computer memory.docx

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Computer memoryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has

insufcient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more

precise citations. (June 2011)

Computer memory types

Volatile

RAM

• DRA !e.g., DDR "DRA#

• "RA

In development

T-RAM

Z-RAM

Historical

• Williams$%ilburn tube !&'()$(*#

• Delay line memory !&'(*#

• "electron tube !&'+#

• Dekatron

Non-volatile

ROM

• ask R-

• PR-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Checkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_citehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR_SDRAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-RAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-RAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_tubehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_line_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectron_tubehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekatronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_ROMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_read-only_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Checkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_citehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR_SDRAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-RAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-RAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_tubehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_line_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectron_tubehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekatronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_ROMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_read-only_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources


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• PR-

• PR-

NVRAM

• Flash memory

• "olid/state storage

Early stage NVRAM

• nv"RA

• FeRA

• RA

• PRA

Mechanical

• agnetic tape

• 0ard disk drive

• -ptical disc drive

n !evelopment

• D 1Point

• 23RA

• "-4-"

• RRA

• Racetrack memory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_storagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NvSRAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoresistive_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-change_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_XPointhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SONOShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_storagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NvSRAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAMhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoresistive_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-change_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tapehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_drivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_XPointhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SONOShttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memory


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• 4RA

• illipede memory

• F56 RA

Historical

• Paper data storage !&*7+#

• Drum memory !&'7#

• agnetic/core memory !&'('#

• Plated 8ire memory !&'+*#

• 2ore rope memory !&')9s#

• Thin/:lm memory !&')7#

• T8istor memory !;&')


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For other uses, see emory !disambiguation#.

-vervie8 of the forms and functions of memory in the sciences

Neuropsychology

Topics=sho8>

3rain functions=hide>

• Arousal

• Attention

• 2onsciousness

• Decision making

• ?ecutive functions

• 4atural language

• @earning

• Memory

• otor coordination

• Perception

• Planning

• Problem solving

• Thought

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(disambiguation)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_functionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_makinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_coordinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solvinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(disambiguation)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_functionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_makinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_coordinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solvinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought


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People=sho8>

Tests=sho8>

Min! an! "rain portal

• v

• t

• e

In psychology, memory is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. )ncoding allows

information from the outside world to #e sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli. In the first stage

the information must #e changed so that it may #e put into the encoding process. *torage is the second memory

stage or process. his entails that information is maintained over short periods of time. +inally the third process

is the retrieval of information that has #een stored. *uch information must #e located and returned to the

consciousness. *ome retrieval attempts may #e effortless due to the type of information, and other attempts to

remem#er stored information may #e more demanding for various reasons.

+rom an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of

memory

• Encoding or registration receiving, processing and combining of received information

• Storage creation of a permanent record of the encoded information in short term or longterm memory

• Retrieval, recall or recollection calling back the stored information in response to somecue for use in a process or activity

he loss of memory is descri#ed as forgetfulness.

Contents

• & "ensory

• 7 "hort/term

• @ong/term

• ( odels

o (.& Atkinson$"hiBrin

o (.7 Working

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychological_testhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mind_and_brainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Neuropsychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Neuropsychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Neuropsychology&action=edithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgettinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Sensoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Short-termhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Long-termhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Modelshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Atkinson.E2.80.93Shiffrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Workinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychological_testhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mind_and_brainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Neuropsychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Neuropsychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Neuropsychology&action=edithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_(memory)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recollectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgettinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Sensoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Short-termhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Long-termhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Modelshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Atkinson.E2.80.93Shiffrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Working


