computer notes - data structures - 32
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http://ecomputernotes.com - Computer Notes on Object orient Programming What is How Use it Explain with Example.TRANSCRIPT
Tables and Dictionaries
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Tables: rows & columns of information
A table has several fields (types of information)• A telephone book may have fields name, address,
phone number• A user account table may have fields user id,
password, home folder
Name Address Phone
Sohail Aslam 50 Zahoor Elahi Rd, Gulberg-4, Lahore 576-3205
Imran Ahmad 30-T Phase-IV, LCCHS, Lahore 572-4409
Salman Akhtar 131-D Model Town, Lahore 784-3753
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Tables: rows & columns of information
To find an entry in the table, you only need know the contents of one of the fields (not all of them).
This field is the key• In a telephone book, the key is usually “name”• In a user account table, the key is usually “user
id”
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Tables: rows & columns of information
Ideally, a key uniquely identifies an entry• If the key is “name” and no two entries in the
telephone book have the same name, the key uniquely identifies the entries
Name Address Phone
Sohail Aslam 50 Zahoor Elahi Rd, Gulberg-4, Lahore 576-3205
Imran Ahmad 30-T Phase-IV, LCCHS, Lahore 572-4409
Salman Akhtar 131-D Model Town, Lahore 784-3753
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The Table ADT: operations
insert: given a key and an entry, inserts the entry into the table
find: given a key, finds the entry associated with the key
remove: given a key, finds the entry associated with the key, and removes it
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How should we implement a table?
How often are entries inserted and removed? How many of the possible key values are likely to
be used? What is the likely pattern of searching for keys?
E.g. Will most of the accesses be to just one or two key values?
Is the table small enough to fit into memory? How long will the table exist?
Our choice of representation for the Table ADT depends on the answers to the following
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TableNode: a key and its entry
For searching purposes, it is best to store the key and the entry separately (even though the key’s value may be inside the entry)
“Saleem” “Saleem”, “124 Hawkers Lane”, “9675846”
“Yunus” “Yunus”, “1 Apple Crescent”, “0044 1970 622455”
key entry
TableNode
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Implementation 1: unsorted sequential array
An array in which TableNodes are stored consecutively in any order
insert: add to back of array; (1)
find: search through the keys one at a time, potentially all of the keys; (n)
remove: find + replace removed node with last node; (n)
0
…
key entry
1
23
and so on
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Implementation 2:sorted sequential array
An array in which TableNodes are stored consecutively, sorted by key
insert: add in sorted order; (n) find: binary search; (log n) remove: find, remove node
and shuffle down; (n)
0
…
key entry
1
23
We can use binary search because thearray elements are sorted
and so on
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Searching an Array: Binary Search
Binary search is like looking up a phone number or a word in the dictionary• Start in middle of book• If name you're looking for comes before names on
page, look in first half• Otherwise, look in second half
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Binary Search
If ( value == middle element ) value is found else if ( value < middle element )
search left-half of list with the same method else search right-half of list with the same method
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Case 1: val == a[mid]val = 10low = 0, high = 8
5 7 9 10 13 17 191 271 2 3 4 5 6 70 8
a:
low high
Binary Search
mid
mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
10
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Case 2: val > a[mid]val = 19low = 0, high = 8mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
Binary Search -- Example 2
5 7 9 101 13 17 19 271 2 3 4 5 6 70 8
a:
midlow highnew low
new low = mid+1 = 5
13 17 19 27
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Case 3: val < a[mid]val = 7low = 0, high = 8mid = (0 + 8) / 2 = 4
Binary Search -- Example 3
10 13 17 195 7 91 271 2 3 4 5 6 70 8
a:
midlow highnew high
new high = mid-1 = 3
5 7 91
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val = 7
Binary Search -- Example 3 (cont)
5 7 9 10 13 17 191 271 2 3 4 5 6 70 8
a:
5 7 9 10 13 17 191 271 2 3 4 5 6 70 8
a:
5 7 9 10 13 17 191 271 2 3 4 5 6 70 8
a:
Binary Search – C++ Code
int isPresent(int *arr, int val, int N){ int low = 0; int high = N - 1; int mid; while ( low <= high ){
mid = ( low + high )/2;if (arr[mid]== val) return 1; // found!else if (arr[mid] < val)
low = mid + 1;else high = mid - 1;
} return 0; // not found} http://ecomputernotes.com
Binary Search: binary tree
The search divides a list into two small sub-lists till a sub-list is no more divisible.
