to

perform different computations.

EDVAC

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To over comes disadvantages of any act, Jhon Von Neumann proposed a new concepts of large

internal memory to stores instructions and data. this is known as stored program concept.It is

stands for Electronic Discrete Variables Automatic Computer.

UNIVAC-1

In 1951, the American census Bureau developed a machine called UNIVAC-1. It stands for

Universal Automatic Computer. It was intended for both scientific and commercial applications.

It also had a compiler to translate programs to machine code.

Generations of computer

1st Generations of computer : These were developed during 1946-59. And were built with

Vacuum tubes. Their speed was 10-3

second. They used punched card and magnetic tape to input

and out operation. the machine language programming was adapted in these machines. These

were batch processing system and were used for both scientific and business based applications.

2nd

Generations of computer: These were developed during the year 1957-64.their speed was

10-6

second. They had more primary memory and proved higher reliability. this are high

programming languages. The concept of multi programming, time sharing and real processing

were also introduced.

3rd

Generations of computer : these were developed in the yaer 1965-70 and were built with

Integrated Circuits(ICs). There were 10-100 transistors in single silicon chip. There speed was

10-9

second(nano second). They used semi conductor memory. The concepts of operating

system, multi-programming were introduced. They were used in weather forecasting, airline

reservation, banking services.

4th

Generations of computer : These were developed in the year 1970-90 and were built with

Large Scale Integration(LSI),100-1000 transistors in single chip and Very Large Scale

Integration(VLSI). They have huge capacity and their processing speed is from 10-9

10-12

second. The concept of networking was introduced.

5th

Generations of computer : The development of super computers was the key motivation of

the 5th

Generations of computers. Super computers were developed with Single Large Scale

Integration(SLCI), i,e. millions of transistors were used a single IC chip. These are knowledge

processing systems.

Input and Output Units

Input units : It accepts input information or data and store into the memory. Eg: Keyboard,

mouse.

Output units : It display desired output information. Eg : monitor

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Control units[CU]:

The CU controls or supervises all the different units of computers.

Operations of CU:

a) It sends necessary information between memory and ALU.

b) It controls the output.

c) The input information it store to the memory.

Memory

Memory is a storage device. It is divided into following parts;

1. CPU Register: This are high speed and temporary memory. Register is made upon filp

flops.

Filp Flops: Is memory which is capable to storing 1 bit information.

2. Main memory: This memory is also called primary memory. It is high speed memory,

storage capacity less, it’s a temporary memory.

3. Secondary memory: This the permanent(non-volatile). It is high storage capacity

memory. Its speed is low.

4. Flash memory: This are faster memory and this are cheaper compared to primary

memory.

5. Cache memory: It is very small memory. This are the mediators between primary and

secondary memory.

Difference between primary memory and secondary memory

Primary memory Secondary memory

1.It is a high speed memory 1. It is very low speed memory.

2.It is less storage capacity. 2. It is high storage capacity.

3.It is temporary memory (volatile). 3. It is permanent memory (non-ovlatile).

4.It is costlier. 4. It is cheaper.

Steps involved in Problem solving with computer

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1. Define the problem: The problem solver should understand the thoroughly in

terms of the requirements. That is what are the input and output operation to be

perform is not properly define then we cannot desire output.

2. Analysis: The given problem must be analyzed before it is solved. This determine

the data items, types , relationship we should specify the operation(AM &Logical

operation) to be perform on them and checking the memory and execution time.

3. Design : Design is mainly divided 3 parts we can design problem bu any one

method , step by step solution to a given problem is called finite steps of solution

of given problem.

a) Algorithm: The word algorithm is named is after the famous 19th

century

Arabic author and mathematician, Abu Jafar Mohammed Ibn Musa Al

Khowarizimi. The last two terms of the name took different

pronunciations over the period such as Algorism, and finally it became

algorithm.

Features of Algorithm

Input : It may accept a zero more inputs.

Output : It should produce at one output.

Definiteness : Each instruction must be clear, well define.

Finiteness: It should be a sequence of finite instructions.