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• + Types

o +.& 3y information type

+.&.& Declarative

+.&.7 Procedural

o +.7 3y temporal direction

• ) "tudy techniCues

o ).& To assess infants

o ).7 To assess older children and adults

• * Failures

• < Physiology

• ' 2ognitive neuroscience

• &9 6enetics

• && n infancy

• &7 Aging

• & Bects of physical e?ercise

• &( Disorders

• &+ nEuencing factors

• &) "tress

• &* "leep

• &< 2onstruction for general manipulation

• &' mproving

o &'.& @evels of processing

• 79 "ee also

• 7& 4otes

• 77 References

• 7 ?ternal links

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Typeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#By_information_typehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Declarativehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Proceduralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#By_temporal_directionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Study_techniqueshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#To_assess_infantshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#To_assess_older_children_and_adultshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Failureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Physiologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Cognitive_neurosciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Geneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#In_infancyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Aginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Effects_of_physical_exercisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Disordershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Influencing_factorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Stresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Sleephttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Construction_for_general_manipulationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Improvinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Levels_of_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Noteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Typeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#By_information_typehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Declarativehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Proceduralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#By_temporal_directionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Study_techniqueshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#To_assess_infantshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#To_assess_older_children_and_adultshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Failureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Physiologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Cognitive_neurosciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Geneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#In_infancyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Aginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Effects_of_physical_exercisehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Disordershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Influencing_factorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Stresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Sleephttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Construction_for_general_manipulationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Improvinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Levels_of_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Noteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#External_links


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#ensoryain article "ensory memory

*ensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived. he a#ility to loo

at an item and remem#er what it looed lie with ust a split second of o#servation, or memori/ation, is the

example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. 0ith very short

presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. he first

experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted #y 1eorge *perling (&234%&'

using the "partial report paradigm". *u#ects were presented with a grid of &5 letters, arranged into three rows

of four. fter a #rief presentation, su#ects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them

which of the rows to report. 6ased on these partial report experiments,*perling was a#le to show that the

capacity of sensory memory was approximately &5 items, #ut that it degraded very $uicly (within a few

hundred milliseconds. 6ecause this form of memory degrades so $uicly, participants would see the display

#ut #e una#le to report all of the items (&5 in the "whole report" procedure #efore they decayed. his type of

memory cannot #e prolonged via rehearsal.

hree types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of

sensory memory that #riefly stores an image which has #een perceived for a small duration. )choic memory is afast decaying store of auditory information, another type of sensory memory that #riefly stores sounds that have

#een perceived for short durations.%5' 7aptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a data#ase for

touch stimuli.

#hort-termain article "hort/term memory

*hort-term memory is also nown as woring memory. *hort-term memory allows recall for a period of several

seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited 1eorge . !iller (&283, when woring

at 6ell 9a#oratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was :5 items (thetitle of his famous paper, "he magical num#er :5". !odern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory

are lower, typically of the order of


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$ong-term

-lin @evi Warner, Memory !&


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Mo!els

!odels of memory provide a#stract representations of how memory is #elieved to wor. 6elow are several

models proposed over the years #y various psychologists. Controversy is involved as to whether several

memory structures exist.

Atkinson$"hiBrin

"ee also emory consolidation

he multi-store model (also nown as tinson=*hiffrin memory model was first descri#ed in &23> #y

tinson and *hiffrin.

he multi-store model has #een criticised for #eing too simplistic. +or instance, long-term memory is #elievedto #e actually made up of multiple su#components, such as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes

that rehearsal is the only mechanism #y which information eventually reaches long-term storage, #ut evidence

shows us capa#le of remem#ering things without rehearsal.

he model also shows all the memory stores as #eing a single unit whereas research into this shows differently.

+or example, short-term memory can #e #roen up into different units such as visual information and acoustic

information. In a study #y Elonoga and 1er#er (&2>3, patient BF+B demonstrated certain deviations from the

tinson=*hiffrin model. @atient F+ was #rain damaged, displaying difficulties regarding short-term memory.

Recognition of sounds such as spoen num#ers, letters, words and easily identifia#le noises (such as door#ells

and cats meowing were all impacted. Interestingly, visual short-term memory was unaffected, suggesting adichotomy #etween visual and audial memory.%&&'

Working

The 8orking memory model

ain article Working memory

In &2:< 6addeley and 7itch proposed a "woring memory model" that replaced the general concept of short-

term memory with an active maintenance of information in the short-term storage. In this model, woring

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Shiffrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_consolidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_modelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Shiffrinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_memoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory


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memory consists of three #asic stores the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial

setchpad. In 5??? this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic #uffer (6addeleyBs model of woring

memory.%&5'

he central executive essentially acts as an attention sensory store. It channels information to the three

component processes the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial setchpad, and the episodic #uffer.

he phonological loop stores auditory information #y silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loopthe articulatory process (for example the repetition of a telephone num#er over and over again. short list of

data is easier to remem#er.

he visuospatial setchpad stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial tass

(such as udging distances or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining images.

he episodic #uffer is dedicated to lining information across domains to form integrated units of visual,

spatial, and ver#al information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a story or a movie scene. he

episodic #uffer is also assumed to have lins to long-term memory and semantical meaning.

he woring memory model explains many practical o#servations, such as why it is easier to do two different

tass (one ver#al and one visual than two similar tass (e.g., two visual, and the aforementioned word-length

effect. 7owever, the concept of a central executive as noted here has #een criticised as inade$uate and vague.%citation needed ' 0oring memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought.