First half
First half
An entire sorted list
First half Second half
Second half
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Binary Search Efficiency
After 1 bisection N/2 items After 2 bisections N/4 = N/22 items
. . . After i bisections N/2i =1 item
i = log2 N
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Implementation 3: linked list
TableNodes are again stored consecutively (unsorted or sorted)
insert: add to front; (1or n for a sorted list)
find: search through potentially all the keys, one at a time; (n for unsorted or for a sorted list
remove: find, remove using pointer alterations; (n)
key entry
and so on
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Implementation 4: Skip List
Overcome basic limitations of previous lists• Search and update require linear time
Fast Searching of Sorted Chain Provide alternative to BST (binary search
trees) and related tree structures. Balancing can be expensive.
Relatively recent data structure: Bill Pugh proposed it in 1990.
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Skip List Representation
Can do better than n comparisons to find element in chain of length n
20 30 40 50 60
head tail
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Skip List Representation
Example: n/2 + 1 if we keep pointer to middle element
20 30 40 50 60
head tail
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Higher Level Chains
For general n, level 0 chain includes all elements level 1 every other element, level 2 chain every
fourth, etc. level i, every 2i th element
40 50 60
head tail
20 3026 57
level 1&2 chains
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Higher Level Chains
Skip list contains a hierarchy of chains In general level i contains a subset of
elements in level i-1
40 50 60
head tail
20 3026 57
level 1&2 chains
Skip List: formally
A skip list for a set S of distinct (key, element) items is a series of lists S0, S1 , … , Sh such that
• Each list Si contains the special keys and
• List S0 contains the keys of S in nondecreasing order
• Each list is a subsequence of the previous one, i.e.,
S0 S1 … Sh
• List Sh contains only the two special keys
Lecture No.38
Data Structure
Dr. Sohail Aslam
Skip List: formally
56 64 78 31 34 44 12 23 26S0
64 31 34 23S1
31S2
S3
Skip List: Search
We search for a key x as follows:
• We start at the first position of the top list
• At the current position p, we compare x with y key(after(p))
• x y: we return element(after(p))
• x y: we “scan forward” • x y: we “drop down”
• If we try to drop down past the bottom list, we return NO_SUCH_KEY
Skip List: Search
Example: search for 78
S0
S1
S2
S3
31
64 31 34 23
56 64 78 31 34 44 12 23 26
To insert an item (x, o) into a skip list, we use a randomized algorithm:
• We repeatedly toss a coin until we get tails, and we denote with i the number of times the coin came up heads
• If i h, we add to the skip list new lists Sh1, … , Si 1, each containing only the two special keys
Skip List: Insertion
To insert an item (x, o) into a skip list, we use a randomized algorithm: (cont)
• We search for x in the skip list and find the positions p0, p1 , …, pi of the items with largest key less than x in each list S0, S1, … , Si
• For j 0, …, i, we insert item (x, o) into list Sj after position pj
Skip List: Insertion
Example: insert key 15, with i 2
Skip List: Insertion
10 36
23
23
S0
S1
S2
S0
S1
S2
S3
10 362315
15
2315p0
p1
p2
Randomized Algorithms
A randomized algorithm performs coin tosses (i.e., uses random bits) to control its execution
It contains statements of the typeb random()if b <= 0.5 // head
do A …else // tail
do B … Its running time depends on the outcomes of the
coin tosses, i.e, head or tail
Skip List: Deletion
To remove an item with key x from a skip list, we proceed as follows:
• We search for x in the skip list and find the positions p0, p1 , …, pi of the items with key x, where position pj is in list Sj
• We remove positions p0, p1 , …, pi from the lists S0, S1, … , Si
• We remove all but one list containing only the two special keys
Skip List: Deletion
Example: remove key 34
4512
23
23
S0
S1
S2
S0
S1
S2
S3
4512 23 34
34
23 34p0
p1
p2
Skip List: Implementation
S0
S1
S2
S3
4512 23 34
34
23 34
Implementation: TowerNode
TowerNode will have array of next pointers. Actual number of next pointers will be
decided by the random procedure. Define MAXLEVEL as an upper limit on
number of levels in a node.