That is it should end after fix time. It should not enter

infinite loop.

Effectiveness: This means that operation must be simple

carried out in finite time.

b) Flow chart: This is define for an algorithm the flow chart can be define as

diagrammatical representation of algorithm. It is algorithm. It is refered as

blue print of an algorithm it is also defined visual & graphical

representation of algorithm.

Merits of flow chart

Easy to understand and analysis the problem.

It is useful for programmer & system analysis.

It is machine independent.

Geometric figures Names Function

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Oval Start and stop

Parallelogram Input and Output

Rectangle Processing

Diamond Decision making

Arrows Flow/Connections

Circle Connector

Rectangle with divider Functions

Hexagon

Repetition/looping

c) Pseudocode: A pseudocode is not algorithm nor a programme. It is an

abstract form of a programme it consists of an English like statement

which perform specific operation. It does ot use graphical representation.

In pseudocodeme is the programme is represented in terms of words

pharases.

Merits of pseudocode

Easy to read

Easy to understand

Easy to modify

NOTE: The programme can develop easily from pseudocode rather than flow chart.

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4) Coding : The comlete structure of problem to be solved by a computer is called

programme.

NOTE: The computer does not process & algorithm or flow chart or pseudocode but

excutes the programme.

The actual process of writing programme is a coding.

Running the programme the programme can run(Excuted) in CPU. This involves 3 steps;

1. Understanding instruction

2. Store data & instructon

3. Perform computation (calculation)

5) Debugging: The process detecting & correcting errors (mistakes) in the programme is

non as debugging. The term debug eas detected after finding real bug in MARK-1, electro

mechanical computer in 1945 bu scientist. She removed the bug from the machine & wrote it

record book as “ The MARK-1 was debug today”. 3 types of errors -1)Syntax errors, 2)Logical

errors, 3)Runtime errors

1 )Syntax errors: This is types of errors result ofviolation of problem of grammer. Eg; the

syntax of assignment statement in C programme.

2) Logical errors: This are errors occurs during codeing process this gives some unwanted

result. It is very difficult to debug such errors because computer does not display there we can

elemenate such errors by tracing it & running for sample data.

3) Runtime errors: This errors occure when we attempt to run some instruction. Eg ; infinite

loop which cause no output this are also occure due to improper sequencing of instruction. Some

of runtime errors are a)Divisible by zero, b)Data overflow.

6) Testing : the process of excuting the programme to test the correctness of the output of the

problem is called testing.

7) Documentation: While writing a programme it is good practice to make a brief note on the

programme. This note is called Comment. There are two types of documentation.

a) Internal Documentation: This documentation is comment statement within a

programme. This are not translate into machine language.

b) External Documentation: This an excuteable statement in a programme it may be

message to the user respond to the programme requirement it makes more attractive & inter

active to the user.

Computer Language (programming language)

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1) Low level Language[LLL]

This Language are easily understand by computer they are machine dependent. That

is this language are specific to a computer.

a) Machine level language[MLL]

The name it self implies programming is done at machine level. It

consists of only 2 numbers 0 and 1 any sequence of 0’s and 1’s found an instruction

in the machine language.

Eg; 00010100 each instruction has a specific format the 1st fields is

operation code and 2nd

fields opened (values).

Opcode Opened

Instruction format

Merits

1. It can be directly type & excute

2. No translators are required

Demerits

1. Difficult to remember machine instruction

2. Difficult to understand

3. Each and every information is numerical

b) Assemble level language[ALL]

To over come the drawback of MLL. A new programme language which

uses the symbolic instruction which is known as ALL. Symbolic words used in this

language refered as mnemonic is memory sake to remember. Eg ;

ADD for

addition

MUL for

multiplication

MOV for

Moving

ALT for Stop

INR for Increment

Source programme

(Assembly language)

(

Assembler Machine language

(object code)

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Fig: Translator for ALL

To translator AL and ML we require a translator is assembler.

“Asembler: is a translator which convert AL into ML & vice versa.”