It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason a#out topics.%&5'

Types

Researchers distinguish #etween recognition and recall memory. Recognition memory tass re$uire individuals

to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulus (such as a picture or a word #efore. Recall memory tass

re$uire participants to retrieve previously learned information. +or example, individuals might #e ased to

produce a series of actions they have seen #efore or to say a list of words they have heard #efore.

3y information type

Topographic memory involves the a#ility to orient oneself in space, to recogni/e and follow an itinerary, or to

recogni/e familiar places.%&4' 1etting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic

memory.%&


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Aeclarative memory re$uires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call #ac the information. It

is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.

Aeclarative memory can #e further su#-divided into semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taen

independent of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a

time and place. *emantic memory allows the encoding of a#stract nowledge a#out the world, such as "@aris is

the capital of +rance". )pisodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the

sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. )pisodic memories often reflectthe "firsts" in life such as a first iss, first day of school or first time winning a championship. hese are ey

events in oneBs life that can #e remem#ered clearly. uto#iographical memory - memory for particular events

within oneBs own life - is generally viewed as either e$uivalent to, or a su#set of, episodic memory. isual

memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. ne is

a#le to place in memory information that resem#les o#ects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image.

isual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some ind of perceptual representational system

underlies this phenomenon.%citation needed '

Procedural

In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory is not #ased on the conscious recall of information, #ut onimplicit learning. It can #est #e summari/ed as remem#er how to do something. @rocedural memory is primarily

employed in learning motor sills and should #e considered a su#set of implicit memory. It is revealed when

one does #etter in a given tas due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have #een formed, #ut one is

unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. @rocedural memory involved in motor learning

depends on the cere#ellum and #asal ganglia.

characteristic of procedural memory is that the things remem#ered are automatically translated into actions,

and thus sometimes difficult to descri#e. *ome examples of procedural memory include the a#ility to ride a #ie

or tie shoelaces.%&>'

3y temporal direction

nother maor way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to #e remem#ered is in the

past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective memory. hus, retrospective memory as a category

includes semantic, episodic and auto#iographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for

future intentions, or remembering to remember (0inograd, &2>>. @rospective memory can #e further #roen

down into event- and time-#ased prospective remem#ering. ime-#ased prospective memories are triggered #y

a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action at


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operant conditioning techni$ues have #een used to assess infantsG recognition memory and the deferred and

elicited imitation techni$ues have #een used to assess infantsG recall memory.

echni$ues used to assess infantsG recognition memory include the following

• Visual paire! comparison proce!ure &relies on ha"ituation' infants are :rstpresented 8ith pairs of visual stimuli, such as t8o black/and/8hite photos of human faces,for a :?ed amount of time then, after being familiariGed 8ith the t8o photos, they are

presented 8ith the HfamiliarH photo and a ne8 photo. The time spent looking at each photois recorded. @ooking longer at the ne8 photo indicates that they remember the HfamiliarHone. "tudies using this procedure have found that +/ to )/month/olds can retaininformation for as long as fourteen days.=&'>

• Operant con!itioning techni%ue infants are placed in a crib and a ribbon that isconnected to a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. nfants notice that 8hen theykick their foot the mobile moves $ the rate of kicking increases dramatically 8ithinminutes. "tudies using this techniCue have revealed that infantsI memory substantiallyimproves over the :rst &=77>

echni$ues used to assess infantsG recall memory include the following

• (e)erre! imitation techni%ue an e?perimenter sho8s infants a uniCue seCuence ofactions !such as using a stick to push a button on a bo?# and then, after a delay, asks theinfants to imitate the actions. "tudies using deferred imitation have sho8n that &(/month/oldsI memories for the seCuence of actions can last for as long as four months.=7>

• Elicite! imitation techni%ue is very similar to the deferred imitation techniCue thediBerence is that infants are allo8ed to imitate the actions before the delay. "tudies using

the elicited imitation techniCue have sho8n that 79/month/olds can recall the actionseCuences t8elve months later.=7(>=7+>