40 50 60
head tail
20 3026 57
Tower Node
Implementation: QuadNode
A quad-node stores:• item• link to the node before• link to the node after• link to the node below• link to the node above
This will require copying the key (jitem) at different levels
x
quad-node
Skip Lists with Quad Nodes
56 64 78 31 34 44 12 23 26
31
64 31 34 23
S0
S1
S2
S3
Performance of Skip Lists
In a skip list with n items
• The expected space used is proportional to n.
• The expected search, insertion and deletion time is proportional to log n.
Skip lists are fast and simple to implement in practice
Implementation 5: AVL tree
An AVL tree, ordered by key insert: a standard insert; (log n) find: a standard find (without
removing, of course); (log n) remove: a standard remove;
(log n)
key entry
key entry key entry
key entry
and so on
Anything better?
So far we have find, remove and insert where time varies between constant logn.
It would be nice to have all three as constant time operations!
An array in which TableNodes are not stored consecutively
Their place of storage is calculated using the key and a hash function
Keys and entries are scattered throughout the array.
Implementation 6: Hashing
key entry
Key hash function
array index
4
10
123
insert: calculate place of storage, insert TableNode; (1)
find: calculate place of storage, retrieve entry; (1)
remove: calculate place of storage, set it to null; (1)
Hashing
key entry
4
10
123
All are constant time (1) !
Hashing
We use an array of some fixed size T to hold the data. T is typically prime.
Each key is mapped into some number in the range 0 to T-1 using a hash function, which ideally should be efficient to compute.
Example: fruits
Suppose our hash function gave us the following values: hashCode("apple") = 5
hashCode("watermelon") = 3hashCode("grapes") = 8hashCode("cantaloupe") = 7hashCode("kiwi") = 0hashCode("strawberry") = 9hashCode("mango") = 6hashCode("banana") = 2
kiwi
bananawatermelon
applemango
cantaloupegrapes
strawberry
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Example
Store data in a table array: table[5] = "apple"
table[3] = "watermelon" table[8] = "grapes" table[7] = "cantaloupe" table[0] = "kiwi" table[9] = "strawberry" table[6] = "mango" table[2] = "banana"
kiwi
bananawatermelon
applemango
cantaloupegrapes
strawberry
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Example
Associative array: table["apple"]
table["watermelon"] table["grapes"] table["cantaloupe"] table["kiwi"] table["strawberry"] table["mango"] table["banana"]
kiwi
bananawatermelon
applemango
cantaloupegrapes
strawberry
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Example Hash Functions
If the keys are strings the hash function is some function of the characters in the strings.
One possibility is to simply add the ASCII values of the characters:
TableSizeABChExample
TableSizeistrstrhlength
i
)%676665()(:
%][)(1
0
Finding the hash function
int hashCode( char* s ){
int i, sum;sum = 0;for(i=0; i < strlen(s); i++ ) sum = sum + s[i]; // ascii value
return sum % TABLESIZE;
}
Example Hash Functions
Another possibility is to convert the string into some number in some arbitrary base b (b also might be a prime number):
TbbbABChExample
Tbistrstrhlength
i
i
)%676665()(:
%][)(
210
1
0
Example Hash Functions
If the keys are integers then key%T is generally a good hash function, unless the data has some undesirable features.
For example, if T = 10 and all keys end in zeros, then key%T = 0 for all keys.
In general, to avoid situations like this, T should be a prime number.
Collision
Suppose our hash function gave us the following values:
• hash("apple") = 5hash("watermelon") = 3hash("grapes") = 8hash("cantaloupe") = 7hash("kiwi") = 0hash("strawberry") = 9hash("mango") = 6hash("banana") = 2
kiwi
bananawatermelon
applemango
cantaloupegrapes
strawberry
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9• Now what?
hash("honeydew") = 6
Collision
When two values hash to the same array location, this is called a collision
Collisions are normally treated as “first come, first served”—the first value that hashes to the location gets it
We have to find something to do with the second and subsequent values that hash to this same location.
Solution for Handling collisions
Solution #1: Search from there for an empty location
• Can stop searching when we find the value or an empty location.