Eg; TASM;Turbo ASseMbler

MASM;Macro ASseMbler

Merits

1) Easy to remember operation code because they are in mnemonic

2) Easy to understand the programme.

3) Easy to write the programme.

Demerits

1) Not standardize

2) Less efficient than MLL

2) High Level Language[HLL]

To cover HLL into MLL we can use the translators like interpreter &

compiler

Merits

1) Easy to read & understand

2) Easy to write, modify, debagging

3) They are machine independent language

Demerits

1) Less efficient as compare to ALL

Classification of HLL

a) General purpose HLL

b) Specific purpose HLL

Interpreter: It is translator which translate HLL into MLL, vice versa step by step or one line at

a time.

Compiler: It is translate which compiles HLL into MLL& vise varsa, it executes all the in at

time.

Difference between interpreter and compiler

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Interpreter Compiler

1.It is line by line 1. It executes all the line at time

2.It is faster 2. It is slower

3.It is a cheaper 3. It is costlier

4.Debagging is faster 4. Debagging is slower

5.It require less memory 5.It require more memory

Difference between MLL and HLL

MLL HLL

1.It can be use only 2 symbol 0 & 1 1.It can uses alphabets ,digits, punctuations and

some special symbol.

2. Each instruction is a sequence of 0’s and 1’s 2.Each instruction is english like statement

3.It can be directly executed. 3. It can not be directly executed

4.Machine dependent 4.Machine independent

5.Difficult to understand modify, write, debug 5. Easy to understand, write, modify, , debug

6.It is fast 6.It is slow

7.It is standardize 7. It is not standardize

8. It is called as 1st generation language 8. It is called 3

rd generation language

Difference between AL and HLL

AL HLL

1.Mnemonic or symbolic instruction 1. English like statement

2. Machine dependent 2.Machine independent

3.Assembler is used in translation process 3. Interpreter or Compiler is used it translation

process

4.It is efficient 4. Less efficient

Operating System [OS]

An operating system is an integrated collection of programs which make the computer

operational and help in executing the user’s programs. It act as an interface between its user and

the computer system. It manages the computer system resources such as memory, processor,

input-output devices and files.

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Types of operating system

Batch processing: in this technique, a large numbers of very similar records(jobs0

submitted in batches, by the user are stored in the computer and then executed one by

one. The execution may follow the first come first serve(FCFS) order. It was widely

used in the days when IBM cards were the primary means of entering new information

into the computer systems.

Merits

1) It support massive data processing

2) No human intervention during data processing

3) Ideal for periodical billing system such as payroll processing

Demerits

1) Time consuming

2) No interaction between the user and the computer

3) CPU can be idle most of the time

On-line system: in this technique, the data processing is done under the direct control

of the CPU. Unlike batch processing system, the online processing system is very

responsive to the user’s requests. Here, the users are connected to the data processing

computer and directly enter the data online, that data is validated and updated onto the

master file immediately.

Merits

1) It is quicker response to the user request

2) User Can directly Interaction with the a central system

3) 24*7 access to the system

Demerits

1) Initial investment is more

2) Data security

Real time operating system [RTOS]: a real time operating system is a very fast but

relatively small operating system. They are called RTOS. And, they are

predominantly used in embedded systems. These are design to service those

applications where response time is of the essence in order to prevent error,

misrepresentation or even disaster.

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Example: RTOS are those, which handle airline reservations, machine tool control,

weather forecasting, weapon control.

Merits

1) Instantaneous data update

2) No processing time

3) Real time experience

Demerits

1) The system must be always online

2) Should have advanced application to handle unexpected events

3) Huge amount of both main memory and secondary memory storage is required

Time sharing OS : it is an interactive computing environment, in which many user

will be able to use a single CPU simultaneously. Here, main computer is connected to

a large number of terminals through which users submit their programs. The terminals

connected to the main computer may be located near to the main computer or far away

from it.