To assess older children and adults

Researchers use a variety of tass to assess older children and adultsB memory. *ome examples are

• *aire! associate learning $ 8hen one learns to associate one speci:c 8ord 8ithanother. For e?ample, 8hen given a 8ord such as HsafeH one must learn to say anotherspeci:c 8ord, such as HgreenH. This is stimulus and response. =7)>=7*>

•

+ree recall $ during this task a subJect 8ould be asked to study a list of 8ords and thenlater they 8ill be asked to recall or 8rite do8n as many 8ords that they can remember,similar to free response Cuestions.=7 arlier items are aBected by retroactive interference!R#, 8hich means the longer the list, the greater the interference, and the less likelihoodthat they are recalled. -n the other hand, items that have been presented lastly suBerlittle R, but suBer a great deal from proactive interference !P#, 8hich means the longerthe delay in recall, the more likely that the items 8ill be lost. =7'>

• Cue! recall $ one is given signi:cant hints about the information. This is similar to :ll inthe blank assessments used in classrooms.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Fagan_1974-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Rovee-Collier_1999-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Rovee-Collier_1993-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Hartshorn_1998-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Meltzoff_1995-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Bauer_2002-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Bauer_2007-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica_1-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Kesner_2013-27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica_2-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Baddeley_1976-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Fagan_1974-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Rovee-Collier_1999-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Rovee-Collier_1993-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Hartshorn_1998-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Meltzoff_1995-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Bauer_2002-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Bauer_2007-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica_1-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Kesner_2013-27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica_2-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory#cite_note-Baddeley_1976-29


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• Recognition $ subJects are asked to remember a list of 8ords or pictures, after 8hichpoint they are asked to identify the previously presented 8ords or pictures from among alist of alternatives that 8ere not presented in the original list. =9> This is similar to multiplechoice assessments.

• (etection para!igm $ individuals are sho8n a number of obJects and color samplesduring a certain period of time. They are then tested on their visual ability to remember asmuch as they can by looking at testers and pointing out 8hether the testers are similar tothe sample, or if any change is present.

• #avings metho! $ compares the speed of originally learning to the speed of relearning it. The amount of time saved measures memory.=&>

+ailures

• Transience $ memories degrade 8ith the passing of time. This occurs in the storage stageof memory, after the information has been stored and before it is retrieved. This canhappen in sensory, short/term, and long/term storage. t follo8s a general pattern 8herethe information is rapidly forgotten during the :rst couple of days or years, follo8ed bysmall losses in later days or years.

• A"sentmin!e!ness $ emory failure due to the lack of attention. Attention plays a keyrole in storing information into long/term memory 8ithout proper attention, theinformation might not be stored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.

*hysiology

6rain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or

the mammillary #odies are thought to #e involved in specific types of memory. +or example, the hippocampus

is #elieved to #e involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to #e

involved in emotional memory.%45' Aamage to certain areas in patients and animal models and su#se$uent

memory deficits is a primary source of information. 7owever, rather than implicating a specific area, it could #ethat damage to adacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsi#le for the o#served

deficit. +urther, it is not sufficient to descri#e memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on

specific #rain regions. 9earning and memory are attri#uted to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to #e

mediated #y long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

In general, the more emotionally charged an event or experience is, the #etter it is remem#ered; this

phenomenon is nown as the memory enhancement effect. @atients with amygdala damage, however, do not

show a memory enhancement effect.%44'%4


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secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. 7ippocampal damage

may also cause memory loss and pro#lems with memory storage.%48' his memory loss includes, retrograde

amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly #efore the time of #rain damage. %4&'

Cognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-

independent internal representation. he term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory

contains two components the expression of memory at the #ehavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Audai 5??:. he latter component is also called engram or memory traces (*emon

&2?


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can lead to an amnestic state !4adel et al. 7999b Alberini 799+ Dudai 799)#. These:ndings on reconsolidation :t 8ith the behavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not acarbon copy of the initial e?periences, and memories are updated during retrieval.

,enetics

*tudy of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. nota#le initial success was the association of @)

with memory dysfunction in l/heimerBs Aisease. he search for genes associated with normally varying

memory continues. ne of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA ,[37] which

appears to #e associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay period.

n in)ancyFor the inability of adults to retrieve early memories, see 2hildhood amnesia.