• Search must be wrap-around at the end.
Solution for Handling collisions
Solution #2: Use a second hash function
• ...and a third, and a fourth, and a fifth, ...
Solution for Handling collisions
Solution #3: Use the array location as the header of a linked list of values that hash to this location
Solution 1: Open Addressing
This approach of handling collisions is called open addressing; it is also known as closed hashing.
More formally, cells at h0(x), h1(x), h2(x), … are tried in succession where
hi(x) = (hash(x) + f(i)) mod TableSize,
with f(0) = 0. The function, f, is the collision resolution
strategy.
Linear Probing
We use f(i) = i, i.e., f is a linear function of i. Thus
location(x) = (hash(x) + i) mod TableSize
The collision resolution strategy is called linear probing because it scans the array sequentially (with wrap around) in search of an empty cell.
Linear Probing: insert
Suppose we want to add seagull to this hash table
Also suppose:• hashCode(“seagull”) = 143
• table[143] is not empty• table[143] != seagull
• table[144] is not empty• table[144] != seagull
• table[145] is empty
Therefore, put seagull at location 145
robin
sparrow
hawk
bluejay
owl
. . .
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
. . .
seagull
Linear Probing: insert
Suppose you want to add hawk to this hash table
Also suppose• hashCode(“hawk”) = 143
• table[143] is not empty• table[143] != hawk
• table[144] is not empty• table[144] == hawk
hawk is already in the table, so do nothing.
robin
sparrow
hawk
seagull
bluejay
owl
. . .
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
. . .
Linear Probing: insert
Suppose:• You want to add cardinal to
this hash table• hashCode(“cardinal”) = 147
• The last location is 148• 147 and 148 are occupied
Solution:• Treat the table as circular;
after 148 comes 0• Hence, cardinal goes in
location 0 (or 1, or 2, or ...)
robin
sparrow
hawk
seagull
bluejay
owl
. . .
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
Linear Probing: find
Suppose we want to find hawk in this hash table
We proceed as follows:• hashCode(“hawk”) = 143• table[143] is not empty• table[143] != hawk• table[144] is not empty• table[144] == hawk (found!)
We use the same procedure for looking things up in the table as we do for inserting them
robin
sparrow
hawk
seagull
bluejay
owl
. . .
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
. . .
Linear Probing and Deletion
If an item is placed in array[hash(key)+4], then the item just before it is deleted
How will probe determine that the “hole” does not indicate the item is not in the array?
Have three states for each location• Occupied• Empty (never used)• Deleted (previously used)
Clustering
One problem with linear probing technique is the tendency to form “clusters”.
A cluster is a group of items not containing any open slots
The bigger a cluster gets, the more likely it is that new values will hash into the cluster, and make it ever bigger.
Clusters cause efficiency to degrade.
Quadratic Probing
Quadratic probing uses different formula:• Use F(i) = i2 to resolve collisions• If hash function resolves to H and a search in cell
H is inconclusive, try H + 12, H + 22, H + 32, …
Probe array[hash(key)+12], thenarray[hash(key)+22], thenarray[hash(key)+32], and so on
• Virtually eliminates primary clusters
Collision resolution: chaining
Each table position is a linked list
Add the keys and entries anywhere in the list (front easiest)
4
10
123
key entry key entry
key entry key entry
key entry
No need to change position!
Collision resolution: chaining
Advantages over open addressing:• Simpler insertion and
removal• Array size is not a
limitation Disadvantage
• Memory overhead is large if entries are small.
4
10
123
key entry key entry
key entry key entry
key entry
Applications of Hashing
Compilers use hash tables to keep track of declared variables (symbol table).
A hash table can be used for on-line spelling checkers — if misspelling detection (rather than correction) is important, an entire dictionary can be hashed and words checked in constant time.
Applications of Hashing
Game playing programs use hash tables to store seen positions, thereby saving computation time if the position is encountered again.
Hash functions can be used to quickly check for inequality — if two elements hash to different values they must be different.
When is hashing suitable?
Hash tables are very good if there is a need for many searches in a reasonably stable table.
Hash tables are not so good if there are many insertions and deletions, or if table traversals are needed — in this case, AVL trees are better.
Also, hashing is very slow for any operations which require the entries to be sorted• e.g. Find the minimum key