Merits

1) Multi user environment

2) CPU is busy all the time

3) Immediate response

Demerits

1) It is a expensive

2) Complex OS is needed

Multi-user Programming: here, the data processing is done by a multi –processor

(or multi-core) system. A multiprocessor system is a computer which has equipped

with two or more processors that share the resources (such as clock, memory and

peripheral devices) of that computer. In this type of data processing, even if one

processor fails the remaining processors share the work of the failed processor and

execute. Therefore, the user are not much affected by the failure of one or two

processor.

Merits

1) Effective utilization of CPU and memory

2) Multiple program can be run at a time

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Demerits

1) Large main memory is required

2) Higsh and processor is required

Common types of networking

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Computer networks are categorized into 2 types based on the size, capability,

communication medium & cost.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local area network

LAN is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a

home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media.

These are privately owned networks. These are basically small sized networks.

There may be 2 or 3 PCs connected together for data sharing & information exchange.

The range of LANs may vary from 10 meters to 1.5 kilometers.

In LAN transmission technology, each computer usually contains a NIC that connects the

computer directly to the network medium such as a copper wire or coaxial cable.

LANs operate between 10 MBPS & 2 GBPS. Since LAN covers short range they offer

lower delays & make very few errors.

Merits of LAN

Reliability of network is high

Addition of new computer to network is easy.

High rate of data transmission is possible.

Software and resources can be centrally managed.

Expensive devices such as laser printers or scanners can be shared.

Users can access their files from any workstation

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Reduced operating costs

Centralized backup can be provided.

Demerits of LAN

If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

The larger the network becomes difficult to manage.

As traffic increases on a network the performance degrades unless it is designed properly.

A fault in the network can cause user to lose the data.

Distance is the major barrier here. (Geographical area coverage)

Metropolitan area network

It is a larger computer network as compared to LANs. It connects multiple corporate

LANs together. “There is a MAN between a LAN and a WAN”.

MANs are high-speed networks for sharing the regional information & resources.

The limits of Metropolitan cities are determined by local municipal corporations and we

cannot define them. Hence, the bigger the Metropolitan city the bigger the MAN, smaller

a metro city smaller the MAN.

A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several

blocks of buildings to entire cities.

A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be

used by many individuals and organizations.

Merits of MAN

It increases the efficiency of handling data while at the same time it saves the cost

attached to establish a WAN.

MAN offers centralized management of data.

It enables you to connect many fast LANs together.

Telephone companies worldwide have facilitated the transfer of data with the help of an

underground optical fiber network.

These optical fibers increase the efficiency and speed of data transfer

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Demerits of MAN

Maintenance becomes bit difficult, as the maintenance increases the cost also increases.

Expensive network as we use high speed mediums to transfer the data over a leased

telephone lines or underground cables.

Addition of new system into the network becomes bit complex.

Wide area network

WAN is a collection of computers and network resources connected via a network over a

geographic area. There is no limit on the distance that it spans. A WAN can span over a

country or a continent. Their typical data transfer rate ranges from 2MBps to 625 MBPS.

They offer much greater delay between connections. Due to geographical area coverage.

Merits of WAN

Covers a large geographical area so long distance businesses can connect on the one

network.

Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can

have pictures, sounds, or data (called attachments).

Expensive things can be shared by all the computers on the network without having to

buy a different peripheral for each computer.

Large network coverage.

Share information/files over a larger area

Demerits of WAN

Are expensive and generally slow

Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network

Setting up a network can be an expensive and complicated experience.

Security & Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.

Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors

and technicians to be employed.

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Types of network topology

Bus topology

A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected

via a shared communications line/cables, called a bus.

Bus networks are the simplest way to connect multiple clients, but may have problems

when two clients want to transmit at the same time on the same bus.

Bus topology consists of one cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes are connected

to this cable.

Merits and Demerits of bus topology

Ease of installation

Simple architecture & cheap

If one computer fails it does not affect the other computers

Requires less cabling as compared to other topologies

Disadvantages:

If the main cable fails, all the other devices will die

Difficult to locate the problem when the cable is broken down

Reconfiguration & installation of new devices tend to be difficult

Star topology

Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. Here all the

nodes are connected to a central network hub & they communicate through this hub.

Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its

destination. The hub controls all the functions of the network.

Merits and Demerits of star topology

Easy to install & maintain

No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices

Easy to detect the faults & better performance

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Disadvantages:

If the central hub fails, all computers connected to that hub would be disconnected.

Expensive because of hub or concentrator.

Requires more cable length than bus topology

Ring topology

In a ring topology, all nodes are connected in a circular manner. Here, each

communication device is connected to the next & the last node is connected to the first.

The data known as token is passed from one device to other in a circular fashion.

The token at each node is examined & if the token belongs to the node that examines is

received, if not it passes the token to the next node. Because of this reason, the protocol

used here is token ring.

Merits and Demerits of ring topology

Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.

Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to

transmit

No collision as only one packet of data transfer along ring.

Disadvantages:

Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network

Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices

Communication delay depends on the no. of nodes

Mesh topology

A network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with one

another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the connections

goes down.

This topology is not commonly used for most computer networks as it is difficult and

expensive to have redundant connection to every computer. However, this topology is

commonly used for wireless networks.

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Merits and Demerits of mesh topology

High data reliability due to multiple communication links through which data travels.

Messages travel through a dedicated line, directly to the intended recipient; privacy and

security are thus enhanced.

Dedicated links ensure that each connection carries its own data load

Disadvantages:

Very expensive to setup because of multiple links.

Such networks are uncommon.

Tree topology

This is a combination of characteristics of the bus & star topologies. (Also called as star

bus topology). It consists of star configured nodes connected to a bus backbone cable.

Tree topology is one of the most common network setups that is similar to a bus

topology and a star topology. A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other

star networks.

Merits and Demerits of tree topology

Point-to-point cabling for individual segments

Supported by several hardware & software vendors

Having different levels of the network makes it more manageable hence easier fault

identification and isolation.

Disadvantages:

Maintenance of the network may be an issue when the network spans a great area.

Since it is a variation of bus topology, if the backbone fails, the entire network is

crippled.

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Computer virus

A computer virus is a program that is able to copy itself when it is run. Very often,

computer viruses are run as a part of other programs.

Computer virus is an executable program. Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause

damage of your hard disk contents, and/or hamper normal operation of your computer.

By definition, a virus program is able to replicate itself. This means that the virus

multiplies on a computer by making copies of it.

This replication is intentional; it is part of the virus program. In most cases, if a file that

contains virus is executed or copied onto another computer, then that computer will also

be "infected" by the same virus.

A virus can be introduced to a computer system along with any software program. For

Internet users, this threat can come from downloading files through FTP (file transfer

protocol)

A worm is a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to self-replicate and can

lead to negative effects on your system. But they can be detected and eliminated by

antivirus software.

Another unsavory breed of malicious code are Trojans or Trojan horses, which unlike

viruses, do not reproduce by infecting other files, nor do they self-replicate like worms.

In fact, it is a program which disguises itself as a useful program or application.

Computer crimes

Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network. The

computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.

Net crime refers to criminal exploitation of the Internet.

Definition of cybercrime: "Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of

individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim

directly or indirectly using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet and

mobile phones”(SMS/MMS).

Such crimes may threaten a nation’s security and financial health.

Issues surrounding these types of crime have become high-profile, particularly those

surrounding cracking, copyright violation, child pornography, etc.

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Computer security

Computer security is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use of your

computer. Prevention measures help you to stop unauthorized users (also known as

"intruders") from accessing any part of your computer system.

Intruders (also referred to as hackers, attackers, or crackers) may not care about your

identity. Often they want to gain control of your computer so they can use it to launch

attacks on other computer systems.

Computer security (Also known as IT Security) is information security as applied

to computers and networks. The field covers all the processes and mechanisms by which

computer-based equipment, information and services are protected from unintended or

unauthorized access.

Computer security also includes protection from unplanned events and natural disasters.

BY: Mohammad Ali & Tausif G

Jain College Of MCA & MBA,

Belgaum.