Lp until the middle of the &2>?s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information.%4>' growing #ody of research now indicates that infants as young as 3-months can recall information after a

5


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information;%


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adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the #rains of rats.%8


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a learning tas after short term exposure they have often difficulties. @renatal stress also hinders the a#ility to

learn and memori/e #y disrupting the development of the hippocampus and can lead to unesta#lished long term

potentiation in the offspring of severely stressed parents. lthough the stress is applied prenatally, the offspring

show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are su#ected to stress later on in life.%8>'

#leep

!aing memories occurs through a three-step process, which can #e enhanced #y sleep. he three steps are as

follows

&. AcCuisition 8hich is the process of storage and retrieval of ne8 information in memory

7. 2onsolidation

. Recall

*leep does not affect ac$uisition or recall while one is awae. herefore, sleep has the greatest effect on

memory consolidation. Auring sleep, the neural connections in the #rain are strengthened. his enhances the

#rainGs a#ilities to sta#ili/e and retain memories. here have #een several studies which show that sleep

improves the retention of memory, as memories are enhanced through active consolidation. *ystem

consolidation taes place during slow-wave sleep (*0*.%82' his process implicates that memories are

reactivated during sleep, #ut that the process doesnGt enhance every memory. It also implicates that $ualitative

changes are made to the memories when they are transferred to long-term store during sleep. 0hen you are

sleeping, the hippocampus replays the events of the day for the neocortex. he neocortex then reviews and

processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory. 0hen you do not get enough sleep it maes it

more difficult to learn as these neural connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of

memories. *leep deprivation maes it harder to focus, resulting in inefficient learning.%82' +urthermore, some

studies have shown that sleep deprivation can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly

transferred to long-term memory. herefore, it is important to get the proper amount of sleep so that memorycan function at the highest level. ne of the primary functions of sleep is thought to #e the improvement of the

consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient

sleep #etween training and test.%3?' dditionally, data o#tained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation

patterns in the sleeping #rain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tass from the previous day,%3?'

suggesting that new memories may #e solidified through such rehearsal. %3&'

Construction )or general manipulation

lthough people often thin that memory operates lie recording e$uipment, it is not the case. he molecular

mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct

phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime.%35' In fact, research has revealed that ourmemories are constructed Jcurrent hypotheses suggest that constructive processes allow individuals to simulate

and imagine future episodes, happenings, and scenarios. *ince the future is not an exact repetition of the past,

simulation of future episodes re$uires a complex system that can draw on the past in a manner that flexi#ly

extracts and recom#ines elements of previous experiences - a constructive rather than a reproductive system.K%34' @eople can construct their memories when they encode them andHor when they recall them. o illustrate,

consider a classic study conducted #y )li/a#eth 9oftus and Nohn @almer (&2:


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estimates than those who were ased, "7ow fast were the cars going when they !it each other" +urthermore,

when ased a wee later whether they have seen #roen glass in the film, those who had #een ased the

$uestion with ma!ed were twice more liely to report that they have seen #roen glass than those who had

#een ased the $uestion with !it . here was no #roen glass depicted in the film. hus, the wording of the

$uestions distorted viewersG memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the $uestion led people to

construct different memories of the event = those who were ased the $uestion with ma!ed recalled a more

serious car accident than they had actually seen. he findings of this experiment were replicated around the

world, and researchers consistently demonstrated that when people were provided with misleading informationthey tended to misremem#er, a phenomenon nown as the misinformation effect.%38'

Interestingly, research has revealed that asing individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never

performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories. +or instance, 1off and

Roediger %33' (&22> ased participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., #rea a toothpic and then

later ased them whether they had done such a thing. +indings revealed that those participants who repeatedly

imagined performing such an act were more liely to thin that they had actually performed that act during the

first session of the experiment. *imilarly, 1arry and her colleagues (&223%3:' ased college students to report

how certain they were that they experienced a num#er of events as children (e.g., #roe a window with their

hand and then two wees later ased them to imagine four of those events. he researchers found that one-

fourth of the students ased to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events

as children. hat is, when ased to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the

events.

Research reported in 5?&4 revealed that it is possi#le to artificially stimulate prior memories and artificially

implant false memories in mice. Lsing optogenetics, a team of RIF)D-!I scientists caused the mice to

incorrectly associate a #enign environment with a prior unpleasant experience from different surroundings.

*ome scientists #elieve that the study may have implications in studying false memory formation in humans,

and in treating @*A and schi/ophrenia.%3>'

mprovingain article mproving memory

LC9 research study pu#lished in the Nune 5??3 issue of the merican Nournal of 1eriatric @sychiatry found

that people can improve cognitive function and #rain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as

incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives. his

study examined &: su#ects, (average age 84 with normal memory performance. )ight su#ects were ased to

follow a "#rain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (#rain teasers and ver#al memory

training techni$ues. fter &< days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory compared to their #aseline

performance. Do long term follow up was conducted, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting

effects on memory.%32'

here are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techni$ues that can #e used to vastly improve

memory nown as the rt of memory.

he International 9ongevity Center released in 5??& a report%:?' which includes in pages &


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#lood circulation to the #rain, to sociali/e, to reduce stress, to eep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or

emotional insta#ility and to o#serve good nutrition.

!emori/ation is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information ver#atim. Rote learning is

the method most often used. !ethods of memori/ing things have #een the su#ect of much discussion over the

years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alpha#ets. he spacing effect shows that an

individual is more liely to remem#er a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time.

In contrast to this is cramming an intensive memori/ation in a short period of time. lso relevant is theEeigarni effect which states that people remem#er uncompleted or interrupted tass #etter than completed

ones. he so-called !ethod of loci uses spatial memory to memori/e non-spatial information.%:&'

@evels of processing

ain article @evels/of/processing eBect

Crai and 9ochart (&2:5 proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an experience

is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.

• Organi0ation / andler !&')*# gave participants a pack of 8ord cards and asked them tosort them into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. Whenthey 8ere later asked to recall as many of the 8ords as they could, those 8ho used morecategories remembered more 8ords. This study suggested that the organiGation ofmemory is one of its central aspects !andler, 79&.

• (istinctiveness / ysenck and ysenck !&'


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Notes

&.

Sperling, G (19!). "# Model $or %i&ual Memory 'a&&". $&.&agepu*.com 5 (1)+ 19!1.

-arl&on, eil R. (2010). /&ycology+ te &cience o$ *eavior. o&ton, Ma&&+ #llyn acon.

S 032043544639. 7-8- 2546422.

-o:an, (;e*ruary 2001). "'e magical num*er in &ort3term memory+ arecon&ideration o$ mental &torage capacity" (/S010424?0100!922. /M00!145.

/[email protected]*00599.A .

addeley, #. 106050006. /M221. /[email protected]. /Mmg>ddi225. /M

http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/5/1/19.short#cited-byhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-68557-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLChttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/268547522http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/intra_data/NobuyukiKawai/Kawai-Matsuzawa-Magical_number_5_in_a_chimpanzee.pdfhttp://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/intra_data/NobuyukiKawai/Kawai-Matsuzawa-Magical_number_5_in_a_chimpanzee.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X01003922https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11515286https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0043158https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13310704http://step.psy.cmu.edu/articles/Conrad64.dochttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8295.1964.tb00899.xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_similarityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14640746608400047https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5956072https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F26216https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9751053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229/pdf/jnnpsyc00285-0015.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229/pdf/jnnpsyc00285-0015.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjnnp.20.1.11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13406589https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.02.022https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17359920https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fhmg%2Fddi228https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15987701https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3952419https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613(00)01538-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11058819http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/122/9/1613.longhttp://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/122/9/1613.longhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2F122.9.1613https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10468502http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH07.pdfhttp://hfs.sagepub.com/content/5/1/19.short#cited-byhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-68557-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLChttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/268547522http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/intra_data/NobuyukiKawai/Kawai-Matsuzawa-Magical_number_5_in_a_chimpanzee.pdfhttp://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/intra_data/NobuyukiKawai/Kawai-Matsuzawa-Magical_number_5_in_a_chimpanzee.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X01003922https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11515286https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0043158https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13310704http://step.psy.cmu.edu/articles/Conrad64.dochttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8295.1964.tb00899.xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_similarityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14640746608400047https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5956072https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F26216https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9751053http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229/pdf/jnnpsyc00285-0015.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229/pdf/jnnpsyc00285-0015.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjnnp.20.1.11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC497229https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13406589https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.02.022https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17359920https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fhmg%2Fddi228https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15987701https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3952419https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613(00)01538-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11058819http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/122/9/1613.longhttp://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/122/9/1613.longhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2F122.9.1613https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10468502http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH07.pdf


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